Section 4

Destructive Testing
4 Destructive Testing
Introduction
European Welding Standards require test coupons made for welding procedure
qualification testing to be subjected to non-destructive and then destructive
testing.

The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joint is destroyed
when various types of test piece are taken from it.

Destructive tests can be divided into two groups, those used to:

 Measure a mechanical property – quantitative tests.

 Assess the joint quality – qualitative tests.

Mechanical tests are quantitative because a quantity is measured, a mechanical

property such as tensile strength, hardness or impact toughness.

Qualitative tests are used to verify that the joint is free from defects, of sound
quality and examples of these are bend tests, macroscopic examination and
fracture tests (fillet fracture and nick-break).

4.1 Test types, pieces and objectives

Various types of mechanical test are used by material manufacturers/
suppliers to verify that plates, pipes, forgings, etc have the minimum property
values specified for particular grades.

Design engineers use the minimum property values listed for particular grades
of material as the basis for design and the most cost-effective designs are
based on an assumption that welded joints have properties that are no worse
than those of the base metal.

The quantitative (mechanical) tests carried out for welding procedure

qualification are intended to demonstrate that the joint properties satisfy design
requirements.

The emphasis in the following sub-sections is on the destructive tests and test
methods widely used for welded joints.

4.1.1 Transverse tensile tests

Test objective
Welding procedure qualification tests always require transverse tensile tests to
show that the strength of the joint satisfies the design criterion.

Test specimens
A transverse tensile test piece typical of the type specified by European Welding
Standards is shown below.

Standards, such as EN 895, that specify dimensions for transverse tensile test
pieces require all excess weld metal to be removed and the surface to be free
from scratches.

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 Parallel
length

Figure 4.1 Transverse tensile test piece.

Test pieces may be machined to represent the full thickness of the joint but for
very thick joints it may be necessary to take several transverse tensile test
specimens to be able to test the full thickness.

Method
Test specimens are accurately measured before testing, then fitted into the
jaws of a tensile testing machine and subjected to a continually increasing
tensile force until the specimen fractures.

The tensile strength (Rm) is calculated by dividing the maximum load by the
cross-sectional area of the test specimen, measured before testing.

The test is intended to measure the tensile strength of the joint and thereby
show that the basis for design, the base metal properties, remain the valid
criterion.

Acceptance criteria
If the test piece breaks in the weld metal, it is acceptable provided the
calculated strength is not less than the minimum tensile strength specified,
which is usually the minimum specified for the base metal material grade.

In the ASME IX code, if the test specimen breaks outside the weld or fusion
zone at a stress above 95% of the minimum base metal strength the test result
is acceptable.

4.1.2 All-weld tensile tests

Objective
On occasion it is necessary to measure the weld metal strength as part of
welding procedure qualification, particularly for elevated temperature designs.

The test is to measure tensile strength and also yield (or proof strength) and
tensile ductility.

All-weld tensile tests are regularly carried out by welding consumable

manufacturers to verify that electrodes and filler wires satisfy the tensile
properties specified by the standard to which the consumables are certified.

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 Specimens
Machined from welds parallel with their longitudinal axis and the specimen
gauge length must be 100% weld metal.

Figure 4.2 Diagram of a tensile specimen.

Round tensile specimen from a Round tensile specimen from an

welding procedure qualification electrode classification test piece.
test piece.

Figure 4.3 Round cross-section tensile specimens.

Method
Specimens are subjected to a continually increasing force in the same way that
transverse tensile specimens are tested.

Yield (Re) or proof stress (Rp) are measured by an extensometer attached to the
parallel length of the specimen that accurately measures the extension of the
gauge length as the load is increased.

Typical load extension curves and their principal characteristics are shown
below.

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 Load extension curve for a steel Load-extension curve for a steel (or
that shows a distinct yield point at other metal) that does not show a
the elastic limit. distinct yield point; proof stress is a
measure of the elastic limit.

Figure 4.4 Typical load extension curves.

Tensile ductility is measured in two ways:

 Percent elongation of the gauge length.

 Percent reduction of area at the point of fracture.

The figure below illustrates these two ductility measurements.

Note: The term necking is often

used to describe reduction in
diameter.

Figure 4.5 Two ductility measurements.

To calculate elongation: 100 %

To calculate UTS:

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4.1.3 Impact toughness tests

Objective
Charpy V notch test pieces are the internationally accepted method for
assessing resistance to brittle fracture by measuring the energy to initiate and
propagate a crack from a sharp notch in a standard sized specimen subjected to
an impact load.

Design engineers need to ensure that the toughness of the steel used for a
particular item will be sufficient to avoid brittle fracture in service and so impact
specimens are tested at a temperature related to the design temperature for
the fabricated component.

C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to brittle
fracture as their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have very
good toughness at ambient temperature may show extreme brittleness at sub-
zero temperatures, as illustrated below.

Temperature range Ductile fracture

47 Joules

Transition range Ductile/Brittle

transition
point

28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature

Figure 4.6 Impact toughness tests.

The transition temperature is defined as the temperature midway between the

upper shelf (maximum toughness) and lower shelf (completely brittle). In the
above the transition temperature is -20°C.

Specimens
Test specimen dimensions have been standardised internationally and are
shown below for full size specimens. There are also standard dimensions for
smaller sized specimens, for example 10 x 7.5mm and 10 x 5mm.

Figure 4.7 Charpy V notch test piece dimensions for full size specimens.

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 Specimens are machined from welded test plates with the notch position
located in different positions according to the testing requirements but typically
in the centre of the weld metal and at positions across the HAZ, as shown
below.

Figure 4.8 Typical notch positions for Charpy V notch test specimens from
double V butt welds.

Method
Test specimens are cooled to the specified test temperature by immersion in an
insulated bath containing a liquid held at the test temperature.

After allowing the specimen temperature to stabilise for a few minutes it is

quickly transferred to the anvil of the test machine and a pendulum hammer
quickly released so that the specimen experiences an impact load behind the
notch.

The main features of an impact test machine are shown below.

Impact specimen on
the anvil showing
the hammer position
at point of impact.

Figure 4.9 Impact testing machine.

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 Figure 4.10 Charpy V notch test pieces after and before testing.

The energy absorbed by the hammer when it strikes each test specimen is
shown by the position of the hammer pointer on the scale of the machine.
Energy values are given in Joules (or ft-lbs in US specifications).

Three Impact test specimens are taken for each notch position as there is
always some degree of scatter in the results, particularly for weldments.

Acceptance criteria
Each test result is recorded and an average value calculated for each set of
three tests. These values are compared with those specified by the application
standard or client to establish whether specified requirements have been met.

After impact testing, examination of the test specimens provides additional

information about their toughness characteristics and may be added to the test
report:

 Percent crystallinity: % of the fracture face that has crystalline appearance

which indicates brittle fracture; 100% indicates completely brittle fracture.

 Lateral expansion: Increase in width of the back of the specimen behind the
notch, as indicated below; the larger the value the tougher the specimen.

Non lateral expansion a + b = lateral expansion

brittle fracture ductile fracture

Figure 4.11 After impact testing.

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 A specimen that exhibits extreme brittleness will show a clean break, both
halves of the specimen having a completely flat fracture face with little or no
lateral expansion.

A specimen that exhibits very good toughness will show only a small degree of
crack extension, without fracture and a high value of lateral expansion.

4.1.4 Hardness testing

Objective
The hardness of a metal is its’ resistance to plastic deformation, determined by
measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type of indenter.

A steel weldment with hardness above a certain maximum may be susceptible

to cracking, either during fabrication or in-service and welding procedure
qualification testing for certain steels and applications requires the test weld to
be hardness surveyed to ensure no regions exceed the maximum specified
hardness.

Specimens prepared for macroscopic examination can also be used for taking
hardness measurements at various positions of the weldments, referred to as a
hardness survey.

Methods
There are three widely used methods:

 Vickers - uses a square-based diamond pyramid indenter.

 Rockwell - uses a diamond cone indenter or steel ball.
 Brinell - uses a ball indenter.

The hardness value is given by the size of the indentation produced under a
standard load, the smaller the indentation, the harder the metal.

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 The Vickers method of testing is illustrated below.

d1  d2
d
2

Figure 4.12 The Vickers method of testing.

Both the Vickers and Rockwell methods are suitable for carrying out hardness
surveys on specimens prepared for macroscopic examination of weldments.

A typical hardness survey requires the indenter to measure the hardness in the
base metal (on both sides of the weld), the weld metal and across the HAZ (on
both sides of the weld).

The Brinell method gives an indentation too large to accurately measure the
hardness in specific regions of the HAZ and is mainly used to measure the
hardness of base metals.

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 A typical hardness survey (using Vickers hardness indenter) is shown below:

Figure 4.13 Typical hardness survey.

Hardness values are shown on test reports as a number followed by letters

indicating the test method, for example:

240HV10 = hardness 240, Vickers method, 10kg indenter load.

22HRC = hardness 22, Rockwell method, diamond cone indenter (scale C).

238HBW = hardness 238, Brinell method, tungsten ball indenter.

4.1.5 Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing.

Objective
Charpy V notch testing enables engineers to make judgements about the risk
of brittle fracture occurring in steels, but a CTOD test measures a material
property - fracture toughness.

Fracture toughness data enables engineers to carry out fracture mechanics

analyses such as:

 Calculating the size of a crack that would initiate a brittle fracture under
certain stress conditions at a particular temperature.
 The stress that would cause a certain sized crack to give a brittle fracture at
a particular temperature.

This data is essential for making an appropriate decision when a crack is

discovered during inspection of equipment that is in-service.

Specimens
A CTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular or square shaped bar cut
transverse to the axis of the butt weld. A V notch is machined at the centre of
the bar, which will be coincident with the test position, weld metal or HAZ.

A shallow saw cut is made at the bottom of the notch and the specimen put into
a machine that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow fatigue crack
initiates from the saw cut.

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 The specimens are relatively large, typically having a cross-section B x 2B and
length ~10B (B = full thickness of the weld). The test piece details are shown
below.

Figure 4.14 A CTOD specimen.

Method
CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient and the
specimen temperature is controlled by immersion in a bath of liquid cooled to
the required test temperature.

A load is applied to the specimen to cause bending and induce a concentrated

stress at the tip of the crack and a clip gauge, attached to the specimen across
the mouth of the machined notch, gives a reading of the increase in width of
the crack mouth as the load is gradually increased.

For each test condition (position of notch and test temperature) it is usual to
carry out three tests.

The figures below illustrate the main features of the CTOD test.

Figure 4.15 The main features of the CTOD test.

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 Figure 4.15 Cross section of specimen.

Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance the crack tip opens without
initiation of a brittle crack.

The clip gauge enables a chart to be generated showing the increase in width of
the crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is calculated.

Acceptance criteria
An application standard or client may specify a minimum CTOD value that
indicates ductile tearing. Alternatively, the test may be for information so that a
value can be used for an engineering critical assessment (ECA).

A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the crack to open widely by
ductile tearing at the tip of the crack whereas a very brittle weldment will tend
to fracture when the applied load is quite low and without any extension at the
tip of the crack.

CTOD values are expressed in millimetres - typical values might be <<~0.1mm

= brittle behaviour; >~1mm = very tough behaviour.

4.1.6 Bend testing

Objective
Bend tests routinely taken from welding procedure qualification test pieces and
sometimes welder qualification test pieces.

Subjecting specimens to bending is a simple way of verifying there are no

significant flaws in the joint. Some degree of ductility is also demonstrated, it is
not measured but shown to be satisfactory if test specimens can withstand
being bent without fracture or fissures above a certain length.

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 Specimens
There are four types of bend specimen:

 Face
Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent
so that the face of the weld is on the outside of the bend (face in tension).

 Root
Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent
so that the root of the weld is on the outside of the bend (root in tension).

 Side
Taken as a transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness of butt welds
>~12mm and bent so that the full joint thickness is tested (side in tension).

 Longitudinal bend
Taken with axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld; specimen
thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of weld may be tested in tension.

Figure 4.16 Four types of bend specimens.

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 Method
Guided bend tests are usually used for welding procedure and welder
qualification.

Guided means that the strain imposed on the specimen is uniformly controlled
by being bent around a former with a certain diameter.

The diameter of the former used for a particular test is specified in the code,
having been determined by the type of material being tested and the ductility
that can be expected from it after welding and any PWHT.

The diameter of the former is usually expressed as a multiple of the specimen

thickness (t) and for C-Mn steel is typically 4t but for materials that have lower
tensile ductility the radius of the former may be greater than 10t.

The standard that specifies the test method will specify the minimum bend
angle the specimen must experience and is typically 120-180°.

Acceptance criteria
Bend tests pieces should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not showing cracks
or any signs of significant fissures or cavities on the outside of the bend.

Small indications less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some
standards.

4.1.7 Fracture tests

Fillet weld fractures

Objective
The quality/soundness of a fillet weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces
and examining the fracture surfaces.

This method for assessing the quality of fillet welds may be specified by
application standards as an alternative to macroscopic examination.

It is a test method that can be used for welder qualification testing according to
European Standards but is not used for welding procedure qualification.

Specimens
A test weld is cut into short (typically 50mm) lengths and a longitudinal notch
machined into the specimen as shown below. The notch profile may be square,
V or U shape.

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 Figure 4.17 Longitudinal notch in fillet welds.

Method
Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strokes
(hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding standard or
application standard will specify the number of tests (typically four).

Hammer stroke Moving press

Figure 4.18 Hammer stroke and pressing specimens.

Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of penetration into the root of
the joint and solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture
surfaces.

Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.

Butt weld fractures (nick-break tests)

Objective
The same as for fillet fracture tests.

These tests are specified for welder qualification testing to European Standards
as an alternative to radiography and are not used for welding procedure
qualification testing.

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 Specimens
Taken from a butt weld and notched so that the fracture path will be in the
central region of the weld. Typical test piece types are shown below.

Figure 4.19 Notched butt weld.

Method
Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending.

Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification or application standard will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of fusion, solid inclusions and
porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces.

Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.

4.2 Macroscopic examination

Transverse sections from butt and fillet welds are required by the European
Standards for welding procedure qualification testing and may be required for
some welder qualification testing for assessing the quality of the welds.

This is considered in detail in a separate section of these course notes.

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4.2.1 European Standards for destructive test methods
The following Standards are specified by the European Welding Standards for
destructive testing of welding procedure qualification test welds and for some
welder qualification test welds.

BS EN ISO 9016 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - impact

tests - test specimen location, notch orientation and
examination.

BS EN ISO 4136 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials -

transverse tensile test.

BS EN ISO 5173 +A1 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - bend

tests.

BS EN ISO 17639 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - macro

and microscopic examination of welds.

BS EN ISO 6892-1 Metallic materials - Tensile testing. Part 1: Method of

test at ambient temperature.

BS EN ISO 6892-2 Tensile testing of metallic materials. Part 5: Method of

test at elevated temperatures.

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 Destructive testing Objective

When this presentation has been completed you

should be able to recognise a wide range of
mechanical tests and their purpose. You should
also be able to make calculations using
formulae and tables to determine various values
Destructive Testing of strength, toughness, hardness and ductility.

Section 4

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Destructive Testing Definitions Destructive Tests

What is destructive testing? Destructive tests include:

3x
The destruction of a welded  Bend test. Toughness
(Charpy V
unit or by cutting out  Impact test. notch)
selected specimens from the
weld, is carried out to check  Tensile test. 2 x Ductile
the mechanical properties of  Hardness test. (Bend test)
the joint materials.
 Macro/micro
examination. 2 x Strength
They can be produced to (transverse
 Approve welding procedures (BS EN 15614). tensile)

 Approve welders (BS EN ISO 9606).

 Production quality control.

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Qualitative and Quantitative Tests Definitions

The following mechanical tests have units and are termed Mechanical properties of metals are related to the
quantitative tests to measure mechanical properties of amount of deformation which metals can withstand
the joint.
under different circumstances of force application.
 Tensile tests (transverse welded joint, all weld metal).
 Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD).  Malleability.
 Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers).
 Ductility. Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
 Toughness.
The following mechanical tests have no units and are under static compressive
termed qualitative tests for assessing weld quality.  Hardness. loading without rupture.
 Macro testing.  Tensile Strength.
 Bend testing.
 Fillet weld fracture testing.
 Butt weld nick-break testing.

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4-1
 Mechanical Test Samples Destructive Testing

Tensile specimens Welding procedure qualification testing

CTOD specimen
Top of fixed pipe
2 Typical positions for test
pieces and specimen
type position

 Macro + hardness. 5
Bend test 3
specimen  Transverse tensile. 2, 4
 Bend tests. 2, 4
Charpy  Charpy impact tests. 3
specimen
 Additional tests. 3
4
Fracture fillet specimen 5

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Mechanical Testing Hardness Testing

Definition
 Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant
load.
Hardness Testing  There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness.

Hardness tests:
 Brinell.
 Vickers.
 Rockwell.

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Hardness Testing Hardness Testing

Objectives: Usually the hardest region

 Measuring hardness in different areas of a 1.5 to 3mm
welded joint. Fusion
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold line or
HAZ
cracking and corrosion sensitivity. fusion
boundary
Information to be supplied on the test
report:
 Material type. Hardness test methods Typical designations
 Location of indentation.  Vickers 240 HV10
 Type of hardness test and load applied on the  Rockwell Rc 22
indenter.  Brinell 200 BHN-W
 Hardness value.

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4-2
 Vickers Hardness Test Vickers Hardness Test

Typical location of the indentations Vickers hardness tests:

 Indentation body is a square based diamond
pyramid (136° included angle).
 The average diagonal (d) of the impression is
Butt weld from
converted to a hardness number from a table.
one side only  It is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025.
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor

Butt weld from

both side

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Vickers Hardness Test Machine Brinell Hardness Test

 Hardened steel ball of given diameter is

subjected for a given time to a given load.
 Load divided by area of indentation gives
Brinell hardness in kg/mm2.
 More suitable for on site hardness testing.

30KN

Ø=10mm
steel ball

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Rockwell Hardness Test Portable Hardness Test

Rockwell B Rockwell C

1KN
1.5KN

 Dynamic and very portable hardness test.

Ø=1.6mm 120° diamond
 Accuracy depends on the the condition of the
steel ball cone
test/support surfaces and the support of the test
piece during the test.
 For more details, see ASTM E448.

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4-3
 Mechanical Testing Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

Weld metal Fusion Line (FL) FL+2mm FL+5mm Parent material

Objectives:
Impact Testing  Measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture.

Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Material type.
 Notch type.
 Specimen size.
 Test temperature.
 Notch location.
 Impact strength value.

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Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Specimen

Pendulum Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23

Specimen (striker)

Anvil (support)
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials.

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Charpy Impact Test Ductile/Brittle Transition Curve

10 mm
22.5° 100% Brittle Mn < 1.6 % Temperature range
Ductile fracture
2 mm

Machined notch. increases toughness

in steels, and lower
energy input used. 47 Joules
8 mm

Fracture surface
100% bright
crystalline Transition range Ductile/Brittle
brittle fracture.
transition point
100% Ductile
Machined notch. 28 Joules
Large reduction
in area, shear Brittle fracture Energy absorbed
lips. - 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Randomly torn,
dull gray Testing temperature - Degrees centigrade
fracture surface.
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature

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4-4
 Comparison Charpy
Charpy Impact Test
Impact Test Results
Impact energy joules Reporting results
 Location and orientation of notch.
Room Temperature -20°C Temperature
 Testing temperature.
 Energy absorbed in joules.
1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules
 Description of fracture (brittle or ductile).
2. 191 Joules 2. 53 Joules
 Location of any defects present.
3. 186 Joules 3. 51 Joules  Dimensions of specimen.

Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules

The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20°C.

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Mechanical Testing Tensile Testing

Tensile Testing

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UTS Tensile Test Tensile Tests

Rm

ReH
ReL

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4-5
 Tensile Test Tensile Tests

Rp 0.2% - Proof stress. Refers to materials Different tensile tests:

which do not have a defined yielding such as  Transverse tensile.
aluminium and some steels.  All-weld metal tensile test.
 Cruciform tensile test.
 Short tensile test (through thickness test).

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Tensile Test Transverse Joint Tensile Test

All weld Metal

All-Weld metalTensile
tensile
specimen
Specimen

Objective:
Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Transverse
TransverseTensile
tensile  Material type.
Specimen
specimen  Specimen type
 Specimen size (see QW-462.1).
 UTS.
 Location of final rupture.

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Transverse Joint Tensile Test Transverse Tensile Test

Maximum load applied = 220 kN

Cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12 mm

UTS = Maximum load applied

Weld on plate csa

UTS = 220 000

25mm X 12mm

Multiple cross joint specimens

UTS = 733.33 N/mm2
Weld on pipe

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4-6
 Transverse Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Reporting results: BS 709/BS EN 10002

 Type of specimen eg reduced section. All Weld Metal Tensile Testing
 Whether weld reinforcement is removed.
 Dimensions of test specimen. Direction of the test *
 The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2, psi or
Mpa.
 Location of fracture.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.

Tensile test piece cut along weld specimen.

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All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Original gauge length = 50mm Gauge length

Increased gauge length = 64 Object of test:

 Ultimate tensile
strength.
Elongation % = Increase of gauge length X 100  Yield strength.
Original gauge length  Elongation
%(ductility).

Elongation % = 14
X 100
50

Elongation = 28% Increased gauge length

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All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Two marks are made Two marks are made

Gauge length 50mm Gauge length 50mm

During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured

Force Applied

Increased gauge length 75mm

Increased gauge length 75mm
A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%. A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%.

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4-7
 STRA (Short Transverse
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Reduction Area)
Reporting results:
 Type of specimen eg reduced section.
 Dimensions of test specimen.
 The UTS, yield strength in N/mm2, psi or Mpa.
 Elongation %.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.

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STRA Test UTS Calculation

A welded sample has undergone a transverse tensile test.

The specimen before testing 120mm long and after testing
had a length 150mm, the maximum load applied was
140Kn. The cross sectional area before testing was 10mm
in depth and 40mm in width.

Original CSA Please calculate the elongation % and UTS.

Change in
length (150 – 120) = 30
= 0.25 x 100 = 25%
Original 120
length

Reduced CSA Load 140 Kn 14,000 n

= 350 n/mm²
CSA 10 x 40 400

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STRA Test Mechanical Testing

Probable freedom from

tearing in any joint type

Some risk in highly restrained

20 joints eg node joint, joints Macro/Micro Examination
between sub-fabs
STRA %
Some risk in moderately
Reduction 15 restrained joints eg box
of CSA columns

Some risk in lightly restrained

10 joints T-joints eg I-beams

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 Macro Preparation Macro Preparation

Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance  Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm
that: thick).
 Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on
 The weld has been made in accordance with the
both sides plus some unaffected base material.
WPS.
 One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes
 The weld is free from defects. 120 to ~400).
 Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs and all
HAZ.
 Prepared face examined at up to x10 (and usually
photographed for records).
 Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey.

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Macro Preparation Macro Preparation

Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ  A small piece is cut from the region of interest (typically
in order to: up to ~20mm x 20mm).
 The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of
 To examine the microstructure.
interest prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size
 Identify the nature of a crack or other 600 or 800).
imperfection.  Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a
mirror finish.
 Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition
and then lightly etched.
 Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to
~100 – 1000X.

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Macro/Micro Examination Macro/Micro Examination

Object: Will reveal:

 Macro/microscopic examinations are used to  Weld soundness.
give a visual evaluation of a cross-section of a  Distribution of inclusions.
welded joint.  Number of weld passes.
 Carried out on full thickness specimens.  Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and
 The width of the specimen should include HAZ, HAZ.
weld and parent plate.  Location and depth of penetration of weld.
 They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a  Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions.
welders approval test.

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4-9
 Macro Macro/Micro Examination Metallographic Examination

Macro Micro
 Visual examination for  Visual examination for
defects. defects and grain
 Cut transverse from the structure.
weld.  Cut transverse from a
 Ground and polished weld.
P400 grit paper.  Ground and polished P1200
 Acid etch using 5-10% grit paper, 1µm paste.
nitric acid solution.  Acid etch using 1-5% nitric
 Wash and dry. acid solution.
 Visual evaluation under  Wash and dry.
5x magnification.  Visual evaluation under
 Report on results. 100-1000x magnification. Macro examination Micro examination
 Report on results.

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Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination

Objectives: Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Detecting weld defects (macro).  Material type.
 Measuring grain size (micro).  Etching solution.
 Detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc.  Magnification.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold  Grain size.
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.  Location of examined area.
 Weld imperfections (macro).
 Phase, constituents, precipitates (micro).

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Mechanical Testing Bend Tests

Object of test:
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing
can also be used to give an assessment of weld zone
ductility.

Bend Testing There are three ways to perform a bend test:

Root bend Face bend Side bend

Side bend tests are normally carried
out on welds over 12mm in thickness.

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 Bending Test Bending Test Methods

Types of bend test for welds

(acc BS EN ISO 5173+A1):

Root/face
t up to 12 mm
bend

Thickness of material - t

t over 12 mm Side bend

Guided bend test Wrap around bend test

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Bend Testing Bend Tests

Face bend Side bend Root bend Reporting results:

 Thickness and dimensions of specimen.
 Direction of bend (root, face or side).
 Angle of bend (90°, 120°, 180°).
 Diameter of former (typical 4T).
 Appearance of joint after bending eg type and
location of any flaws.
Defect indication generally this
specimen would be unacceptable.
Acceptance for minor ruptures
on tension surface depends upon
code requirements.

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Bend Testing Mechanical Testing

Fillet Weld Fracture Testing

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4-11
 Fillet Weld Fracture Tests Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Object of test: Hammer

 To break open the joint through the weld to
permit examination of the fracture surfaces.
 Specimens are cut to the required length.
 A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is 2mm
applied along the fillet welds length. notch
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.

Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer

2mm
notch
This fracture indicates This fracture has occurred
lack of fusion saw cut to root

Lack of penetration
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer
Reporting results:
 Thickness of parent material.
 Throat thickness and leg lengths.
 Location of fracture.
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration.
 Defects present on fracture surfaces.

This fracture indicates

lack of fusion

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 Mechanical Testing Nick-Break Test

Object of test:
 To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
 Specimens are cut transverse to the weld.
Nick-Break Testing  A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is
applied along the welds root and cap.
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.

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Nick-Break Test Nick-Break Test

Notch cut by hacksaw

3 mm
19 mm Alternative nick-break test
specimen, notch applied all
3 mm
way around the specimen
Approximately 230 mm

Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed Lack of root Inclusions on fracture
penetration or fusion line

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Nick-Break Test Summary of Mechanical Testing

Reporting results: We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical

 Thickness of parent material. properties, and soundness of the welded joint
 Width of specimen.
We divide tests into qualitative and quantitative
 Location of fracture.
methods:
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration. Quantitative: (Have Qualitative: (Have no
 Defects present on fracture surfaces. units) units)
 Hardness (VPN & BHN).  Macro tests.
 Toughness (Joules &  Bend tests.
ft.lbs).  Fillet weld fracture tests.
 Strength (N/mm2 & PSI,  Butt Nick break tests.
MPa).
 Ductility/Elongation (E%).

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 Hydrostatic Test Hydrostatic Test

Under pressure leakage proof test Test procedure:

 Blank off all openings with solid flanges.
Vessel configuration:  Use correct nuts and bolts, not G clamps.
 The test should be done after any stress relief.  Two pressure gauges on independent tapping
 Components that will not stand the pressure test points should be used.
(eg flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be  For safety purposes bleed all the air out.
removed.  Pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic
 The ambient temperature MUST be above 0°C pressure stresses).
(preferably 15-20°C).
 Test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500,
ASME VIII). Usually 150% design pressure.
 Hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes.

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Hydrostatic Test

What to look for:

 Leaks (check particularly around seams and
nozzle welds)!
Any Questions
 Dry off any condensation.
 Watch the gauges for pressure drop.

?
 Check for distortion of flange faces, etc.

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