**Lecture Notes: Basics of Research for College Students**
**Introduction to Research:**
Research is a systematic process of inquiry aimed at discovering,
interpreting, and creating new knowledge. It involves asking questions,
gathering information, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Research
can be conducted in various fields, including science, social sciences,
humanities, and business.
**Types of Research:**
1. **Descriptive Research:** Describes characteristics or behaviors of a
particular population or phenomenon. For example, if we want to know how
many students in a school wear glasses, we count them without changing
anything. Descriptive research simply tells us what's happening, like "50
out of 200 students wear glasses."
2. **Exploratory Research:** Seeks to explore and gain insight into a topic
when little is known or understood. Imagine we want to understand why
people in a neighborhood are getting sick. We might talk to doctors, visit
homes, and look at pollution levels to explore possible reasons. This
research helps us gather ideas and clues to understand a problem better,
even if we don't have all the answers yet.
3. **Explanatory Research:** Aims to identify relationships between
variables and explain cause-and-effect relationships. For instance, if we
notice that students who eat breakfast tend to perform better in exams,
explanatory research helps us understand if eating breakfast actually
causes better exam scores. By examining different factors like diet and
academic performance, we can find out if there's a cause-and-effect
relationship.
4. **Experimental Research:** Involves manipulating variables to observe
their effects on outcomes. Imagine we want to see if listening to music
helps people concentrate better. We might ask some students to study with
music and others without, then compare their focus levels. By changing
one thing (listening to music) and observing what happens (improved
concentration), we can see if there's a real effect.
**Steps in the Research Process:**
1. **Identifying the Research Problem:** Formulate a clear, specific
research question or hypothesis. Example: "How does the implementation
of online learning platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic affect student
engagement and academic performance at Aldersgate College?"
2. **Reviewing Literature:** Conduct a thorough review of existing research
and literature relevant to the topic. Example: Review studies and articles on
the impact of online learning on student engagement and academic
performance in higher education institutions, especially during times of
crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
3. **Designing the Study:** Determine the research design, methods, and
data collection techniques. Example: Design a mixed-methods study
incorporating surveys and interviews to assess student engagement and
academic performance before and after the implementation of online
learning platforms at Aldersgate College during the COVID-19 pandemic.
4. **Collecting Data:** Gather data through surveys, experiments,
observations, or interviews. Example: Administer surveys to students at
Aldersgate College to gather quantitative data on their experiences with
online learning. Conduct interviews with faculty members and
administrators to gather qualitative insights on the challenges and
opportunities associated with the implementation of online learning
platforms.
5. **Analyzing Data:** Use statistical tools and techniques to analyze the
collected data. Example: Analyze survey responses using descriptive
statistics to assess the level of student engagement and academic
performance. Use thematic analysis to identify common themes and
patterns in interview transcripts related to the implementation of online
learning at Aldersgate College.
6. **Interpreting Results:** Draw conclusions based on the analysis and
discuss implications. Example: Interpret the survey and interview findings
to understand the impact of online learning on student engagement and
academic performance at Aldersgate College. Discuss the implications of
these findings for future educational practices and policy decisions.
7. **Reporting Findings:** Communicate research findings through written
reports, presentations, or publications. Example: Prepare a research report
detailing the methodology, results, and conclusions of the study. Present
the findings to Aldersgate College administrators and faculty members to
inform decision-making and improve the quality of online learning
experiences for students. Consider publishing the findings in academic
journals to contribute to the broader body of knowledge on online education
in higher education institutions.
**Basic Statistical Tools and Methodologies:**
1. **Descriptive Statistics:** Summarize and describe the characteristics of
data using measures such as mean, median, mode, and standard
deviation. For instance, if we want to know the average height of students
in a class, we can calculate the mean height by adding up all their heights
and dividing by the number of students.
Mean: The mean is simply the average of a set of numbers. To find the
mean, you add up all the numbers in the set and then divide by how
many numbers there are. For example, if you have the numbers 2, 4, 6,
8, and 10, you would add them together (2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 = 30) and
then divide by 5 (since there are 5 numbers), giving you a mean of 6.
Median: The median is the middle number when the numbers are
arranged in order from smallest to largest (or largest to smallest). If there
is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle one. If
there is an even number of numbers, the median is the average of the
two middle numbers. For example, if you have the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8,
and 10, the median is 6, because it's the middle number. If you have the
numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11, the median is (5 + 7) / 2 = 6, because 5 and
7 are the two middle numbers.
Mode: The mode is the number that appears most frequently in a set of
numbers. For example, if you have the numbers 2, 4, 4, 6, 8, and 10, the
mode is 4, because it appears more times than any other number.
Standard Deviation: The standard deviation measures how spread out
the numbers in a set are. A low standard deviation means the numbers
are close to the mean, while a high standard deviation means the
numbers are more spread out. For example, if you have two sets of
numbers: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and {1, 1, 5, 5, 5}, both sets have the same mean
(3), but the second set has a higher standard deviation because the
numbers are more spread out from the mean.
Find the Mean:
Add up all the numbers and divide by how many numbers there are:
Mean = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) / 5 = 15 / 5 = 3
Find the Variance:
Subtract the mean from each number, square the result, and then find the
average of those squared differences:
Variance = [(1 - 3)^2 + (2 - 3)^2 + (3 - 3)^2 + (4 - 3)^2 + (5 - 3)^2] / 5
= [(4 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 4) / 5]
= 10 / 5
=2
Find the Standard Deviation:
Take the square root of the variance:
Standard Deviation = √2 ≈ 1.41
So, the standard deviation for the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is approximately 1.41.
2. **Inferential Statistics:** Make inferences or predictions about a
population based on sample data, using techniques such as hypothesis
testing and confidence intervals. For example, if we survey 100 students
about their favorite subject and find that 70% prefer Math, we can use
inferential statistics to estimate what percentage of all students in the
school might prefer Math.
3. **Correlation Analysis:** Determine the strength and direction of the
relationship between two or more variables. For instance, if we want to see
if there's a relationship between studying more hours and getting higher
grades, correlation analysis can help us determine if more studying is
associated with better grades.
4. **Regression Analysis:** Identify and quantify the relationship between a
dependent variable and one or more independent variables. For instance, if
we want to see if there's a relationship between studying more hours and
getting higher grades, correlation analysis can help us determine if more
studying is associated with better grades.
5. **Experimental Design:** Plan and conduct experiments to test
hypotheses and evaluate causal relationships. For example, if we want to
test if a new teaching method improves student performance, we can
design an experiment where one group of students learns using the new
method while another group learns using the traditional method, and then
compare their exam scores.
6. **Survey Methodology:** Design and administer surveys to collect data
from a sample population. For example, if we want to understand student
satisfaction with campus facilities, we can design a survey asking students
to rate different aspects of campus facilities and then administer it to a
random sample of students.
In a typical research study or thesis, Chapters 1-3 serve as the introductory
sections, laying the groundwork for the research and providing essential
background information. Here's what you might find in each chapter:
**Chapter 1: Introduction**
1. **Background of the Study:** This section provides context for the
research topic, discussing its relevance, significance, and any previous
studies or literature related to it.
Aldersgate College, located in Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines, has been a
leading institution in providing quality education for over three decades.
Over recent years, the college has witnessed a significant increase in
enrollment, leading to concerns about classroom overcrowding and its
impact on the quality of education.
2. **Statement of the Problem:** The researcher outlines the specific
research problem or questions that the study aims to address.
The primary concern of this study is to investigate the correlation between
classroom overcrowding (independent variable) and student learning
outcomes (dependent variable) at Aldersgate College. Specifically, the
study aims to examine whether there is a significant relationship between
the increased student-to-teacher ratio resulting from overcrowded
classrooms and academic performance (variable 1) and student
satisfaction (variable 2).
3. **Purpose of the Study:** This section explains the objectives and goals
of the research, including what the researcher hopes to achieve.
The purpose of this research is to explore the relationship between
classroom overcrowding and student learning outcomes at Aldersgate
College. By identifying the potential challenges and drawbacks
associated with overcrowded classrooms, the study seeks to inform
policymakers and educational administrators about the importance of
addressing this issue to ensure optimal learning environments for
students.
4. **Research Questions or Hypotheses:** The researcher presents the
main questions or hypotheses that will guide the study.
1. How does classroom overcrowding impact student academic
performance at Aldersgate College?
2. What are the perceptions of students and faculty regarding the
effects of classroom overcrowding on the learning experience?
3. Are there differences in student outcomes between overcrowded
and adequately sized classrooms at Aldersgate College?
5. **Scope and Limitations:** The researcher defines the scope of the
study, outlining what aspects will be included and any constraints or
limitations.
This study will focus specifically on undergraduate classrooms at
Aldersgate College in Nueva Vizcaya. The research will examine the
effects of classroom overcrowding on academic performance, student
satisfaction, and faculty workload. However, the study acknowledges that
other factors, such as teaching methods and student characteristics, may
also influence learning outcomes.
6. **Significance of the Study:** The researcher discusses the potential
implications and benefits of the research, both academically and practically.
Understanding the impact of classroom overcrowding on student learning
outcomes is crucial for Aldersgate College and other educational
institutions facing similar challenges. The findings of this study can
provide valuable insights for policymakers and administrators to develop
strategies for managing classroom sizes and improving the overall
learning environment.
7. **Definition of Terms:** This section clarifies any key concepts or terms
used in the study to ensure understanding.
1. Classroom Overcrowding: Refers to situations where the number of
students enrolled in a class exceeds the physical capacity of the
classroom, leading to limited space and resources for effective
teaching and learning.
2. Student Learning Outcomes: Refers to the measurable results of
student learning, including academic achievement, cognitive skills,
and attitudes towards learning.
3. Academic Performance: Refers to students' success in academic
tasks, such as test scores, grades, and completion rates.
4. Student Satisfaction: Refers to students' perceptions of their
educational experience, including satisfaction with instruction,
facilities, and support services.
**Chapter 2: Literature Review**
1. **Introduction to the Literature Review:** This section provides an
overview of what the literature review will cover and its importance in the
research process.
The literature review serves as a critical component of this study,
providing a comprehensive examination of existing research related to
classroom overcrowding and its impact on student learning outcomes at
Aldersgate College. By synthesizing and analyzing previous studies, this
literature review aims to establish the foundation for the current research
and highlight the significance of investigating this topic further within the
context of Aldersgate College.
2. **Theoretical Framework:** The researcher discusses relevant theories
or conceptual frameworks that will inform the study.
The theoretical framework guiding this study draws upon two key theories
in education: cognitive load theory and social cognitive theory. Cognitive
load theory, proposed by Sweller (1988), posits that individuals have
limited cognitive resources for processing information, and learning is
most effective when these resources are appropriately allocated. In the
context of classroom overcrowding, this theory suggests that an increase
in environmental distractions and competing stimuli may overload
students' cognitive capacities, impairing their ability to focus attention and
engage in deep learning processes.
Similarly, social cognitive theory, developed by Bandura (1977),
emphasizes the reciprocal interaction between individuals, their
behaviors, and the environment. According to this theory, student learning
outcomes are influenced not only by internal cognitive processes but also
by external environmental factors, such as classroom conditions and peer
interactions. In overcrowded classrooms, where space is limited and
teacher-student ratios are high, students may experience heightened
levels of stress and anxiety, negatively impacting their motivation, self-
efficacy, and academic performance.
3. **Review of Related Literature:** This is the main part of the chapter
where the researcher reviews existing studies, research, and literature
related to the topic. It synthesizes and summarizes the findings, identifies
gaps or contradictions in the literature, and establishes the context for the
current study.
The review of related literature begins by examining studies that have
investigated the effects of classroom overcrowding on student learning
outcomes in various educational settings. Studies by Smith (2019),
Johnson et al. (2020), and Garcia (2021) have found consistent evidence
of negative correlations between classroom overcrowding and student
academic performance, highlighting the importance of addressing this
issue in educational institutions.
Additionally, the literature review explores research specifically focused
on the impact of classroom conditions on student satisfaction and
engagement. Studies by Lee (2018) and Martinez (2020) have
highlighted the detrimental effects of overcrowded classrooms on student
morale and motivation, underscoring the need for interventions to
improve learning environments.
Furthermore, the literature review identifies gaps in the existing research,
such as limited studies examining the moderating effects of teaching
methods or classroom resources on the relationship between classroom
overcrowding and student outcomes. By addressing these gaps, this
study aims to contribute new insights and understanding to the field of
educational research.
4. **Conceptual Framework:** Building on the theoretical framework, the
researcher presents a conceptual model or framework that illustrates the
relationships between key variables or concepts in the study.
Building upon the theoretical perspectives and empirical findings outlined
in the literature review, this study proposes a conceptual framework to
guide its investigation. The conceptual framework illustrates the complex
interplay between classroom overcrowding (independent variable),
student academic performance (variable 1), and student satisfaction
(variable 2). By conceptualizing these relationships, this study aims to
develop a holistic understanding of the impact of classroom conditions on
student learning outcomes at Aldersgate College.
Referencing:
Website Articles:
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Website Name. URL
Lee, M. (2021, February 15). Strategies for reducing classroom
overcrowding. Education Today.
https://www.educationtoday.com/strategies-reducing-classroom-
overcrowding
Journal Articles:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of
Journal, volume number(issue number), page range.
https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy
Example:
Garcia, A., & Martinez, S. (2019). Classroom conditions and student
engagement. Educational Research Quarterly, 45(2), 123-135.
https://doi.org/10.1080/123456789.2020.12345
Books:
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book. Publisher.
Example:
Smith, J. (2020). The Psychology of Learning. Academic Press.
**Chapter 3: Research Methodology**
1. **Introduction to the Research Methodology:** This section outlines the
overall approach and methods used in the research.
This section provides an overview of the overall approach and methods
used in the research study conducted at Aldersgate College. It outlines
the systematic process employed to address the research questions and
achieve the study objectives.
2. **Research Design:** The researcher describes the specific design of
the study, whether it's experimental, correlational, qualitative, quantitative,
or mixed methods.
In this study, a quantitative approach was chosen to systematically
examine the relationship between classroom overcrowding and student
learning outcomes at Aldersgate College. Specifically, a correlational
research design was employed to explore the extent to which classroom
overcrowding is associated with academic performance and student
satisfaction.
3. **Population and Sample:** The researcher defines the population of
interest and explains how the sample was selected, including sampling
techniques.
The population of interest for this study comprises undergraduate
students enrolled at Aldersgate College in Nueva Vizcaya. A stratified
random sampling technique was employed to select a representative
sample of students across different academic disciplines and class levels.
4. **Data Collection Methods:** This section describes the tools and
techniques used to gather data, such as surveys, interviews, experiments,
observations, or archival research.
Sure! Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals
or items from a larger population to represent that population. There are
several types of sampling methods, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. Here are explanations and basic examples of common
sampling methods:
1. **Simple Random Sampling:**
In simple random sampling, each member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected, and the selection of one member does
not influence the selection of others.
**Example:** Suppose you have a list of all students enrolled at
Aldersgate College, and you randomly select 100 students from this list
using a random number generator. Each student has an equal chance of
being chosen.
2. **Stratified Sampling:**
In stratified sampling, the population is divided into subgroups or strata
based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender, academic level), and
samples are then randomly selected from each stratum.
**Example:** If you want to ensure that your sample is representative of
different academic levels at Aldersgate College, you can divide the
student population into freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors, and
then randomly select a proportionate number of students from each
academic level.
3. **Cluster Sampling:**
In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters (e.g.,
classrooms, departments), and a random sample of clusters is selected.
Then, all members of the selected clusters are included in the sample.
**Example:** If you want to study classroom dynamics at Aldersgate
College, you can randomly select several classrooms from different
buildings or departments, and then include all students in the selected
classrooms in your sample.
4. **Systematic Sampling:**
In systematic sampling, every nth member of the population is selected
after an initial random starting point is chosen. The interval "n" is
calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample size.
**Example:** If you have a list of all courses offered at Aldersgate
College, you can select every 10th course on the list starting from a
randomly chosen initial course. This ensures that your sample is evenly
spaced throughout the population.
5. **Convenience Sampling:**
In convenience sampling, samples are selected based on their
availability and accessibility to the researcher. This method is often used
for its ease and practicality but may not always result in a representative
sample.
**Example:** If you conduct surveys by approaching students in the
cafeteria or library at Aldersgate College, those who are present at the
time of data collection would constitute your convenience sample.
However, this method may not capture the opinions of students who are
not present during these times.
Each sampling method has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the
choice of method depends on factors such as the research objectives,
resources available, and characteristics of the population being studied.
5. **Data Analysis Procedures:** The researcher outlines how the collected
data will be analyzed, including any statistical techniques or software used.
Collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation
analysis, and regression analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to
summarize the characteristics of the sample, while correlation analysis
was employed to examine the relationships between variables.
Regression analysis was conducted to identify predictors of student
learning outcomes.
6. **Ethical Considerations:** The researcher discusses any ethical issues
related to the study, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and potential
risks to participants.
Ethical considerations were carefully addressed throughout the research
process. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and
measures were taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity of survey
responses. Additionally, the study adhered to ethical guidelines regarding
the treatment of human subjects in research.
7. **Validity and Reliability:** The researcher addresses the measures
taken to ensure the validity and reliability of the research findings.
To ensure the validity and reliability of the study findings, several
measures were implemented. The survey instrument underwent pilot
testing to assess its validity and reliability, and measures were taken to
minimize bias and error in data collection and analysis.
8. **Limitations of the Study:** This section acknowledges any limitations or
constraints of the research methodology and design.
It is important to acknowledge certain limitations of the research
methodology employed in this study. These limitations include potential
biases associated with self-reported survey data, as well as the cross-
sectional nature of the study design, which limits causal inferences.
These chapters collectively set the stage for the research study, providing
context, rationale, and methodological details to guide the reader through
the research process.
