RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CISY 302/BBIT 316/BSIS 423/ NRSG 420/MLSC 302

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH AND SCIENCE

Research is a Greek word meaning "to know".
What research is not?
1. Research is not mere information gathering.
2. Mere transportation of facts from one location to another.
3. Merely rummaging for information.
4. A catchword used to get attention.

Definitions of Research
• The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of information to
answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, 1996).
• Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions (Tuckman,
1999).
• Research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and
recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possible
control of events (Best and Kahn, 1998).
• Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic method of
inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996).

What is research?
Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information
(data) in order to increase the understanding of the phenomenon about which we are
interested or concerned. Although research projects vary in complexity and duration,
research typically has eight characteristics:-
1. Research originates from a question or problem. The world is filled with
unanswered questions and unresolved problems. Everywhere we look we see
things that cause us to wonder to operate to answer question.
2. Research requires clear articulation of a goal. A clear unambiguous statement
of the problem is critical. This statement is an exercise in intellectual honesty. The
ultimate goal of the research must be set clearly and precisely in a grammatically
complete sentence.
3. Research requires a specific plan for proceeding. Research is not a blind assertion into
the unknown, it's the hope that the data necessary to answer the question at hand
will somehow fortunately turn up. 1t is instead a carefully planned attack a search
and discovers mission clearly outlined in advance.
4. Research usually divides the principle problem into more manageable subproblems.
From a design view point, it's often helpful to break a main research problem into
several sub-problems that were solved will resolve the main problem.

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5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis. Having
stated the problem, its sub-problems the researcher usually forms one or more
hypotheses about what he/she may discover. Hypothesis - This is a logical super
position, a reasonable guess and educated conjecture (claim).
6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions. 1n research, assumptions are
equivalent to axioms (postulates) in geometry, which is self evidence proof. The
assumptions must be valid or else the research is meaningless. For this reason,
careful researchers especially those conducting research in academic events set a
statement of the assumptions as the bedrock upon their study must rest.
7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve
the problem that initiated the research. After the researcher has isolated the
problem, divided it into sub-problems posted reasonable research problems oar
hypothesis and identified assumptions that are basic to the entire effort. The next
step is to collect whatever data that seem appropriate and to organize them in
meaningful ways so that they can be interpreted.
8. Research is by nature, cyclical and not hierarchical. The research process follows a
cycle. 1t follows logical and vital steps.
(a) Research begins to with a problem.
(b) Research defines the goal in terms of a clear statement of the
problem.
(c) Research sub-divides the problems into appropriate sub-problem.
(d) Research proposes tentative solutions to the problem through reasonable
hypothesis. This hypothesis directs the researcher to the appropriate data.
(e) Research looks for data directed by the hypotheses and guided by the problem.
Research interprets the meaning of a data which leads to a resolution of the
problem, thus confirming to injecting the hypotheses and/or providing an
answer to the question

With knowledge on research methods managers can,...

a) Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.
b) Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively
c) Know how to discriminate a good from bad research studies.
d) Appreciate and be aware of multiple influences and multiple effects of factors
impacting on the situation.
e) Take calculated risk in decision making knowing fully the probabilities attached
to different possible outcomes.
f) Prevent possible vested interests from excising their influence in a situation.
g) Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.
h) Look at available information in sophisticated and creative ways in the fast
paced global environment in which business exist.

What is science?
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The term science encompasses physical, natural and social science. Science can be
defined in terms of an attitude or approach to problem solving and the norms practiced by
the members of a scientific community.
Science Definition
The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge.
How do we define science? According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the
definition of science is "knowledge attained through study or practice,"or "knowledge
covering general truths of the operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested
through scientific method [and] concerned with the physical world."

What does that really mean? Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This
system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural
phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people
have gained using that system. Less formally, the word science often describes any
systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it.
What is the purpose of science? Perhaps the most general description is that the
purpose of science is to produce useful models of reality.
Most scientific investigations use some form of the scientific method. You can find out
more about the scientific method here.
Science as defined above is sometimes called pure science to differentiate it from
applied science, which is the application of research to human needs. Fields of
science are commonly classified along two major lines:
 Natural sciences, the study of the natural world, and
 Social sciences, the systematic study of human behavior and society.
Scientific Methods
Now that you have a pretty good idea of the question you want to ask, it's time to use
the Scientific Method to design an experiment which will be able to answer that
question. 1f your experiment isn't designed well, you may not get the correct answer,
or may not even get any definitive answer at all.
1n this section we will take a look at the method you should use to design your research.
This method is the most important part of science--in fact, it's called the ' Scientific
Method.' The Scientific Method is a way to make sure that your experiment can give a
good answer to your specific question.
The Scientific Method is a logical and rational order of steps by which scientists come to
conclusions about the world around them. The Scientific Method helps to organize
thoughts and procedures so that scientists can be confident in the answers they find.
Scientists use observations, hypotheses, and deductions to make these conclusions,
just like you will use the Scientific Method in your science fair project. You will think
through the various possibilities using the Scientific Method to eventually come to
an answer to your original question.
The steps of the Scientific Method are:
 Observation/Research

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 Hypothesis
 Prediction
 Experimentation
 • Conclusion

The observation is done first so that you know how you want to go about your research.
The hypothesis is the answer you think you'll find. The prediction is your specific belief
about the scientific idea: 1f my hypothesis is true, then 1 predict we will
discover.....The experiment is the tool that you invent to answer the question, and the
conclusion is the answer that the experiment gives. Don't worry, it isn't that
complicated. Let's look at each one of these points individually so that you can
understand the tools that scientists use when doing their own science projects and
use them for your project.
Observation
This step could also be called "research."1t is the first stage in understanding the
problem you have chosen. After you decide on your area of science and the specific
question you want to ask, you will need to research everything that you can find about
the problem. You can collect information on your science fair topic from your own
experiences, books, the internet, or even smaller "unofficial" experiments. This
initial research should play a big part in the science fair idea that you finally choose.
Let's take the example of the tomatoes in the garden. You like to garden, and notice
that some tomatoes are bigger than others and wonder why. Because of this personal
experience and an interest in the problem, you decide to learn more about what
makes plants grow.
For this stage of the Scientific Method, it's important to use as many sources as you
can find. The more information you have on your science fair project topic, the better
the design of your experiment is going to be, and the better your science fair project is
going to be overall. Also try to get information from your teachers or librarians, or
professionals who know something about your science fair topic. They can help to
guide you to a solid experimental setup.
Hypothesis
The next stage of the Scientific Method is known as the "hypothesis." This word basically
means "a possible solution to a problem, based on knowledge and research." The
hypothesis is a simple statement that defines what you think the outcome of your
experiment will be. All of the first stage of the Scientific Method -- the observation, or
research stage -- is designed to help you express a problem in a single question ("Does
the amount of sunlight in a garden affect tomato size?") and propose an answer to the
question based on what you know. The experiment that you will design is done to test
the hypothesis.

Conducting good research:

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 – New skills (that many people do not have)
– Better understanding and interpretation of the literature
– Recognize new questions that need investigation
– Objectivity is the key element of research
– Search for Truth
Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of truth:
– Custom and tradition
– Authority
– Personal experience
– Deductive reasoning
– Scientific inquiry
Deductive Vs Inductive Reasoning

1. Deductive Reasoning A.k.a., Logic.

– In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general assumption to
specific application
– GENERAL  SPECIFIC
– Aristotle and other early philosophers
• Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism.
• All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher.
Therefore, Socrates is moral.
• Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing body
mass. Sandi is resistance training. Therefore, Sandi will
become big and bulky.
• Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Therefore,
every rabbit has lungs.
– Not sufficient as a source of new truth
2. Inductive Reasoning
Conclusions about events (general) are based on information generated
through many individual and direct observations (specific).
– SPECIFIC  GENERAL
– Researchers observe an individual or group of individuals from a larger
population  based on these observations, generalizations are made
back to the larger population.
• Two kinds of induction:
– Perfect
• Conclusions based on observations made from ALL members of
a group or population
– Imperfect
• Conclusions based on observations made from a random sample
of members of a population
• Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. Therefore,
every rabbit has lungs.

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 The Scientific Method
• Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.
– Identifying the problem
– Formulating a hypothesis
– Developing the research plan
– Collecting and analyzing the data
– Interpreting results and forming conclusions
– Example…
1. Identifying the Problem
• First, and arguably the most important, step
– Several sources
• Theoretical basis
• Professional practice
• Personal experience
• Shear curiosity
– Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed
– Problem statement; experimental approach to the problem; etc.
• Three categories when selecting a research problem
– Those who know precisely what they want to do and have a well
conceived problem
– Those who have many interest areas and are having difficulty deciding
exactly what they want to study
– Those who do not have any idea about a worthwhile research problem

2. Formulating a Hypothesis
• Hypothesis:
– A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the research
– A concrete, specific statement about the relationships between
phenomena
– Based on deductive reasoning
– 2 types of hypotheses:
• Null hypothesis (HO)
– All is equal; no differences exist
• Alternative (research) hypothesis (HA)
– Usually specific and opposite to the null
3. Developing the Research Plan
• A strategy must be developed for gathering and analyzing the information that
is required to test the hypotheses or answer the research question
– Four parts:
• Selection of a relevant research methodology
• Identification of subjects or participants
• Description of the data-gathering procedures

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 • Specification of the data analysis techniques
– Pilot studies, IRB,…all must be determined in advance!
4. Collecting and Analyzing the Data
• Following all the pre-determined protocols
– Time in the lab collecting data
– Analyzing the composite data
– Controlling the environment
• Easiest part of the process…
– However, sometime the most time-consuming part of the process…
5. Interpreting Results and Forming Conclusions
• Data analysis is not an end in itself!
• Does the evidence support or refute the original hypotheses?
– Accept or reject the hypotheses
– Conclusions should be drawn:
• Develop new hypotheses to explain the results
• Inferences are typically made beyond the specific study
Types of Research Questions
– Descriptive questions
– Difference questions
– Relationship questions
Descriptive Questions
• Purpose:
– To describe phenomena or characteristics of a particular group of
subjects being studied
• Survey research
• Qualitative research
Difference Questions
• Purpose:
– To make comparisons between or within groups.
– Is there a difference?
• Experimental research
– Treatment vs. control
– Pre- vs. post-test comparisons
• Nonexperimental research
– Compare one group to another based on existing
characteristics
Relationship Questions
• Purpose
– To investigate the degree to which two or more variables covary or are
associated with each other
• Rather than analyzing the differences between groups,
researchers characterize the relationships among them.
• Extent to which variables are related

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 • Not to establish cause-and-effect

Theory, Hypothesis and Empiricism

• Hypothesis
– A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the research
– A concrete, specific statement about the relationships between
phenomena
– Based on deductive reasoning
• Theory
– A belief or assumption about how things relate to each other
– A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables
with a purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena
– Based on inductive reasoning
• Empiricism
Acquiring information and facts through the observation of our world
– Pragmatic observations
– Developing theory through experience and observation
– Non-scientific
– Quick and practical solution to a problem
• With little interest in explaining when, how, or why
– Example: Anabolic steroid use (abuse)…
TYPES OF RESEARCH
3.1 Classification of Research
In the fields of general education, health education, physical education, recreation, etc
there exists different kinds of problems, consequently, different types of research are
used to solve these problems. Research in general can be classified or categorized in
many ways. The following are the basic modes of classification:
 The field of study in which the research is conducted. ie discipline; for example
educational research, sociological research, marketing research etc
 The place where the research is conducted. Hence we talk in forms of field
research, laboratory research, community research etc.
 Application of the research — the way/mode in which the findings of the
research will be used e.g., Action research, service research etc
 Purpose of the research i.e. basic research, action research, applied research
and evaluation research.
 By methods of analysis, i.e., descriptive research and empirical research
 Character of data collected i.e. qualitative research and quantitative research.
Procedure/Design used — experimental research, survey research etc.

3.2 Types of Research

1. Basic research
It is also referred to as pure or fundamental research. It is a type of research which is
characterized by a desire to know or to expound the frontiers of knowledge. It is

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research based on the creation of new knowledge. It is mainly theoretical and for
advancement of knowledge.

Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge which will be a broad
base for further research. The main purpose for conducting this research is to
generate more information and understanding the phenomena that operate in a
situation. The aim is not usually to apply findings, to solve an immediate problem but
rather to understand more about a certain phenomena and expound that knowledge.

Another focus of basic research is to generate new knowledge in order to refine or

expand existing theories. However, there is no considerations of the practical
applications of the findings to actual problems or situations. Such research does
however often lead to further research of the practical nature and may in fact provide
the very basis of this further research.

2. Applied Research
The type of research which is conducted for purpose of improving present practice.
Normally applied research is conducted for the purposes of applying or testing theory
and evaluating its usefulness in solving problems. Applied research provides data to
support theory or suggest the development of new theories. It is the research done
with the intention of applying the results of its findings to solve specific problems,
currently being experienced in an Organization.
3. Action Research
This is a small scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close
examinations of the effects of such interventions. Action research is normally
situational and it is concerned with diagnosing a problem in a specific context and
attempting to solve it in that context.

Normally action research is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific
immediate and concrete problem in a local setting. Action research is not concerned
with whether the results of the study are generalized to other settings. Since its major
goal is to seek a solution to a given problem. Action research is limited in its
contribution to theory, but it is useful because it provides answers to problems that
cannot wait for theoretical solutions.
4. Descriptive Research
A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the
characteristics of variables in a situation. Quite often descriptive studies are
undertaken in organizations in order to learn about and describe characteristics of
employees. E.g. Education level, job status, length of service etc.

The most prevalent method of gathering information in a descriptive study is the

questionnaire. Others include: interviews, job analysis, documentary analysis etc.
Descriptive statistics such as the mean, standard, deviation, frequencies, percentages

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are used in the analysis of descriptive research.

5. Correlational Research
Correlation research is descriptive in that it cannot presume a cause-and-effect
relationship. it can only establish that there is an association between two or more
traits or performance. This involves collecting data to determine whether a relationship
exists between two or more quantifiable variables. The main purpose of correlation
research is to describe the nature of the relationship between the two variables.
Correlational research helps in identifying the magnitude if the relationship.
Many techniques have been deviced to provide us with numerical representations of
such relationships and these are known as measures of association. The most
commonly used measures of association are two:
 Pearson’ s product moment of coefficients.
 Spearman’s rank order correlation.

Correlational techniques are generally intended to answer 3 questions:

 Is there a relationship between the two variables?
 if the answer is Yes, what is the direction of the relationship (nature of
relationship) (- or +)
 What is the magnitude of the relationship?

6. Causal Research
A casual study is one which is done to establish a definative ‘cause’‘effect’ relationship
among variables. In this type of research, the researcher is keen to delineating one or
more factors that are certainly causing the problem. The intention of the researcher
conducting a casual study is to be able to state that variable X causes variable Y to
change. A casual study is more effective in a situation where the researcher has
already identified the cause of the problem. However, this type of a design is limiting in
that quite often, especially in an Organization, there are a multiple cases of a problem
which are linked to many factors i.e. Does a payrise cause higher productivity?
7. Historical Research
This is the systematic and objective location and synthesis of evidence in order to
establish facts and draw conclusions about past events. The act of historical research
involves the identification and limitation of a problem of an area of study which is
based on past events. The researcher aims to:
 Locate as many pertinent sources of information as possible concerning the
specific problem.
 Then analyze the information to ascertain its authenticity and accuracy, then be
able to use it to generalize on future occurrences.

Historical research is important because:

 It enables solutions to contemporary problems to be solved in the past.

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  Historical research throws light on present and future trends.
 Historical research allows for the revelation of data in relation to select
hypothesis. theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past.

Ability of history to employ the past, to predict the future and to use the present to
explain the past gives historical research a dual and unique quality which makes is
exceptionally useful for all types of scholarly study and research.
8. Experimental Research
• In experimental research, the investigator deliberately controls and
manipulates the conditions which determine the events to which he is
interested. It involves making a change in the value of one variable (the
independent variable) and observing the effect of that change on another
variable (the dependent variable). In experimental design, the independent
variable is a stimulus i.e., it is stimulated while the dependent variable is
responsive. If all extraneous factors can be successfully controlled then the
researcher can presume that changes in the dependent variable are due to the
independent variable.
Steps to Experimental Research
1. Identifying the research question or problem area
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a specific research problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
• Steps to Experimental Research
8. Designing data collection plan
9. Selecting or developing specific data collection instruments or procedures
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Preparing the research report

9. Longitudinal Studies
These are designed to permit observations over an extended period. For example,
analyses of newspaper editorials overtime. Three special type of longitudinal studies
should be noted here:
i) Trend Studies: are those that study changes within some general population
over time. I.e. a series of opinion polls during the course of an election campaign,
showing trends in the relative strengths and standing of different candidates.
ii) Cohorot Studies: examine more specific subpopulations (cohorts) as they
change overtime. Typically a cohort is an age group, such as those people born during
the I 920s, people who got married in 1964, and so forth. An example of cohort study
would be a series of national surveys, conducted perhaps every ten years, to the study

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the economic attitudes of the cohort born during the early 1960s.

A sample of persons 20-25 years of age might be surveyed in 1970, another sample of
those 30-35 years of age in 1980, and another sample of those 30-35 years of age in
1970, and another sample of those 40-45 years of age in 1990. Although the specific
set of people studied in each of these surveys would be different, each sample would
represent the survivors of the cohort born between 1960-1964.
iii) Panel Studies: are similar to trend and cohort studies except that the same set
of people is studied each time. One example would be a voting study in which the
same sample of voters are interviewed every month during an election campaign and
asked for whom they intended to vote for. Such a study would not only make it possible
to analyse overall trends in voter preferences for different candidates, but would have
the added advantage of showing the precise patterns of persistence and change in
intentions.

Purposes of Research
a) Discover new Knowledge
The main purpose of research is to discover new knowledge, This involves the
discovery of new facts, their correct interpretation and practical application. Although
there are other sources of knowledge, research remains the most efficient and reliable
source of knowledge, It is the most accurate system of securing useful knowledge.
Quite often, a scientist will take an interest in a topic without having any other clear
ideas about what to expect in the way of relationship among variables. Initially, the
relevant variables arc not even clear. The initial research, in fact may have the
identification of important variables on its primary purpose.

b) Exploration
Much of social research is conducted to explore a topic, to provide a beginning
familiarity with that topic. This purpose is typically when a researcher is examining a
new interest or when the subject of study is itself relatively new and unstudied.
Example, let’s suppose that widespread taxpayer dissatisfaction with the Govt erupts
into a tax payer’s revolt. People begin refusing to pay their taxes and they organize
themselves around that issue. You might want to learn more about the movement.
How widespread is it? What levels and degrees of support are there within the
community? How is the movement organized? What kinds of people are active in it?
You might undertake an exploratory study to obtain at least appropriate answers to
some these questions. Exploratory studies are also appropriate in the case of more
persistent phenomena, Perhaps a college student is unhappy with the college’s
dormitory regulations and wants to work towards changing them. Exploratory studies
are more typically done for three purposes:
 To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding
 To test the feasibility of undertaking a more careful study; and )‘ To develop the

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 methods to be employed in a more careful study.
c) Description
A major purpose of many studies is to describe situations and events. Descriptive
studies try to discover answers to the questions; Who, what, when, where and
sometimes how. The researcher observes and then describes what was observed. A
census is an excellent example of descriptive social research. The goal of the census
is to describe accurately and precisely a wide variety of characteristics of a population,
as well as the population of smaller areas such as towns and rural councils. Other
examples of descriptive studies are the computation of age-sex profiles of population
done by demographers and the computation of crime rates for different towns. A poll
conducted during a political election campaign has the purpose of describing the
voting intentions of the electorate.
d) Explanation
Reporting the voting intentions of an electorate is a descriptive activity, but reporting
why some people plan to vote for candidate A and others for candidate B is an
explanatory activity, as reporting why some towns have higher crime rates that others.
A researcher has an explanatory purpose is if he/she wishes to know why a students
demonstration ended in a violent confrontation with police, as opposed to simply
describing what happened.

e) Prediction
Prediction is the ability to estimate phenomena A given B. if we can provide a plausible
explanation of an event after it has occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when
and in what situations the event will occur. For example the aviation industry may be
interested iii explaining the radiation risks for flight crews and passengers form the sun
and stars. The variables might include attitude, proximity or air routes to the poles time
of year and aircraft shielding. Perhaps the relations among the four variables explain
the radiation risk variable. This type of study often calls for a high order of inference
making. Why, for example would a flight at a specified attitude at one time of the year
not produce so great a radiation risk to the airliner’s occupants as the same flight in
another season? The answer to such a question would be valuable in planning air
routes.
f) Involuntary research
The researcher undertakes it as a result of external pressure to do so. There are two
major categories:
 Junior faulty members whose professional security or advancement may
depend, in part, on scientific publications; and
 College students who must undertake research to satisfy the requirements of a
course in research methods.

1.6 Characteristics (hallmarks of scientific research)

The main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research include:

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i) Purposiveness
Any good scientific research must have a definite aim or purpose, i.e. it must be
focused, otherwise it will fail to be systematic and directed. A statement of the purpose
of study guides in the achievement of the research objectives, a practical research
design and valid reliable results. Without such a focus it will be difficult for the research
to achieve its objectives or test hypothesis.
ii) Rigor
This connotes carefulness and the degree of exactitude in research. A good
theoretical base and a sound methodology would add such rigor to a purposive study,
Conclusions drawn from an investigation that lacks a good theoretical foundation
would be unscientific. Therefore, rigorous research involves a good theory base arid a
carefully thought out methodology, factors which enable the researcher to collect the
right kind of information for an appropriate data analysis, arriving at valid conclusions.
iii) Testability
Scientific research blends itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see
whether or not the data supports the proposed hypothesis.

This means that the hypothesis must be developed after a careful study of the
problem. Hypotheses are tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data
collected for that purpose. If the hypothesis developed is not quite testable, it weakens
a scientific investigation. This happens when the variables developed are too abstract
and difficult to measure or observe i.e. personality, obedience, understanding, job
interest, commitment, temperance etc.
iv) Replicability
Replicability in scientific research requires that the results of the research or the tests
of the hypothesis should be supported again and again when the research is repeated
in other similar circumstances. Replicability gives confidence in research design and
hence makes it scientific.
v) Precision and confidence
Precision refers to how close the findings based on a sample are to the reality.
Precision reflects the degree of exactitude of the results based on the sample to the
phenomena studies on they exist in the universe or the actual population. The closer
your results are to the expected or predicted phenomena the higher the precision.
Confidence refers to the probability that our estimates are correct. It is not merely
enough to be precise but that it is important to be 95% sure or confident that our
estimates are correct and that there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. This is
also known as the confidence level that given perfection we would like to be 100%
correct, imaging that if you have too much error for someone who has to take a rocket
to the moon, then your research leaves a lot to be desired.

The narrower the gap within which we can estimate the range of our predictions, and
the greater the confidence we have in our research results, the more useful and
scientific the findings become. Precision and confidence can therefore be obtained by

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only appropriate scientific sampling designs.
vi) Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of our data analysis
should be objective and based on facts resulting from the actual data and not from our
own subjective or emotional values. The more objective the interpretation of the data,
the more scientific the research investigation.
vii) Generalizability
This refers to the (scope) of applicability of the research findings. The wider the range
of applicability of the solutions generated by research the more useful the research is.
Generalizability will depend on how elaborate the sampling design was. The kind of
instruments used in data collection and objectivity shown in the interpretation of data.
viii) Parsimony
This refers to the simplicity of explaining the phenomena or problems that occur and in
the applications of solutions to the problems. Being simple in explaining the outcomes
of the research is always preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an
imaginable number of factors, Being scientific does not mean that we have to be
complicated, we come up with too many variables that cannot be analyzed and thus
end up making the whole research invalid.
1.7 Characteristics of good research
Good research generates dependable data, being derived by practices that are
conducted professionally that can be used reliably for management decision making.
Good research differs from poor research that is carelessly planned and conducted
resulting in data that a manager can’t use to reduce his or her decision- making risks.
Good research follows the standards of the scientific methods. These include:
i) Purpose clearly defined
The purpose of the research the problem involved or the decision to be made should
be clearly defined and sharply delineated in terms as unambiguous as possible. The
statement of the decision problem should include its scope, limitations and precise
specifications of the meanings of all words and terms significant to the research.
Failure of the researcher to do this adequately may raise legitimate doubts in the
minds of research report readers as to whether the researcher has sufficient
understanding of the problem to make a sound proposal to attack it. This characteristic
is comparable to developing a strategic plan before developing a tactical plan or an
action map for achieving an objective.
ii) Research process detailed
The research procedures used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research. Except when secrecy is imposed, research
reports should reveal with candor the sources of data and the means by which they
were obtained. Omissions of significant procedural details makes it difficult or
impossible to estimate the validity and reliability of the data and justifiably weakens the
confidence of the reader in the research and any recommendations based on the
research. This characteristic is comparable to developing a tactical plan.
iii) Research design thoroughly planned

15
The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible. When a sampling of the population is involved the report
should include evidence concerning the degree of representatives of the sample. A
survey of opinions or recollections ought not to be used when more reliable evidence
is available from documentary sources or by direct observation.

Bibliographic searches should be as thorough and complete as possible. Experiments

should have satisfactory controls. Direct observations should be recorded in writing as
soon as possible after the event. Efforts should be made to minimize the influence of
personal bias in selecting and recording data. This characteristic is comparable to
developing detailed action plans for each tactic.
4. High ethical standards applied
Researchers often work independently and have significant latitude in designing and
executing research projects. A research design that includes safeguards against
causing mental or physical harm to participants and makes data integrity a first priority
should be highly valued. Ethical issues in research reflect important moral concerns
about the practice of responsible behavior in society. Researchers frequently find
themselves precariously balancing the rights of their subjects against the scientific
dictates of their chosen method. When this occurs, they have a responsibility to guard
the welfare of the participants in the studies, and also the organizations to which they
belong, their clients, colleagues and themselves.

Careful consideration must be given to research situations when there is a possibility

for physical or psychological harm, exploitation, invasion of privacy, and loss of dignity.
The research need must be weighed against the potential for adverse effects.
Typically you can redesign a study, but sometimes you cannot. The researcher should
be prepared for this dilemma.

5. Limitations frankly revealed

The researcher should report, with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effect on the findings. There are very few perfect research designs.
Some of the imperfections may have little effect on the validity and reliability of the
data. Others may invalidate them entirely. A competent researcher should be sensitive
to the effects of imperfect design and his or her experience in analyzing the data
should provide a basis for estimating their influence. As a decision maker, you should
question the value of research where no limitations are reported.
6. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s need
Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis is used should be appropriate. The extent to which this criteria is
met is frequently a good measure of the competence of the researcher. Adequate
analysis of the data is the most difficult phase of research for the novice. The validity
and reliability of data should be checked carefully. The data should be classified in
ways that assist the researcher to reach pertinent conclusions and clearly reveal the

16
findings that lead to those conclusions. When statistical methods are used the
probability of error should be estimated and the criteria of statistical significance
applied.
7. Findings presented unambiguously
Language that is restrained clear and precise; assertions that are carefully drawn and
hedged with appropriate reservations and an apparent effort to achieve maximum
objectivity tend to leave a favorable impression of the researcher with the decision
maker. Generalizations that outrun the evidence on which they are based,
exaggerations and unnecessary verbiage tend to leave an unfavorable impression.
Such reports are not valuable to managers wading through the minefields of business
decision making. Presentation of data should be comprehensive easily understood by
the decision maker, and organized so that the decision maker can readily locate
critical findings.
8. Conclusions justified
Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those of which the data provided an adequate basis. Researchers are often
tempted to broaden the basis of induction by including personal experiences and their
interpretations – data not subject to the controls under which the research data were
gathered.

Equally undesirable is all too frequent practice of drawing conclusions from a study of
a limited populations and applying them universally. Researchers may also be
tempted to rely too heavily on data collected in a prior study and use it in the
interpretation of a new study. Such a practice is sometimes prevalent among research
specialists who confine their work to clients in a small industry. These actions tend to
decrease the conditions under which their conclusions seem to be valid
9. Researcher’s experience reflected
Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity. Were it possible for the reader
of a research report to obtain sufficient information about the researcher, this criteria
perhaps would be one of the best bases for judging the degree of confidence a piece
of research warrants and the value of any decision on which it rests. For this reason,
the research report should contain information about the qualifications of the
researcher.

Operational Definitions in Research

Confusion about the meaning of the concepts can destroy a research study’s value
without the researcher even knowing it. If words have different meanings to the parties
involved, then they are not communicating on the same wave length. Definitions are
one way to reduce this danger.

An operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific testing criteria or

17
operations. These terms must have empirical referents (that is, we must be able to
count, measure, or in some other way gather the information through our senses).
Whether the object to be defined is physical (e.g., a machine tool) or highly abstract
(e.g., achievement motivation), the definition must specify the characteristics to study
and how they are to be observed. The specifications and procedures must be so clear
that any competent person using them would classify the objects in the same way.

While operational definitions are needed in research, they also present some
problems. There is the ever present danger of thinking that a concept and the
operational definition are the same thing. We forget that our definitions provide only
limited insight into what a concept or construct really is. In fact, the operational
definition may be quite narrow and not at all similar to what someone else would use
when researching the same topic. When measurements by two different definitions
correlate well, the correlation supports the view that each definition adequately
measures the same concept. On the other hand, if there is little or no correlation, it
may mean we are tapping different partial meanings of a construct. It may also mean
one or both of the definitions are not true labels.

Whatever the form of definition, its purpose in research is basically the same — to
provide an understanding and measurement of concepts. We may need to provide
operational definitions for only a few critical concepts, but these will almost always be
the definitions used to develop the relationships found in hypothesis and theories.

Research Variables
Scientists operate at both theoretical and empirical levels.
 At the theoretical level, there is a preoccupation with identifying constructs and
their relations to propositions and theory. At this level, constructs cannot, be
observed.
 At the empirical level where the propositions are converted to hypothesis and
testing occurs, the scientist is likely to be dealing with variables. In practice, the
term variable is used as an synonym for construct or the property being studied.
In this context, a variable ‘is a symbol to which numerals or values are
assigned. So, a variable is a measureable characteristic, which assumes
different values among the subjects. It is anything that can take differing or
varying values.
There are five (5) types of variables that one is likely to find in a research study, and
these are:
a) Dependent variables
b) Independent variables
c) Intervening variables
d) Extraneous variables
e) Moderating variables

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a) Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent variable is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to determine
its change or its influence on another variable (predictor variable), because it will
predict the amount of variation that occurs in another variable. It is a variable which
influences the dependent variable in either a positive way or a negative way.

The dependent variable attempts to indicate the total influence arising from the total
effect arising from the independent variable. A dependent variable therefore varies as
a function of the independent variable. In other words, it is the variable which is
expected to change as a result of the presence or absence or magnitude of the
independent variable.

For example does a participative leadership style independent variable influence job
satisfaction or performance (dependent variable). It is important to remember that
there are no preordained variable waiting to be discovered out there’ that are
automatically assigned to one category or the other. Has Hover has noted, there is
nothing very tricky about the notion of independence and dependence. But there is
something tricky about the fact that the relationship of independence and dependence
is a figment of the researcher’s imagination until demonstrated convincingly.
Researcher’s hypothesise relationships of independence and dependence: they
invent them, and then they try by reality testing to see if the relationships actually work
out that way.
h) Moderating Variables
In each relationship, there is at least one independent variable (IV) and a dependent
variable (DV). It is normally hypothesised that in some way the IV ‘causes’ the DV to
occur. For simple relationships, all other variables are considered extraneous and
ignored.

In a typical office, we might be interested in a study of the effect of the four-day

workweek on office productivity and hypothesise the following:
 The introduction of the six-day workweek (IV,) will lead to increased office
productivity per worker-hour.

In actual study situations, however, such a simple one-on-one relationship needs to be

conditioned or revised to take other variables into account. Often one uses another
type of explanatory variable of value here- the moderating variable (MV). A moderating
variable is a second independent variable that is included because it is believed to
have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally IV-D V relationship.
For example, one may hypothesize that
 The introduction of the six-day workweek (IV,) will lead to higher productivity
(DV) especially among younger workers (‘MV).
In this case, there is a differential pattern of relationship between the six-day week and
productivity that is the result of age differences among the workers.
19
Six-day week (IV) Productivity
(DV)

Younger workers (MV)

c) Extraneous Variables
These are those variables that affect the outcome of a research study either because
the researcher is not aware of their existence, or f s/he is aware, there is not controls
for them. If extraneous variables are not considered, it is difficult to determine how
much influence on the dependent variable, is due to an extraneous variable and how
much is due to the independent variable. Extraneous variables are sometimes referred
to as confounding variables, because they confound the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.

One might think that the kind of work being done would have an effect on any work
week length impact on office productivity. This might lead to our introducing a control
as follows:
 In a routine office work (EV-control), the introduction of a six-day workweek (IV)
will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV).
In our office example, we would attempt to control for type of work by studying the
effects of the six-day week within groups performing different types of work.

Teaching methods (ID) Performance (DV)

Students are hereditary clever.

(EV)

In this example, some students may be performing well as a result of not only good
teaching methods, but because of their parentage (genes).

d) Intervening Variables
An intervening variable is a conceptual mechanism through which the IV and the MV
might affect the DV. The intervening variable (IVT’9 may be defined as ‘that factor
which theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured,
or manipulated, its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and
moderating variables on the observed phenomenon. In other words, it is a variable that
comes between the independent and dependent variable. It is a variable which
surfaces between the time the independent and moderating variable operate to
influence the dependent variable.

20
Illustration

Marital status
Absenteeism

Domestic work

In the case of the workweek hypothesis, one might view the intervening variable (IVY)
to be job satisfaction, giving .a hypothesis such as:
 The introduction of a six-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV)
by increasing job satisfaction (1VV).

We may use the following illustration to demonstrate the relationships involving

independent, moderating, controlled extraneous, and dependent values.
 The management of a bank wishes to study the effect of promotion on savings.
It might advance the following hypothesis:
 A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity (DV), especially when
free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (EV-control). The
results come from enhancing the motivation to save (IVV).

4. Hypothesis
The research literature disagrees about the meaning of the terms proposition and
hypothesis. We define a proposition as a statement about concepts that may be
judged as true or false if it refers to obervab1e phenomena. When a proposition is
formulated for emphirical testing, we call it a hypothesis. For our purpose, we shall
define an hypothesis as .a tentative explanation for certain behaviour (phenomena)
which have occurred or will occur. An hypothesis states the research expectations
concerning the relationships between the variables in the research problem. It is the
most specific statement of the problem and it states what the researcher thinks would
be the outcome of the research to be undertaken.

Hypothesis are derived from or are based on existing theories, previous research
personal observations or experiences. Each hypothesis will usually express a
predicted relationship between two or more variables or concepts.

It is important to note that while hypothesis are central to empirical research, not all
researches must have hypothesis. Were hypothesis are omitted the study should have
a clear statement of research questions, assumptions or objectives. Hypothesis have
to be tested, but assumptions do not have to be tested. Testing hypothesis does not
prove or disapprove the hypothesis. Data is collected and analysed determine whether
the study has jailed. Such a situation implies that existing theories or principles need to
be revised or retested under various situations.
21
Types of Hypothesis
I. Null Hypothesis
his a statement that no relationship or difference exists between the parameter and the
statistic being compared to it. Analysts usually test to determine whether there has
been no change in the population of interest or whether a real difference exists, Any
relationship in this case or difference between the two is merely due to chances or
some error. The null hypothesis is usually denoted as (Ho;).

Example:
 There is no relationship between vacation benefits and employees job
satisfaction.
 There is no significant difference in performance between learners who
participate in class discussion and those who do not.
2. Alternative Direction Hypothesis
It is a statement that states that a relationship or difference exists between the
stipulated variable and goes further to specify the nature of the relationship or
difference between variables.

This means that the relationship may be stated as being greater than, less than,
increased, decreased, higher than, lower than etc. Alternative hypothesis are denoted
as (H1).
Example: The higher the vacation benefits, the higher the job satisfaction among
employees.
3. Alternative non-directional hypothesis
These type of hypothesis state that there is a relationship or difference between the
stipulated variables but the researcher does riot know the nature of such a relationship
or difference. These type of hypothesis do indicate a relationship or difference but do
not indicate the direction of these relationships. From these hypothesis, it is not
possible to say whether the relationship is positive or negative.
Example: There is a relationship between vacation benefits and employees job
satisfaction.
Good hypothesis should have the following characteristics
I. They must state clearly and briefly the expected relationships between
variables.
2. They must have both the independent and dependent variables.
3. They must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory or from previous
research or professional experience.
4. They must be consistent with generally accepted traits or common sense.
5. They must be testable. A hypothesis is not testable if it calls for techniques that
are not available with the present state of the art. A hypothesis is also untestable if it
calls for an explanation that defies known physical or psychological laws.
6. They should be testable within a reasonable period.
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7. Variables tested in the hypothesis must be consistent with the purpose,
statement and objective of the study.
8. Good hypothesis must be simple and as precise as possible.

Purposes of having a hypothesis in research (functions)

1. Hypothesis provides direction, they bridge the gap between the problem and
evidence needed for its solution.
2. Hypothesis ensure collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question
posed in the statement of the problem.
3. Hypothesis permit the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity
and use the data collected to find solutions to the problem.
4. Hypothesis form the framework for the ultimate conclusions of a study,
researchers always base their conclusions on the results of tests of their hypothesis.
5. Hypothesis enables the investigation to assess the information collected from
the stand point of both relevance and organisation.
Therefore, the most important role of hypothesis is to guide the direction of the study.
A frequent problem in research is the proliferation of Interesting information. Unless
the researcher curbs the urge to include additional element, a study can be diluted by
trivial concerns that do not answer the basic questions posed. The virtue of the
hypothesis is that, if taken seriously, it limits what shall be studied and what shall not. It
identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not; in so doing, it suggests which
form of research design is likely to be more appropriate. A final role of the hypothesis is
to provide a framework for organising the conclusions that result.
6. Theory
A person not familiar with research uses the term theory to express the opposite of
fact. In this sense, theory is viewed as being speculative. One hears that professor X is
too theoretical, that managers need to be practical, or that some idea will not work
because it is too theoretical. This is an incorrect picture of the
relationship between fact and theory.

When you are too theoretical, your basis of explanation or decision is not sufficiently
attuned to specific empirical conditions. This may be so, but it does not prove that
theory and fact are opposites. The truth is that fact and theory are each necessary for
each other to be of value. Our ability to make rational decisions, as well as to develop
scientific knowledge, is measured by the degree to which we combine fact fact theory.
We all operate on the basis of theories we hold. In one sense, theories are the
generalisations we make about variables and the relationships among them. We use
these generalisations to make decisions and predict outcomes.

Consider a situation where you are called on to interview two persons for possible
promotion to the position of department manager. Do you have a theory about what
characteristics such a person should have? Suppose you interview Ms A and observe
that she answers your questions well, openly, and apparently sincerely. She also

23
expresses thoughtful ideas about how to improve departmental functioning and is
articulate in stating her views. Ms B, on the other hand, is guarded in her comments
and reluctant to advance ideas for improvement. She answers questions by saying
what Mr. General Manager wants’. She is also less articulate and seems less sincere
to Ms A. You would probably choose A, based on the way you combine the concepts,
definitions, and hypothesis mentioned into a theory of managerial effectiveness. It may
not be a good theory because of the variable we have ignored, but it illustrates that we
all use theory to guide our decisions, predictions, and explanations.

A theory is set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions

that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts). In this sense, we have
many theories and use them continually to explain or predict what goes on around us.
To the degree that our theories are sound, and fit the situation, we are successful in
our explanations and predictions. Thus, while a given theory and a set of facts may not
fit, they are not opposites. Our challenge is to build a better theory and to be more
skillful in fitting theory and fact together.

Theory and Research

It is important for researchers to recognise the pervasiveness and value of theory.
Theory serves us in many useful ways:
 First, as orientation, it narrows the range of facts we need to study. Any
problem may be studied in a number of different ways, and theory suggests
which ‘ways are likely to yield the greatest meaning.
 Theory may also suggest a system for the researcher to impose on data in
order to classify them in the most meaningful way.
 Theory also summarises what is known about an object of study and states the
uniformities than the beyond the immediate observation: when it does so,
theory can also be used to predict further facts that should be found.

Review Questions
I. Distinguish among the following sets of items, and suggest the
significance of each in a research context:
(i) Concept and construct
(ii) Deduction and induction
(iii) Concept and variable
2. Describe the characteristics of the scientific method
3. In your company’s management development program, there was heated
discussion between some people who claimed, ‘Theory is impractical and thus no
good’, and others who claimed, ‘Good theory is the most practical approach to
problems’. What position would you take and why?
4. You wish to study a condition that you have observed: ‘Some workers seem to
be much more diligent than others.
24
a) Propose at least three concepts and three constructs you might use in such a
study.
b) How might these concepts and/or constructs be related to hypothesis?

25
 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Role of literature review
Research proposals and research reports typically have a section (in case of thesis or
dissertation, an entire chapter) that reviews the related literature. The review
describes theoretical perspectives and previous research findings regarding the
problem at hand. 1ts function is to look again at what others have done in areas that
are similar though not necessarily identical. As a researcher, you should ultimately
know the literature about your topic very well. 1n addition to helping you pin down
your own research problem, the literature review has many other numerous benefits
which include:-
(i) You can focus new ideas, perspectives and approaches that may not have
occurred to you.
(ii) 1t can inform you about other researchers who conduct work in this area.
1ndividuals whom you may wish to contact for consultation.
(iii) 1t can show you how others have handles methodological and design issues
in studies similar to our own.
(iv) 1t can reveal sources of data that you may not have known existed.
(v) 1t can introduce you to measurement tools that other researchers have
developed and used effectively.
(vi) 1t can reveal methods of dealing with problems situations that may be similar to
the difficulties you are facing.
(vii) 1t can help you interpret and make sense of your findings and ultimately help you
tie your results to the work of those who have preceded you.
(viii) 1t will boost your confidence that your topic is one worth studying because
you will find that others have invested time effort and resources in studying it.
Sources of related literature
a) Journals
b) Conference bulletins
c) Books
d) Thesis/dissertations
e) Electronic resources
Evaluating, organizing literature
Too many literature reviews do nothing other than report what other people have
done. Such reviews do not help in our research. 1n a good literature review, the
researcher doesn't merely report the related literature. He/she also evaluate, organize
and synthesize what others have done. That is, do not only read others work but also
critically evaluate their methods and conclusions. Never take other peoples
conclusions at phase value; determine for yourself. Whether their conclusions are
justified based on the data presented. 1n addition to evaluating what you read, you
must organize the ideas you encounter during your review. The sub-problems in your
main problem should in many cases, provide a general organizational scheme you can
use. Looking at how other authors have organized literature reviews related to your

26
topic may be helpful as well. Finally and most importantly, you must synthesize what
you have learnt from your review. 1n other words, you must pull together diverse
perspectives and research results you have read into a cohesive whole.
Examples of what you might do:-
 Compare and contrast varying theoretical perspectives on your topic
 Show how approaches to the topic have changed overtime.
 Describe general trends in research findings.
 1dentify contradictory findings and suggest possible explanations for such
contradictions.
 1dentify general themes that run throughout the literature.
Writing the related themes of literature review
Once you have read, evaluated, organized and synthesized the literature relevant to
your research problem, you will eventually need to begin the section and chapter that
describes your literature review. The following are a few simple guidelines that may
help:-
a) Get the proper psychological orientation; try to be clear in your thinking. Know
precisely what you are intending to do. The review of the related literature section
is a discussion of the studies research reports and scholarly writings that bear
directly on your effort. You might think of literature review section in your
document to be a discussion and a peer about what others have written in
relation to what you plan to do.
b) Have a plan. Writing a review of related literature takes planning and
organization. This effort requires thought, structure and coherence. Before
beginning to write the literature review, outline what you plan to say.
c) Emphasize relatedness. Keep your reader constantly aware of how the literature
you are discussing is related to your problems. Point out precisely what the
relationship is. Literature reviews should never be a chain of isolated summaries
of the writing of others. Whenever you cite a study, explain clearly how it relates to
your own research problem.
d) Give credit where it's due. 1n writing the literature review always credit those
authors whose ideals or research reports you are reporting. The specific way in
which you do this (example footnotes, names in parenthesis) will depend on the
particular style the manual you are using which in turn will depend on your
particular discipline.
e) Reviews the literatures don't reproduce it. As important as what others say about
their research and perhaps even more important is what you say about their
research.
f) Summaries what you have said.
g) Your first draft will almost certainly not be your last draft. Write the first draft
which will help you identify parts of the literature that are still unclear and places
where you might need additional information or references. One strategy that is
used is to leave blanks as you write literature review that can be filled as you

27
 progress.
h) Ask others for advice and feedback.
Concepts and Constructs
1f one is to understand and communicate information about objects and events,
these must be a common ground on which to do it. Concepts are used for these
purposes.
A concept is a collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events,
objects, conditions, situations and the like. That is classifying and categorizing objects
or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observations yet
concepts. Concepts are infrequent not common and general use has been developed
over time through shared usage. Concepts are basic to all thought and communication
yet we pay little attention to what they are and the problems encountered in their use.
1n research, problems grow out of the need for concept precision and inventiveness.
We design hypothesis using concepts. We gather data using measurement concepts.
However, the challenge is to drop concepts that others will clearly understand. For
example, if we ask respondents for an estimate of their family total income. 1ncome
may seem to be a simple, unambiguous concept but will receive varying and confusing
answers unless we restrict the concept by specifying:-
(a) Time period like weekly, monthly, annually,
(b) Before or after taxes.
(c) For all members of family or only head of family
(d) 1f salary only or also dividends. Etc.
Table is an objective concept in that we can point out tables and we can conjure up
in our minds images of tables. An abstraction like personality is much more difficult
to visualize. Such abstract concepts are called constructs. A construct is an image or
idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory building purpose. We
build construct by combining the simple concepts especially when the idea or image we
intend to convey is not a direct subject of observation.
Note: Confusion about the meaning of the concept can destroy research studies
without the researcher even knowing it. 1f words have different meanings to the
parties involved then they are not communicating on the same understanding. The
solution to this problem is to use definitions, for example define income in your studies.
An operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific testing criteria
of operations.

LOCATING AND EVALUATING RESEARCH ARTICLES

a) Locating research articles
There are various sources of research articles and these include:-
i) Journals
ii) World wide web
iii) Seminars and conferences
iv) Unpublished reports.
Reading a research article
28
Reading research articles the way you would read a story book i.e from start to the end
is not necessarily the best way to proceed. 1nstead the following approach is
recommended:-
(a) Read the title and abstract of the articles and skim through the rest of it to get a
general ideal of the researcher's purpose and findings.
(b) Read the introduction and conclusions sections. As you read through, underline
or highlight the important points or write down in brief summary of the article.
(c) Read through the remainder of the article. As you read through an article you
should focus on, identify the research question and/or the objectives the
research issues or hypothesis, the findings in relation to each issue/hypothesis
(from the relevant results and discussion/conclusions) and the research
methods used.
Evaluating Research Articles
Quality and validity
Evaluation of a research article involves and assessment of its quality of validity.
Quality includes characteristics such as: - Characteristics of scientific method.
(i) Purposiveness - Having a well defined direction and objectives.
(ii) Rigour - Having a solid theoretical basis and sound methodological design.
(iii) Testability - A theory/hypothesis that cannot be tested remains
unsubstantiated belief.
(iv) Replicability - The results can be produced again by another
researcher.
(v) Parsimonious - Not too complex, elaborate or cumbersome.
(vi) Generalizability - Application of the results to other settings
(vii) Appropriate analytical tools used.
(viii) Conclusions limited to these clearly justified by the facts.
Some of the items listed above relate closely to the articles validity since validity is
a necessary condition for quality research.

Communication of research results

As indicated earlier, the quality of a research article pertains not only to its validity,
but also to other characteristics such as:-
How the results are communicated to others. High quality research is written with
clarity and precision involves complete and honest reporting. Further, high quality
research articles are logically organized and easy to follow.
Writing to communicate
The following guidelines are based on techniques often seen in effective writing:-
(i) Say what you mean to say. Person is of utmost importance. Not only
in research proposals or reports but in writing. 1n general. Chose your
words and phrases carefully so that you communicate your exact meaning not
some vague approximation.
(ii) Keep your primary objective in writing your paper in mind at all times and

29
 focus your discussion accordingly.
(iii) Provide an overview of what you will be talking about. The readers can
move effectively read your work when they know what to expect as they
read. Providing an overview of the topics to be discussed and their order and
possibly also showing how the various topics interrelate is sometimes
called advance organizer.
(iv) Organize your ideas into general and more specific categories and use
headings and sub-headings to guide your readers through your discussion of
these categories.
(v) Provide transitional phrases, sentences or paragraphs that help your
readers follow your train of thought.
(vi) Use concrete examples to make abstract ideas more understandable.
(vii) Use appropriate punctuations.
(viii) Use figures and tables when such mechanisms can move effectively present
or organize your ideas and findings.
(ix) At the conclusion of chapter or major sections, summaries what you have
said.
(x) Anticipate that you will at most certainly have to write multiple drafts.
Exercise
a) You have received a research report don by a consultant for your firm, a life
insurance company. The study is a survey of morale in the home office and
covers the options of about 500 secretaries and clerks plus about 100
executives and actuaries. You are asked to comment on its quality. What will you
look for?
b) As the Area Sales Manager for a diary industry you have been assigned the
responsibility of conducting a research study to estimate the sales potential of
your products in the domestic market or the East African region. Discuss key
issues and concerns arising form the fact you, the Manager are also the
researcher.

30
Chapter 3: Research Tools and Measurements

A research tool is a specific mechanism or strategy the researcher uses to collect,

manipulate or interpret data. The research methodology is the general approach the
researcher takes when carrying out a research project; to some extent, this approach
dictates the particular tools the researcher selects. The following are the general tools
of research:-
a) Library and its resources.
 Catalogue and indexes
 Scanning the shelves.
 Reference librarians.
b) Computer and its software
 Word processor.
 Spread Sheet (excel)
 Statistical package.
 1nternet. (WWW)
 Communication (E-mail
c) Statistics
d) Human mind
The human mind is the most important tool on the researchers work desk. 1ts
functions overshadow all other tools or gadgets. Nothing equals its powers of
comprehension, integrative reasoning and insight.
f) Language
Grammar
Spelling
More than one language.

Measurements
Most of researchers strive for objectivity: They believe that their observations should be
influenced as little as possible by their own perceptions, impressions and biases. One
way of remaining objective is to identify a systematic way of the phenomenon being
studied.
Measurement is limiting the data of any phenomenon so that those data may be
interpreted and ultimately compared to an acceptable quantitative and qualitative
standard. There are four scales of measurement:-
i) Nominal scale.
Scale in which data is put into distinct categorizes. Example gender of students,
ii) Ordinal scale
This is the scale in which data is put into rank order categories. Example letter grades,
level of education
iii) Interval scale
Scale in data is assigned numbers showing magnitude or continuity. However, this
31
scale does have an arbitrary zero. Example is temperature.
iv) Ratio scale
Same as interval scale but has a proper zero. Examples are Age, weight, length.
Validity of Reliability of measurements
Validity and reliability are two words that you will encounter mainly in research
methodology. They are often used in connection with measurements. The validity and
reliability of measurement instruments influence the extent to which you can learn
something about the phenomenon you are studying, the probability that you will obtain
statistical significance of your data analysis and the extent to which you can draw
meaningful conclusions from data.

Validity of measurement instruments

Validity of a measurement instrument is the existent to which instrument measures
what is actually needed to measure. Validity takes different forms each of which is
important in different situations
1. Face validity
The extent to which on the surface, an instrument looks like it is measuring a
particular characteristic often useful for ensuring the co-operation of
people participating in a research study.
2. Content validity
1t's the extent to which a measurement instrument is a representative sample of
content area being measured. Content validity is often a consideration when a
researcher wants to access people's achievements in some area. For instance, the
knowledge learned during classroom instruction. A measurement instrument has high
content validity if its item or questions reflect the various parts of the content domain
in appropriate proportion and if it requires a particular behaviour and skill that are
central to the domain.
3. Criterion validity
This is the extent to which the results of an assessment instrument correlate with
another presumably related measure (the latter measure is called the criterion. For
example, an instrument designed to measure sales person effectiveness on the job
should co-relate with the number of sales the individual makes during the course of a
business day.
4. Construct validity
This is the extent to which an instrument measures a characteristic that cannot
be directly observed but must instead be inferred from patterns in people’s behavior.
(Such a characteristic is a construct). Motivation, creativity, racial bias all of these are
constructs in that none can be directly observed and measured.

Reliability of measurement instruments

The reliability of a measurement instrument is the extent to which it yields consistent
results when the characteristic being measured has not changed. The following are
several forms of reliability that are frequently of interest in research studies:-
32
a) Inter-rater reliability
This is the extent to which two or more individuals evaluating the same product
or performance give identical judgments.
b) Internal consistency reliability
This is the extent to which all the items within a single instrument yield similar results.
c) Equivalent forms reliability
The extent to which two different versions of the same instrument yield similar results.
d) Test-retest reliability
This is the extent to which the same instrument yields the same results on two different
occasions.

33
CHAPTER 4: Research design and methodology
Introduction
Having decided what we want to study about, the next question is how are you going to
conduct your study, how will our carry out the tasks needed to complete the different
components of the research process? What should you do and what should you not do
in the process of undertaking the study? These are some of the questions that need to
be answered before you can proceed to the study. Basically answers to these
questions constitute the core of the research design.
Research Design
A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conserved as
to obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme
or progamme of the research for it includes an outline of what the investigator will do
from writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final data
analysis. Therefore, a research design is a procedural plan that is adopted by the
researcher to answer questions validly, objectively, accurately and economically.
Functions of a research design
The above definition suggests that a research design has two main functions:-
1. Relates to identification and/or development of procedures and logistical
arrangements required to undertake a study.
2. Emphasizes the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their validity,
accuracy and objectivity. Hence through a research design you:-
a) Conceptualize an operational plan to undertake the various procedures.
b) Ensure that these procedures are adequate to obtain valid, object of accurate
answers to the research questions (control of variance)
Example
Suppose you want to find out the effectiveness of a marriage counseling service provided
by an agency. That is, the extent to which the service has been able to resolve the
marital problems of its clients. 1n studying these relationships, there are several
variables that can affect the dependent variable.
Dependent variable is the extent of marital problems
1ndependent variable - the type of counseling service
Extraneous variables-
Chance or random variables (variables that can be associated with respondents and/or
the research instrument)
Type of counseling Study Extent Extraneous
Service population marital problems variable
(1ndependent) (Dependent)

34
Examples of extraneous variables
 Change in economical conditions
 Changes in employment status
 Birth of child
 Peer pressure
Extraneous as well as chance variable can affect the dependent variable in both positive
and negative ways. 1n some cases, they may help in solving the marital problem
(positive effect) thereby adding to the assumed effect of the independent variable
whereas they may stand in the way of resolving the marital problem thus decreasing
the assumed effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
One of the most important questions is how do we minimize the effect attributed to
extraneous and chance variables the answer is that we cannot minimize it but it can be
quantified. The sale purpose of having a control group is to measure the change that
is as a result of extraneous variable. 1n the physical sciences, a researcher can
control extraneous variables since experiments are usually done in a laboratory. 1n
social sciences, the laboratory is society over which the researcher lacks control. Since
no researcher has control over extraneous variables, their effect is extremely difficult to
minimize. The best opinion is to quantify their impact through the use of a control
group.
Data
Research is a viable approach to a problem only when there are data to support it. The
term data is plural the singular is datum. 1t originated from a Greek word dare which
means "to give".
Researchers must always remember that data are not absolute reality. The pure
undisguised naked truth that underlies all the phenomena we observe. Rather, data are
manifestations of the reality. Research seeks through data to discover underlying
truths yet such is an endless pursuit. Experienced researchers are constantly aware
that the truth they most seriously seek id forever just beyond what is represented by
the data and hence just beyond human grasp.
Data are transient
Whenever we look at data analytically, we gain new insight but at the same time we
also discover new problems that demand further research. Data are not only elusive
but also transient. Data that the researcher is permitted to see may exist for only a
split second. We catch nearly afflicting glance of what seems to be true at one point in
time but is not necessarily true the next time. Research must recognize that even the
most carefully collected data may have an elusive quality about them and that at a later
poi9nt in time, they have counterpart in reality.

35
Primary and secondary data
The researcher's only perception of truth is various layers of truth revealing fact. 1n
the closest layer to the truth are primary data; these are often the most valid, the most
illuminating, the most truth manifesting. Further away is a layer consisting of
secondary data which are derived not from the truth itself but from the primary data
instead.
Validity and reliability of measurement instruments
We will almost want to pin down what we observe by measuring it in some way.
Sometimes we will be able to use one or more existing measurement instruments.
Measuring instruments provide a basis on which the entire research efforts rest. As
you plan the research project, then you should determine clearly and definitely the
nature of measurement instruments you will use. Furthermore, you should describe
any instrument in explicit concrete terms. You should also provide evidence that the
instruments you use have a reasonable degree of validity and reliability for your
purpose.
Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches
1n general, quantitative research is used to answer questions about relationships
among measured variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting and controlling
phenomena. This approach is sometimes called traditional, experimental, or positivist
approach. The qualitative research is rapidly used to answer questions about the
complex nature of phenomenon often with the purpose of describing and
understanding the phenomena form the participants' point of view. The qualitative
research is also known as the interpretive post positivist constructivist.
The following are the differences between quantitative and qualitative
methodology

36
 Quantitative methodology Qualitative methodology
Purpose - To predict and explain. - To describe and explain
- To confirm and valuate. - To explore and interpret
- To test theory. - To build theory.
Process - Focused - Wholistic
- Known variables - Unknown variables
- Established guidelines - Flexile guidelines
- Predetermined methods - Emergent methods
Data -- numerical
Context free
data -- Textual
Contextorbound.
image based data.
collection - Representative large - 1nformative small sample
simple. - Loosely structured or non-
- Standardized standardized observations
Data - instruments
Statistical analysis - and interviews.
Search for themes and
analysis - Objectivity is stressed. categories
- Deductive reasoning. - Acknowledgement that
analysis is subjective and
potentially biased.
Reporting - Numbers -- words
1nductive reasoning.
findings - Statistics - narratives
- Formal voice - 1ndividual quotes; personal
- Scientific style voice
- Literacy style.
Validity of your method
No matter what research methodology you use, you must think about the validity
of your approach. We have already described the importance of validity in
measurement instruments. Here we are talking about the validity, accuracy,
meaningfulness, credibility of the research project as a whole. Your research project
will be worth your time and effort only to the extent that it allows you to draw
meaningful and defensible conclusions form your data.
When you consider the validity of a research study, we have two basic
questions:
1. Does the study have sufficient controls to ensure that the conclusions we draw
are truly warranted by the data?
2. Can we use what we have observed in the research situation to make
generalizations about the world beyond that specific situation?
The answers to these two questions address the issues of internal and external validity
respectively.

37
Internal validity
1nternal validity of a research study is the extent to which its design and it yields
allows the researcher to draw accurate conclusions about source, effect and other
relationships within the data. To ensure the internal validity of a research study, we
need to take whatever precautions that can eliminate other possible explanations for the
results we observed. The following are several strategies researcher's use to increase
the probability that their explanations are the most likely ones for the observation we
have made.
a) Controlled laboratory study
An experiment is conducted in a laboratory setting so that environmental
conditions can be carefully regulated.
b) Double-blind experiment.
1n a situation where two or more different methods are being compare, neither the
participants of the study nor the people administering the method know what the
researcher's hypothesis is or which method is expected to be more effective.
c) Unabstractive measure
People who are observed in such a way that they don't know their actions are being
recorded. For example, university library measured students and faculty by use of
different parts of the library by looking at wear and tear patterns of the carpet.
d) Triangulation
Multiple sources of at a are collected and the hope that they will all converge to support a
particular hypothesis or theory. This approach is especially common in qualitative
research.
1nternal validity is especially concerned in experimental designs, where the specific
intent is to identify course effect relationship. However, to some extent, internal
validity is important to any research study.
External Validity
External validity of a research study is the extent to which its results apply to situations
beyond the study itself. That is, the extent to which the conclusions drawn can be
generalized to other contexts. As a general rule we contribute more to humanity
knowledge about the world. 1t is where we conduct research that has implications that
extent far beyond the specific situation studied. There are three methods commonly
used to enhance external validity of a research project.
1. A real life setting
We have already mentioned that researchers sometimes use laboratory experiments
to help them control the environmental conditions in which a study takes place.
However, lab studies provide an artificial setting that may be quite different from real
life circumstances. Research conducted in the outside world, although it may not
have the tiht controls, of a lab project, may be more valid in the sense that it yield
results with broad applications to other real world content.
2. A representative sample
Whenever we conduct research to learn more about a particular category of objects or
creatures, we will often study a sample from that category and then draw conclusions
38
about the category as a whole. 1deally, we want the participants in a research study to
be a representative sample of the population about which we wish to draw conclusion.
3. Replication in a different context
1magine that one researcher draws a conclusion from a particular study in a specific
context and another researcher who conducts a similar study in a very different context
reaches the same conclusion. Under such circumstances these studies taken
together, provide evidence that the conclusion has validity and application across
diverse situations.

Ethical Issues in Research

Within certain disciplines like social sciences, Education, Medicine, criminology and
similar areas of study, the use of human subjects in research is of course quite
common. And whenever human beings are the focus of investigation, we must look
closely at the ethical implications of what we are proposing to do. Most ethical issues
in research fall into four categories:-
a) Protection from harm
Researchers should not expose research participant to induce physical or
psychological harm. As a general rule the risk involved in participating in a study
should not be significantly greater than the normal risks of day to day living.
Participants should not risk loosing life or neither limb nor should they be subjected to
unusual stress, embarrassment and loss of self esteem. The participant should be told
in advance what the study entails and after the study, there should be debriefing and
counseling of the participant.
b) Informed consent
Research participants should be told the nature of the study to be conducted and
given the choice of whether or not to participate. Further more, they should be told
that if they agree to participate, they should draw from the study at any time. Any
participation in a study should be strictly voluntary. A dilemma sometimes arises as
to how informed participants should be. 1f people are given too much information eg if
they are told the specific research hypothesis being tested, they may behave differently
than they would under normal circumstances. A reasonable compromise is to give
potential participants a general idea of what the study is about and to describe what
specific activities their participation could involve. Give them sufficient information to
make a reasonable informed judgment about whether, they wish to participate. One
common practice is to present an informed consent from that describes the nature of
research project as well as nature of its participation in it. Such a form should
contain the following:-
> A brief description of the nature of the study.
> A Statement indicating that participation is voluntary and can be
terminated at any time.
> The guarantee that all responses will remain confidential and anonymous.
> A list of any potential risk and or discomfort that participants may
encounter.
39
> The researchers name and contact.
> An individual or office that participant can contact should they have
questions or concerns about the study.
> An offer to provide detailed information about the study upon its
completion.
> A place for the participant to sign and date indicating agreement to
participate.
c) Right to privacy
Any research should respect participants right to privacy under no circumstances
should a research report either oral or written represented research away that
others became aware of how other participants have responded or behaved
(unless the participant has specifically granted permission in writing)
d) Honesty with professional colleagues.
Researchers must report their findings in a complete and honest version without
misrepresenting what they have d one or intentionally misleading others about the
nature of their findings and under no circumstances should a researcher fabricate
data to support a particular conclusion. Any use of another person's ideas or words
demands fall acknowledgement otherwise it constitutes plagiarism and documentary
theft.
e) Internal Review boards
Research institutions will have an internal review board that scrutinizes all proposals
for conducting human research under the auspices of the institution. This board,
which is made up of scholars and researchers across a broad range of disciplines
checks proposed research studies to be are that the procedures are not unduly harmful
to the participants, that appropriate procedures will be followed to obtain participants
informed consent and that participants privacy, its anonymity are assured. The
following are the most violated ethical practices:-
> Obtaining free consent.
> Obtaining informed consent.
> Assuring and maintaining confidentiality.
> Assuring and maintaining privacy; anonymity using appropriate
methodology.
> Reporting research appropriately and completely.
Data Collection
After identifying the research design and methodology, considering issues related to
validity and reliability and addressing the ethical implications of a project, the
researcher must also make decisions about how to acquire and interpret the data
necessary, for resolving the overall research problem. Such decisions must be made
before the researcher begins to write the research proposal. Basic the research design
are four fundamental questions about the data.
What data re needed.
1. To resolve the problem, what data is mandatory, what is their nature, are they

40
 documentary, statistical, questionnaire replies, observations, measurements
made before and after an experimental intervention.
2. Where are the data collected, for example from organizations?
3. How will the data be secured?
4. How will the data be interpreted?
Pilot study
Up to this point, we have been talking about planning a research project as something
that occurs all in one goal. 1n reality, a researcher may sometimes need to do a brief
exploratory investigation or pilot study to try out particular procedures, measurement
instruments or methods of analysis. A brief pilot study is an excellent way to
determine the feasibility of our study. Exercise
1. Explain the two main functions of a research design.
2. Explain the value of conducting a pilot study.
3. Pick and critique an article from a journal, include an evaluation of general
criteria and threats to validity.

41
CHAPTER 5: QUANTITATIVE DATA AND SAMPLING
1n chapter 8 and 9, we shall look at quantitative research methodologies of aspects of
undertaking quantitative research will also be considered in these chapters. These will
include:-
a) Data collection.
b) Measurement techniques.
c) Sampling.
d) Experimental design.
The focus of chapter 8 is on data collection and measurement techniques used for
quantitative research. 1t will start with a brief description of another widely used data
collection method - observation.
Observation method of data collection
Scientific observation is the systematic process of recording behavioral patterns of
people, objects and occurrences without questioning or communicating with them. The
researcher utilizing the observation method of data collection, witnesses and records
information as events occur or compiles evidence from records of past events. 1n
research, observation qualifies a scientific inquiry when its planned and executed in a
systematic manner, uses correct controls, a reliable and valid account of what occurs
is reported.
Observation can be particularly useful way of collecting data, when the unit of
observation is an organization rather than a person. Example, a research examines
a group of companies rather than the individuals employed in those companies are
concerned with data pertaining to the company as a whole. While observation has the
advantage, of providing more objective evidence than survey methods, it has a
disadvantage that the constructs of interest are not always directly observable. There is
sometimes a considerable difference between what the researcher wants to measure
and the item that is observed and measured, that is construct validity is often a
concern.
Survey method of data collection
Survey research is about questioning people and recording their responses for analysis.
The people we seek information from using either verbal or written questioning are called
respondents. The survey research technique is used to gather information generally
from a sample of the population by use of a questionnaire. The first purpose of survey
research is to describe and bor test predictions about some phenomenon. The
greatest strength of this technique is versatility. Abstract information of all types can
be gathered through questioning others. This method allows us to learn much about
respondents, opinions, attitudes, intentions and expectations. Surveys are a more
efficient and economical method of data collection than observation. Surveying using
telephone, mail or internet as a medium of communication can expand geographical
coverage thereby reducing time and cost. The weakness of this

42
method is that the quality of information secured depends heavily on the ability and
willingness of respondents to co-operate, respondents may refuse an interview, fail to
return a questionnaire, express an opinion when they don't know and be unable to
see the value in participation. Further, respondents may interprete questions
differently from what was intended by a researcher. Various methods are used to
erview respondents. Questioning can be carried out by:-
a) Face to face (personal interview)
b) Telephone
c) Self administered questionnaire.
d) Combination of the three above.
Sampling
This is a process of selecting a few (sample) from a bigger group (sampling population)
to become the basis for estimating or predicting a fact, situation or outcome, regarding
the bigger group.
Many research studies are conducted with samples rather than populations because its
usually too expensive and impractical to use populations.

Populations may be used if it includes small numbers and it's feasible to do so.
1. Sampling process
Target population
Target population is the specific complete group relevant to the research project. To
define the population a researcher must specify the unit, being sampled, the
geographical location and temporal boundaries of the population. A researcher
operationalises a population by develop9ing a specific list that closely approximate all
the elements in the population. This list is referred to as sampling frame.
2. Select a sampling frame
A sampling frame is a list of the elements in a target population where the sample is to
be selected. Types of sampling frames include:- telephone directories, original data
bases, nominal rolls etc. A good sampling frame is crucial to good sampling. A mismatch
between sampling frame and the defined target population can be a major source of
error known as sampling frame error.
3. Select sampling unit
Sampling unit/element is the unit of analysis in a population. 1t can be a person, a
group an organization etc depending on the nature of the study.
4. Specify sampling method
There are two major types of sampling design.
i) Probability sampling.
This is sampling in which the probability of each element in the population being
selected is known and can be specified and each element has a chance of being
selected.
Another concept in relation to sampling is randomness which means that outcomes
cannot be predicted because they occur by chance. The idea of randomness is
important because random selection of elements is an unbiased sampling method. 1.e

43
 most likely to yield a representative sample.
ii) Non-probability sampling
This is a technique in which the sample units are selected on the basis of judgment
or convenience.
Probability samples include:-
 random sample
 systematic sample
 stratified sample
 cluster sample
 multi-stage sample
Non-probability samples include
 quota
 convenience

Probability sampling Non Probability sampling

44
(random sample): It is a sample which is chosen (non-random sample): This is sample
so that every member of the population is equally chosen according to the person's own
likely to be a member of the sample. judgment so result cannot be generalized to
A- Simple random sample: This a sample the whole population.
drawn in such way that every individual in There are three types of non probability
the population has an equal chance of sampling:
appearing in the sample. A- convenience sampling: It uses
B- Stratified random sample: In this case, we participants who are easily accessible to the
start by dividing the population into different researcher and who meet the criteria of the
strata according to their characteristics (e.g. male study.
and female, different age groups, rural and Snawball sampling: It is a particular type
urban). Then from each of those strata, we of convenience sampling in which the
choose a random sample from each stratum, the researcher net works with a small sample of
final sample is the total of the samples from accessible participants and use them to
different strata. assist in identifying other participants with
C- Cluster sampling: In this case the population the specific trait.
first divided in to clusters or groups as sample B- Quota sampling: In this case the
units rather than individuals and all the elements population are divided into strata then the
within the chosen cluster are examined (e.g. researcher determines which strata are to
house holds, schools) and the sample is selected be studied, then computers number of
from these clusters by simple random method. participants needed for each strata, once
D-Multistage sampling: in this case the sample quota for each strata is determined, the
is taken in a series of stages. subjects are solicited via a convenience
 First, start by big clusters (e.g. zones) sampling method.
from this draw a sample, each zone is C- Purposive/theoretical/judgemental
then divided into cities and villages, and sampling: In this type, the researcher
from each of these you can choose a based on knowledge and expertise of the
sample, from each city choose a district or subject, selects or hand picks the elements
house by random method, and then of the study. The chosen element are
randomly draw a sample of families or though to best represent the phenomena
individuals. being studied.
E- Systematic sampling: Relies on arranging
the target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular
interval through the ordered list. In this case we
choose every Nth individual e.g. every 5th, 10th,
etc., the first one to be included should be
randomly selected.
o

5. Determining sample size

An important part of taking a sample is determining what size it should be. Two
45
factors that need to be considered in this process are:-
1ncidence
This is the percentage of individuals who have the characteristics necessary to be
included in survey example KEMU students, Kenyans.
Non-response
Percentage of respondents who refuse to participate in a survey or who cannot be
reached. Three commonly used methods of determining the sample size are:-
a) All you can afford
b) Required size/cell This method can be used on stratified and quota samples.
c) Statistical method.
This method involves using statistical formulas. The formula varies depending
on the type of sample to be taken. However, three are three common variables:
(i) An estimate of the variance in the population from which the sample
is drawn.
(ii) The error from sampling that the researcher will allow.
(iii) The desired level of confidence that the actual sampling error
will be between the allowable limits.
Preparing survey data
Data preparation activities are undertaken to ensure the accuracy of the data and to
convert data from raw form to reduced classified forms that are more appropriate for
the analysis. The first step in converting data from the raw form to information is
called editing.
Editing
After the questionnaire or interview, responses or observational data are
collected, the data is then required to pass through an editing stage. The
purpose of editing is to ensure that data are:-
 Accurate
 Consistent with other information.
 Complete
 Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.
Editing can take place in the field or in house.
a) 1n the field, editing should take place soon after the interview experiment or
observation has been completed. When gaps in information rather than
guessing what information might be.
b) 1n house, editing occurs at a centralized office to ensure a vigorous editing job
has been done. 1t occurs after the preliminary field process or the case of mail
surveys when they are turned to the central office.
Coding
Data coding involves the translation of the collected data into codes usually numerical
values, for the purpose of transferring it to a data storage medium and subsequent
analysis. Example, a yes or no answer can be numerically coded: 1 - yes 2 - no.
From a practical part, the translation of the variables into codes facilitates the

46
computer analysis.
Data entry and verification
1f the questionnaire data is not collected on scanner answer sheets which can be
directly entered into the computer as data file or computer assisted methods, the
raw data will have to be manually keyed into the computer. Recording is referred to as
a process of changing codes to facilitate analysis. This process of recording data is
handled by statistical packages.
Recording is required for a number of reasons:-
i) There may be a need to create a new variable based on one or more existing
variables in the data set.
ii) Collapsing the number of categories due to limited number of responses
in certain categories. This is useful especially in chi- square test.
Exercise
1. Read and make notes on the following
i. Simple random sampling
ii. Stratified sampling
iii. Systematic sampling
iv. Cluster sampling
v. Multi stage sampling
vi. Quota sampling
vii. Convenience sampling
viii. Purposive sampling
2. Outline procedures for achieving relevance and accuracy in
Questionnaire design.
3. Outline strategies for maximizing questionnaire response rates.

47
CHAPTER 6: QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY
The term qualitative research encompass several approaches to research that are quite
different from one another yet all qualitative approaches have two things in common:-
1. They focus on phenomena that occur in natural settings that is real world.
2. They involve studying those phenomena in all their complexity. 1nstead,
they recognize that the issue they are studying has many dimensions and
layers, and so they try to portray the issue in its manifestation.
Most researchers strive for objectivity in their research. They believe that their
observations should be influenced as little as possible by any perceptions,
impressions and biases they may have. By maintaining objectivity, they hope to
maximize their chances of determining the ultimate truth. Qualitative researchers
believe that the researcher's ability to interpret and make sense of what he/she sees is
critical for understanding any social phenomena. 1n this sense, the researcher is an
instrument in much the same way that the rating scale or intelligent test is an
instrument.
Nature of research problems and planning in qualitative research Qualitative
researchers often formulate only general research problems and ask only general
questions, about the phenomenon they are studying. Example they may ask what
is the nature of the culture of people living in Kenya or what is it like to live with
someone who has Alzheimer's disease. Such research problems and questions do
not remain so loosely defined. As a study proceeds, the qualitative researcher gains
increasing undertaking of the phenomenon under investigation and so becomes
increasingly able to ask specific questions and formulate specific hypotheses. Because
qualitative researchers tend to ask open-ended questions at the beginning of an
investigation, they sometimes have difficulty in identifying ahead of time, the exact
method they will use.
The methodology in a qualitative study continues to evolve over the course of the
investigation. Despite this fact, we must emphasize that qualitative research,
requires considerable preparation and planning. The researcher must be well trained
in observation techniques, interview strategies and whatever other data collection
methods are likely to be necessary to answer the research problem.
When to choose a qualitative approach
Qualitative research studies, typically serve one or more of the following
purposes: -
a) Description
They can reveal the nature of certain situations, settings processes,
relationships, system or people.
b) Interpretation
They enable a researcher to:-
1) Gain new insights about a particular phenomenon.
2) Develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about the phenomenon. 3)
Discover the problem that exists within the phenomenon.
c) Verifications
48
They allow a researcher to test the validity of certain assumptions, claims theories
or generalizations within real world context.
d) Evaluation
They provide a means through which a researcher can judge the effectiveness of
particular policies, practices or innovations.
Qualitative research designs
There are five commonly used qualitative research designs:-
1. Case study
1n a case study, a particular individual, program or event in a case study is studied in
depth for a defined period of time. Example, a medical researcher might study the
nature, course and treatment of a rare illness for a particular patient. A case study may
be specifically suitable for learning more about little known or poorly understood
situations. 1t may be useful for investigating how an individual or program does over
time, perhaps as a result of certain circumstances or interventions.
2. Ethnography
1n a case study, the researcher looks at a particular person, program or event in
considerable depth. 1n ethnography the researcher looks at an entire group more
specifically, a group that shares a common culture in depth. The researcher studies
the group in its natural setting for a lengthy period of time often several months of years.
The focus of the investigation is on everyday behaviour like interactions, language,
rituals etc of the people in the group with an intense to identify cultural norms, beliefs,
social structures and other cultural patterns.
3. Phenomenological study
The term phenomenology refers to a person's perception of the meaning of an event as
opposed to the event as it exists external to the person. A phenomenological study is a
study that attempts to understand people's perceptions, perspectives, and
understandings of a particular situation. That is, it tries to answer the question, what is
it like to experience such and such? Example, a researcher might study the experiences
of people caring for a dying relative living in an abusive relationship etc.
4. Grounded theory study
Of all the research designs described, a grounded theory study is the one least likely to
begin from a particular theoretical framework. On the contrary, the major purpose of
a grounded theory approach is to begin with the data and use them to develop a theory.
More specifically, a grounded theory study uses a prescribed set of procedures for
analyzing data and constructing a theoretical model from them.
5. Content Analysis
A content analysis is a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular
body of material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes or biases. Content
analysis are typically performed on forms of human communication including books,
newspapers, firms, TV, art, music, video tapes of human interactions and transcripts of
conversations.

Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes

49
counterdisciplinary field. It crosses the humanities and the social and physical
sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is
multiparadigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the
multimethod approach. They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and to the
interpretative understanding of human experience. At the same time, the field is
inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.
• ‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what people think, and how they
feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel. This
kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather
than numbers’
• Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative,
naturalistic approach to its subject matter.
• Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and their thoughts) in their
natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms
of the meanings people bring to them.
• Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of
empirical materials - case study, personal experience, introspective, life story,
interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe
routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives.
Popularity of Qualitative Research
1 Usually much cheaper than quantitative research
2 No better way than qualitative research to understand in-depth the motivations
and feelings of consumers
3 Qualitative research can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
quantitative research
• Limitations of Qualitative Research
1 Marketing successes and failures are based on small differences in the
marketing mix.
Qualitative research doesn’t distinguish these differences as well as
quantitative research can.
2 Not representative of the population that is of interest to the researcher
3 The multitude of individuals who, without formal training, profess to be experts
in the field

Exercise
1. There are two ways collection of qualitative data:
a) Observations
b) 1nterviews
Briefly describe these methods.
2. 1dentify the characteristics of appropriate research problems for case study
research.

50
CHAPTER 7: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Cause-effect relation
1n the designs we have discussed, case study, ethnography etc up to now, we have
made no attempt to determine the causes of the phenomena being studied. Ultimately,
we often want to know what causes what. 1n other words, we want to identify cause
and affect relationships. A researcher can most conveniently identify cause and effect
relationships by using an experimental design. 1n such a design, the researcher
considers many possible factors that might cause or influence a particular condition or
phenomenon. The research then attempts to control all influential factors except those
whose possible effects are the facts of investigation. An example can help to clarify the
point. 1magine that we have two groups of people. We take steps to make sure that
those two groups are an average so similar that we can call them equivalent. We give
them a pretest to measure a particular characteristic in which we are interested, perhaps
blood pressure, achievement test, spending habits etc then we expose one of the groups
to a treatment or invention of some sort perhaps a new drug, instructional manual, etc
that we think may have an effect on the characteristic we are studying. 1f the
characteristic changes, for the group that received the intervention but doesn't
change for the other group and if everything about the two groups has been the same
except for the intervention then we can reasonably conclude that the treatment brought
about the change we observed.
Because we have not only observed the situation but also manipulated it, we have used
an experimental design. Some of the research designs we describe, in this chapter are
true experimental designs; they allow us to identify cause - effect relationships. Under
designs discussed, eliminate some but not all alternative explanations of an
observed change. However, all of the designs have one thing in common; clearly
identifiable independent and dependent variables.
Importance of control
You have already been introduced to the concept of internal validity. The interval
validity of a research study is the extent to which its design and the data it yields allow
the researcher to draw accurate conclusions about cause and effect and other
relationships.
1n experimental designs, internal validity is essential without it, any results the
researcher obtains cannot be interpreted. As an example, suppose we have a new
method of teaching science in school. We want to conduct an experiment to investigate
the methods effect on students' science achievement test scores. We find two teachers
who are willing to participate in the study. One teacher agrees to use the new method;
the other teacher wants to continue using the same method that has been in use. Both
teachers agree that at the end of the school year, their students sit for a science
achievement test. Are the two

51
classes that same? 1f the students are taught with the new method obtained per
science achievement test scores at the end of the year will we know that the method was
the cause of the scores? The answer to the questions is no. The teachers are different-
one female and the other male, educational background are different and teaching
styles and personalities are different.
1n addition, the two groups of students may be different. They would have different
intelligent capabilities. Any one of these factors and perhaps others may have
contributed to the differences in achievement test scores we obtain. Whenever we
compare two or more groups that are or might be different in ways in addition to a
particular treatment we are studying we have confounding variables in our study.
To maximize internal validity, when a researcher wants to identify cause-effect
relationships, the researcher needs to control confounding variables so that these
variables are ruled out as explanations for any effects observed.
There are a variety of strategies to control for confounding variables:-
i) Keep some things constant.
Researchers ensure different treatments are imposed in the same or similar events.
They may also seek the research participants who share certain characteristics
such as gender, age, social-economical status, etc.
ii) 1nclude a control group
To control for extraneous variables, researchers frequently include a control group, a
group that receives either no intervention or a neutral intervention that should have
little if any effort. They then compare the performance of this group to an experimental
group also known as treatment group that participate in the intervention.
Note: People sometimes show different relations because they know they are
participating in a research study in effect known as reactivity or Hawthorne effect.
To take this fact into consideration, a researcher sometimes gives the people in a control
group a placebo that has the appearance of having an effect but in reality does not
have an affect. For instance, a research study the effects of new arthritis mediation
might give some participants a particular message of the medicine and give others a
similar looking sugar pill.
iii) Randomly design people to groups. 1n any research study, human beings or living
things members of the sample are likely to be different from one another in ways that
are relevant to the variable under investigations. 1n experimental studies, researchers
use random selection to assign participants within their sample to various groups.
iv) Access equivalence before treatment with one or more pretests.
v) Expose participants to both or all experimental conditions.
vi) Statistically control for confounding variables.

52
1n true experimental research, their researcher manipulates the independent variables
and examines its effects on another, dependent variable. A variety of research designs
have emerged that differ in the extent to which the researcher manipulates the
independent variable and controls for confounding variables. We shall present a
number of possibilities and we will illustrate the designs using the tables that have
those general format.

Each group in a design will be shown in a different row. The things that happen to
the group over time will be shown in separate cells within the row. The cells will have
one of four notations.
Tx : Treatment 1ndependent variable
Obs : Observation dependent variable
- : Nothing occurs
Exp : Experience independent variable.
1t is not possible to show cause-effect relationship because either:-
i) The independent variable does not vary.
ii) Experimental and control groups are not equivalent or randomly selected
individuals. Such designs are useful only for forming hypotheses that should be
followed up and controlled studies.
Design I: One shot experimental case study
1t's the most primitive type of experiment. Treatment is introduced and then
measurement is administered to determine the effects of the treatment. Time
Group 1 Tx Obs
1t has low internal validity because its impossible to determine whether participants
performance on the post-test is the result of the treatment per second.
Design 2: One group pretest, posttest design:- 1t has
a) Pre-experimental evaluation
b) Administration Tx
c) Evaluation after the Tx
Group Time

Design 3: Static group comparison

1t involves both experimental group and a control group

Experimental group is exposed to a particular

53
Tx and control group is not. After the treatment, both groups are observed and their
performance compared. However, no attempt is made for paying equivalent groups or
at least to examine the groups to determine whether they are similar before the Tx.
True experimental designs
People or other nits of study are randomly assigned to groups. Such random
assignments guarantee that any differences between the groups are probably small
and are due to entirely chance.
Design 4: Pretest, protest, control group design
Both experimental and control groups are carefully selected through appropriate
randomization procedures. Experimental group is observed, subjected to Tx and
observed once again. Control group is isolated from treatment. 1t is simply observed
both at the beginning and at the end of the experiment.

Design 5: Pretest only control group

Some life situations, defy pretesting. Also at times, you may not be able to locate a
suitable pretest or the act of pretesting an influence the results of the experimental
manipulation.
Random Group 1 Tx Obs
assignment Group 2 - Obs

Design 6: Within Subjects Design.

Participants receive two or possibly more different treatments simultaneously, and the
potential effect of each Tx is observed. Quasi Experimental Designs
Sometimes, randomness is not possible or practical. 1n such situations, researchers
often use quasi-experimental designs. 1n these designs, there is no control for all
confounding variables.
Non randomized control grokup pretest - posttest designs
Group 1 Obs Tx Obs
Group 2 Obs - Obs

Simple time s eries des ign.

Control group time series design
Group 1 obs Obs obs Obs Tx Obs obs Obs Obs
Group 2 Obs obs Obs Obs - Os Obs Obs Obs

Exercise
1. Explain the importance of internal validity for experimental method.
2. Differentiate pre- experimental, true experimental and
quasi-experimental designs.

54
CHAPTER 8: DATA ANALYSIS
1n chapter the student is required to review statistical concepts. These include:
i. Data presentation
ii. Measures of central tendency
iii. Measures of dispersion
iv. Regression and Correlation
v. Estimation
vi. Tests of hypotheses
vii. Analysis of variance
viii. Non parametric methods

Analysis means
 Categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing of data to obtain
answers to research questions
 It is to reduce data to intelligible and interpretable form using Statistics.
 Data Analysis
Interpretation means
 Searching for meaning and implication of research results, in order to make
inferences and draw conclusions and relate to the theory.
Statistics
A means of finding order and meaning in apparent chaos
Descriptive Statistics
 Describing patterns and general trends in data sets
 Used to examine or explore one variable at a time
Descriptive summaries
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Measures of Dispersion/Spread
 Measures of Location
 Research approaches
e.g
Study on characteristics of distance learners Question: Please indicate your age in
years
Respondents: University of Nairobi students
Data:35,43,35,38,39,35,46,36,39,35,24,29,32,40,31,
45,38,37,26,28,42,35,41,39,40,40,27,41,33,48,
40,35,33,42,35,43,39,40,36,33,47,36,38,37,41,
39,36,34,38,41,46,36,24,41,41,36,34.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Used to :
 determine if relationships and differences can be considered real or
just a chance fluctuation
 Estimating population parameters from sample data
55
  Testing hypothesis
 Inferential statistics cont
The two key types of Inferential statistics:
 Parametric statistical tests
 Non-Parametric statistical test.
Parametric statistical Test
 Used for Comparing Means
 Measuring relationships
Underlying Assumptions
 Data must be normally distributed
 Data must be measured on interval/Ratio levels
 Variance must be homogenous
 Inferential statistics (Parametric)cont
Examples
 Data should be interval or ratio scale
 T-test i.e. One sample t test, Independent samples t test, Paired
samples t test
 ANOVA
 Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)
 Regression Analysis
 Non-parametric Inferential statistics
 Underlying Assumptions- Makes no stringent demands on Data
 Data must be Nominal/Ordinal
 Chi – square
 Mann-Whitney U-test --- (t-test)
 Kruskal Wallis H-test ---(Anova)
 Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient (RHO) --- (r)
 Level of Confidence
Any inferential statistics must have
 level of confidence (1-α) - i.e Level of significance or Alpha α
E.g
0.05,0.01,0.001,0.0001
N.B:
Use of descriptive and inferential statistics is rarely an either –or proposition
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING (USING INFERENTIAL STATISTICS)
1.Formulation of null hypothesis.
2.Determine the test statistics
3.Check the underlying assumptions of the test statistics
4.Determine the rejection point - level of significance or alpha.
5.reject or not reject the null hypothesis. p<0.05 reject, result is significant, p>0.05 do
not reject, result is not significant
6.Evaluate the test statistics
7.Interpret results.

56
  Pitfalls to Avoid
1.Using observed values only e.g.
 A frequency table….
 Pitfalls to avoid-cont
2. Using SPSS tables without editing them
3. Using statistical terms that are not clear
4. Not cross checking the figures in the table
5. Be sure sample is representative of the target population in order for references to
be valid.
 Pitfalls to avoid-cont
6. Be sure you understand the statistical assumption of your statistical procedures e.g.
chi-square, parametric statistics
- normal population, level of measurement, homogeneity of variance.
 Pitfalls to avoid -cont
7. Be sure you have the right amount of power
- Power refers to the probability of avoiding type II error (accepting a false null
hypothesis) and this depends on sample size, type I error (rejecting a true null
hypothesis) rate (alpha) you specify and variability of the sample
- Too little power can overlook a really important relationship, while too much or
excessive power can find microscopic effects with no real practical value
 Pitfalls to avoid-cont
8. Be sure you use the best measurement tools available – is measurement precise?
What about reliability and validity?
 Pitfalls to avoid-cont
9. Be sure you understand conditions for causal references
- if you need to make causal references, try to use random sampling.
10. Be sure your graphs are accurate and reflect the data variation clearly (good
and bad graphs). Be sure to include enough context to make graphs meaningful.
 Presentation of findings :
 Prose
 Visual presentations such as:
 Frequency distribution
 Histograms
 Bar charts
 Pie charts
 Table
 Charts
 Discussion of the findings

57
CHAPTER 9: Research proposal
After identification of the research problem, the next step is the development of research
proposal. 1t's a statement in writing that spells out the researcher's intentions of
carrying out a research in a specific area. The proposal outlines the approach,
strategy as well as the techniques to be followed in conducting a study. 1t's a written
summary of what a researcher intends to do. A proposal is also known as a work
plan, prospectors, and outline.
Statement of intent or draft plan that tells us what, why, how, where and to whom it
will be done. For the student or researcher it provides a plan of action for approval by
supervisor or funding agency.
Purpose of a research proposal
The research proposal is of great importance both to the researcher and the readers.
1) 1t makes known, the intentions of getting involved in research work. This is one
through the researcher stating the objectives of the study.
2) The process of writing a proposal allows the researcher to plan and review the
steps that would be undertaken in the project. 1t gives the researcher an
opportunity to sport mistakes (flaws) in the logic, errors in assumptions, for
problems that are not adequately addressed by the objectives and design of the
study.
3) 1n general, it provides justification for funding. One has to justify the use of
resources in the business and consultancy world. 1n the academic setting, the
proposal must justify contribution to either existing knowledge or adding to it.
4) After the proposal is approved, the document serves as a guide for the
researcher throughout the investigations.
5) A well designed research proposal helps the researcher to avoid the tiring and time
consuming, alterations once the research project takes off.
6) The proposal forces, time management and budget estimates.
7) The proposal is also able to suggest the data necessary for solving the problem
and how the data will be gathered and interpreted.
8) A proposal also provides an opportunity for the researcher to discuss the research
efforts of others who have worked on related areas.
Note: All research has a sponsor in one form or another. The student researcher is
responsible to the class instructor. 1n a corporate setting, whether the research is
being done in house by a research department or under contract to an external
research firm, the management sponsors the research. University/government or
corporate sponsored research uses grand committees to evaluate the work. A research
proposal allows the sponsor to access the sincerity of your purpose, the clarity of your
design, the extent of your background material and your fitness for undertaking the
project. 1t also displays your discipline, organization and logic.
Types of research proposals
1. Academic research proposal
2. Project research proposal

58
Structure and format of research proposal
1n general, project research proposal can be divided into two:-
a. Internal proposal done by the members of staff, specialists of the research
department of the organization.
b. External proposal which are either solicited or unsolicited where the sponsors
can be universities, government agencies etc. academic research proposals
are proposals in which the researcher proposes to undertake a piece of
research on some issues leading to a definite academic qualification like
diploma, degree(Bachelors, masters, PhD)
a) Structure of research proposal
The proposal can be structured into three main sections:-
Section One: Preliminary 1nformation
The first one is the title page and should have the following information:-
(a) A clear title.
(b) Name of the student - registration number, department and faculty.
(c) Required fulfillment.
(d) Date. Eg April 2012
Other preliminary information that follows are:-
i) Table of contents
ii) Authority from supervisors
iii) Declaration page
iv) List of figures
v) Acknowledgement! Dedication
Section 2: Body
Chapter 1: 1ntroduction
Background of the problem should be discussed. A well written background gives the
statement of the problem.
Purpose of study, objectives of the study, hypothesis, justification of the study,
Assumptions of the study, definition of terms.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
A brief introduction could be given. Theoretical literature review, empirical literature
review, summary of literature.
Chapter 3: Research design and methodology
Research design, target population, sampling procedures, data collection methods,
procedures of data collection, data analysis.
Section 3: References! Bibliography

59
Names of authors of the books reviewed, Name of book and the year. For example
Nyasrega, R.W. :Research Methods, Trinok Publishing (2012), Nairobi Kenya.
Appendices - time plan, budget,
Sample questionnaires or any other data collection instruments.
b. Format of research proposal
i) We need to have executive summary/abstract
This allows the reader to understand quickly the main aim of the proposal. 1t is
essentially an informative part that gives the reader the chance to understand the
essentials of the proposal without having to read the details. As such, the abstract
should include:-
 Brief statements of the problem and research questions.
 The research objectives
 Benefits of the methodology used
 Some preliminary information on the expected findings.
NB: 1deally an abstract should not exceed one page.
(ii) Introduction/Background of the study
This is meant to stimulate interest of the reader. 1t acquaints the reader with the
problem, provides some background and necessary information about the study. A
good introduction should be brief and flow smoothly. A well written introduction should
read to the statement of the problem.
(iii) Statement of the problem
This section needs to convince the reader of sponsor to continue reading the proposal.
You should capture the reader's attention by stating the problem clearly, its
background and consequences and the resulting research. Statement of the
problem should be brief and to the point. Problem statements that are broadly designed
cannot be addressed adequately in one study.
(iv) Purpose of study
A broad statement indicating what the researcher intends to do about the problem
being investigated. Why carry out the study? Why now?
(v) Objectives of the study
1n this part, purpose of investigation is addressed. 1t is here that you lay out exactly
what is being planned by the proposed research. The objectives flow naturally from the
problem statement giving the reader concrete and achievable goals. The objective
should be stated clearly and must be testable. The objective should be specific and
are important because they determine the kind of research questions to be asked; Data
collection and analysis procedures to be used. The research objective section is eh
basis for judging the remainder of the proposal and ultimately the final report.
vi) Research questions

60
These refer to the questions which a researcher would like to be answered by
undertaking the study. The research questions are more of objectives put in a question
form. 1ncase where the objectives are general statements then it may be necessary for
the research questions to be included. They should be specific and guiding to the study.
vii) Significance of the study (Justification)
Highlights the reasons for conducting the research like what gaps in knowledge would
the study address? Will it contribute to the solution of an immediate problem? Who
will the research benefit?
viii) Limitations and delimitations
A limitation is an aspect of the study that the researcher knows it may rely affects the
results or the generalizability of the result but has no control over it. 1t's a factor that
will affect the study but the researcher has no control. Examples you might not
force people to answer personal question and cannot force them or you do not know
whether the statement is true. Delimitation on the other hand is an aspect that can be
controlled by the researcher. Example you can control the sample size of people you
want to access. The sample size, the location of the study and how many people you
want to help in the study.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. 1t remains largely a guess until
facts are found to confirm or describe it. Hypothesis is generally generated by
the theory being used.
Literature review
There is need for the review of both theoretical and empirical literature. This is of
necessary indispensable part of the proposal.
Research Methodology
This section gives a detailed procedure of the methods to be used for the study. The
literature review section is used as the basis of methodology invention. This section
should also provide information on the data one intends to use, sources of the data and
characteristics of that data. 1t will also indicate whether there is any manipulation to
be done on the data.
Research design
The design describes what one is gong to do in technical terms. This section should
include as many subsections as needed to show the phases of the project provide
information on your proposed design for tasks such as sample section and size, data
collection method, instrumentation, procedures and ethical requirements. When more
than one way exists to approach the design, discuss the methods you rejected and why
your selected approach is superior.

61
Data analysis
A brief section on the methods used for analyzing the data is appropriate for research
projects. Describe your proposed treatment and theoretical basis to use the selected
techniques.
Appendices
Any detail that enforces the body of the proposal can be included in an appendix.
These include researcher vitae, budget details, sample data collection
instruments (if any), definition of terms etc
Bibliography
For all projects that require literature review, a bibliography is required. Use the
reference format required by the sponsor/supervisor.
Time plan and budget
Time plan is important for monitoring the development of the study. One should set
out a time plan for literature review, a draft report and final report. One should also
estimate the resources that are going to be committed to the project. There is need to
establish the main cost component like travel cost, statio nery, researcher and
research assistan t cost, s ubsistence (Accommodation and meals) and
equipments (software, computers, microscope) and finally miscellaneous (10% of total
budget)
Exercise
1. Select a research report from a journal. Outline a proposal for the research as if it
had not yet been performed. Make estimates of time and costs.
2. What modules would you suggest be included in a proposal for each of the following
case?
(a) You are competing for a university sponsored student research grand, awarded
to seniors and graduate students.
(b) A bank is interested in understanding the population trends by location so that it
can plan its new branch locations for the next five years. They contracted you for a
proposal.

62
CHAPTER 10: PRESENTING RESULTS: WRITTEN AND ORAL REPORTS
Report writing is the last step in the research process. After data have been collected,
analyzed and interpreted, the researcher has to prepare a report of the findings of the
study. 1t may be seen unscientific and even unfair, but a poor report or presentation
can destroy a study.
Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Explain the role of the research report.
2. Explain the criteria by which research reports are evaluated.
3. Describe the research report components.
4. Explain oral presentation.
The role of the Research Report
The main role of the research report is to communicate the findings of the research
project. The project should answer the questions raised in the statement of
objectives of the study. The researcher should be clearly aware of the purpose of the
research when preparing the report. A research project can being out a lot of
information but much of this information may not be relevant to the problem initially
defined. Only information that is likely to be useful to the decision maker in decision
making should be included in the report. The researcher will need to use his own
judgment in deciding what information should be omitted.
For the report to be of maximum use to the decision maker, it must be objective.
The researcher should therefore have the courage to present and defend their
results as long as they are convinced that they are valid. They should also clearly
indicate any limitations of the study.
Research Report Criteria
The main criteria by which research reports are evaluated is communicated with the
reader. The report is prepared for a specific purpose and for a specific type of audience.
1t should therefore communicate effectively with the intended audience.
The report should be written with due consideration for the readers, their level of
interest in the subject, understanding of technical terms and what they will make of the
report.
1n order to tailor the report to meet the needs of the readers, the researcher should
understand the readers' preferences. One may find that different readers have
different preferences and this may at times bring conflicts. Some readers may want to
have the basic information only while others prefer to have the technical details
clearly brought out in the report. One way to reconcile these conflicting interests is to
prepare a basic report with a minimum detail and to have appendices that give the
technical details. Again, in some cases, the researcher may indicate that certain
details have been omitted but are available upon request.
Another point to consider regarding the report's ability to communicate with the
intended reader is whether the reader has to keep referring to the dictionary as this
may seriously interfere with the flow of information and thus affect communication.
Writing Criteria

63
A report should satisfy the following criteria to improve its chances of communicating
effectively with the reader:
(a) Completeness
(b) Accuracy
(c) Clarity
(d) Conciseness
Let us now discuss how each of these criteria enhances communication.
(a) Completeness
A report should provide all the information that readers need in a language they
understand. This means that the writer should continually ask himself whether all
the issues in the research objectives have been addressed.
The report should not be too long as to include findings that are not relevant to the study.
Yet, it should not be too short as to omit necessary definitions and explanations.
The abilities and interests of reader's should be considered in determining
completeness.
b) Accuracy
The preceding steps in the research process provide the basic input for the report.
This means that the data generated at the data collection and analysis steps should be
accurate in order for the report to be accurate.
c) Clarity
Writing clearly is not easy. Clarity is achieved by clear logical thinking and precision of
expression. The way the report is organized may contribute to clarity or affect it
negatively. Some principles of writing clearly are:
(i) Use short and simple sentences.
(ii) Use simple words which the reader is familiar with.
(iii) Ensure that words and phrases express exactly what the writer means
to say.
(iv) Avoid grammatical errors.
(v) Use uniform style and format. 1t may help to write a first draft and
then have another person review it before preparing the final report. d)
Conciseness
The criteria of completeness should not be complemented by conciseness. The writer
should be concise in his writing and selective with regard to what to include in the
report. The report should be brief and to the point - this means that the report should
not include everything that has been found but only what is relevant to the study.
The writing style should render itself to conciseness. The findings should be
expressed completely and clearly in the fewest words possible.
Report Format
The organization of the report influences its ability to meet all the criteria of report
writing. There is no format that is appropriate for all reports. A report should be use a
format that best fits the needs of its readers. The following format may be used for most
types of reports. 1t should be seen as flexible and open to changes and adjustments
depending with needs of the reader.

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1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Summary/Abstract/Executive summary
4. Problem statement
5. Statement of objectives
6. Background
7. Research methodology
(a) Research design
(b) Data collection method
(c) Sampling
(d) Fieldwork
(e) Analysis and interpretation.
8. Limitations of the study
9. Findings of the study
10. Summary and conclusions
11. Recommendations
12. Appendix
(a) Copies of data collection instruments
(b) Details of sample size determination.
(c) Table not included in the findings
(d) Bibliography.
Let us briefly discuss each of these terms 1.
Title page
The title page should indicate the subject of the report, the name of the organization
for whom the report is prepared, the name of organization or person who prepared it
and the date the report is prepared.
1f the report is done by employees of the company, then the names of the people
or departments preparing the report are given.
2. Table of Contents
As a rough guide, any report of several sections that totals more than 6 to 10 pages
should have a table of contents.
This shows in order of appearance the topics and subtopics of the report with page
references. 1t also includes table and charts and pages where they may be found.
3. Summary/Abstract
Some authors consider the summary to be the most important part of the report. This
is mainly because most executives read only the summary or they use it to guide them
on what areas of the report to give more attention. 1t should contain the necessary
background information as well as the important findings and conclusions. Two pages
are generally sufficient for executive summaries. Write this section after the rest of the
report is finished.
4. Problem Statement
1t contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually represented by

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research question (s). it is followed by a more detailed set of objectives.
5. Statement of Objectives
This states the objectives of the study and should clearly indicate the purpose of the
study and what the report tries to answer.
6. Background
Background material may be of two types. 1t may be preliminary results of exploration
from an experience survey, focus group, or another source. Alternatively, it could be
secondary data from the literature review.
7. Research Methodology
This section describes the research procedures or methods used. 1t should indicate the
research design, sampling procedures, data collection and data analysis procedures
used.
This section provides information on the manner in which the findings reported were
gathered, analyzed and interpreted.
8. Limitations of the study
This topic is often handled with ambivalence. Some people wish to ignore the matter,
feeling that mentioning limitations detracts from the impact of the study. This attitude
is unprofessional and possibly unethical.
9. Findings of the study
1n this section which makes the bulk of the report, the results of the study are presented.
The specific objectives of the study should be kept in mind and the results should be
presented in a logical manner. Only information that contributes to answering the
questions posed in the study objectives should be reported. Tables, charts and figures
should be presented in a logical manner to facilitate flow of thought and appreciation.
10. Summary and Conclusions
The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries
may be used if there are many specific findings. They may be combined into an
overall summary. 1n simple, descriptive research, a summary may complete the
report, because conclusion and recommendations may not be required.
Findings state facts, conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings.
Conclusions should be drawn with reference to the objectives of the study. The
researcher should show the step by step development of conclusions and state them with
some detail.
Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form for easy reading and reference. 1f
for some reason the study does not obtain adequate data on which to make
conclusions, this should be acknowledged.
11 Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. 1n academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding
of the subject area. 1n applied research the recommendations will usually be for
managerial action rather than research action. The writer may offer several
alternatives with justifications.
1t is therefore, not always possible or necessary to make recommendations. However, in

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some cases, the researcher may be asked to make recommendations. 1n this case,
he will need further information on the background of the organization and its policies.
Appendix
The appendix provides a place for material that does not fit in the other parts of the
research report. This may be because its too detailed, technical or specialized, or is
not absolutely necessary for the text.
The appendix normally contains details on sample design and sample size
determination, an exhibit copy of the data collection instrument; maps used to draw up
the sample; detailed statistical tables and figures. The appendix helps those interested
in the technical details to find them easily.
Presentation of Statistics
The presentation of statistics in research reports is a special challenge for writers.
Four basic ways to present such data are in
a) A text paragraph
b) Semi tabular form
c) Tables
d) Graphics
Text Presentation
This is probably the most common when there are only a few statistics. The writer can
direct the reader's attention to certain numbers or comparisons and emphasize specific
points. The drawback is that the statistics are submerged in the text, requiring the
reader to scan the entire paragraph to extract the meaning. The following material has
a few simple comparisons but becomes more complicated when text and statistics are
combined.
A comparison of the three aerospace and defense companies from the high-tech stratum of
the Forbes 500 sample show that Sundstrand had the best sales growth record over
the years 1988-1989. its growth was 8.0 percent - with sales significantly lower than
the other two firms in the sample. This compares to sales growth for Rockwell
1nternational of 3.3 percent, and Allied-Signal was third at only 0.8 percent sales
increase. Rockwell 1nternational generated the most profits in 1989 among the three
companies. Rockwell's net profits were $720.7 million as compared to $528 million
for Allied-Signal and $120.0 million for Sundstrand.
Semi tabular presentation
When there are just a few figures, they may be taken from the text and listed. Lists of
quantitative comparisons are much easier to read and understand than embedded
statistics. An example of semi tabular presentation is shown below:
A comparison of the three aerospace-defense companies in the Forbes 500 sample
shows that Sundstrand showed the best sales growth between 1988 and 1989.
Rockwell 1nternational generated the highest net profits for the year 1989.
Annual Sales Growth 1989 Net Profits ($millions)
Sundstrand 8.0% $120.8
Rockwell 3.3 720.7
Allied-Signal 0.8 528.0

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Tabular Presentation
Tables are generally superior to text for presenting statistics, although they should be
accompanied by comments directing the reader's attention to important figures.
Tables facilitate quantitative comparisons and provide a concise, efficient way to
present numerical data. Tables are either general or summary in nature. General
tables tend to be large, complex and detailed. They serve as the repository for the
statistical findings of the stud and are usually in the appendix of a research report.
Summary tables contain only a few key pieces of data closely related to a specific
finding. To make them inviting to the reader (who often skips them), the table
designer should omit unimportant details and collapse multiple classifications into
composite measures that may be sustained for the original data.
Any table should contain enough information for the reader to understand its contents.
The title should explain the subject of the table, how the data are classified, the time
period, or other related matters. A subtitle is sometimes included under the title to
explain something about the table; most often this is a statement of the
measurement units in which data are expressed. The contents of the columns
should be clearly identified by the column heads, and the contents of the stub should do
the same for the rows. The body of the table contains the data, while the footnotes
contain any needed explanations. Footnotes should be identified by letters or symbols
such as asterisks, rather than by numbers, to avoid confusion with data values. Finally,
there should be a source note if the data do not come from your original research.
Graphics
Compared with tables, graphs show less information and often only approximate
values. However, they are more often read and remembered than tables. Their great
advantage is that they convey quantitative values and comparisons more readily than
tables. With personal computer charting programs, you can easily turn a set of
numbers into a chart or graph.
Oral Presentations
Researchers often present their findings orally, these presentations, sometimes called
briefings, have some unique characteristics that distinguish them from most other kinds
of public speaking: Only a small group of people is involved; statistics normally constitute
an important portion of the topic; the audience members are usually managers with an
interest in the topic, but they want to hear only the critical elements; speaking time will
often be as short as 20 minutes but may run longer than an hour; and the presentation
is normally followed by questions and discussion.
Preparation
A successful briefing typically requires condensing a lengthy of complex body of
information. Since speaking rates should not exceed 100 to 150 words per minute,
a 20-minute presentation limits you to about 2,000 to 2,500 words. 1f you are to
communicate effectively under such conditions, you must plan carefully. Begin by
asking two questions. First, how long should you plan to talk? Usually there is an
indication of the acceptable presentation length. 1t may be the custom in an
organization to take a give allotted time for a briefing. 1f the time is severely limited,
then the need for topical priorities is obvious. This leads to the second question: what

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are the purposes of the briefing? 1s it to raise concern about problems that have been
uncovered? 1s it to add to the knowledge of audience members? 1s it to give them
conclusions and recommendations for their decision making? Questions such as
these illustrate the general objectives of the report. After answering these questions,
you should develop a detailed outline of what you are going to say. Such an outline
should contain the following major parts:
1. Opening. A brief statement, probably not more than 1 0percent of the allotted time,
sets the stage for the body of the report. The opening should be direct, get attention, and
introduce the nature of the discussion that follows. 1t should explain the nature of the
project, how it came about, and what 1t attempted to do.
2. Findings and Conclusions. The conclusions may be stated immediately after the
opening remarks, with each conclusion followed by the findings that support it.
3. Recommendations. Where appropriate, these are stated in the third stage; each
recommendation may be followed by references to the conclusions leading to it.
Presented in this manner, they provide a natural climax to the report. At the end of the
presentation, it may be appropriate to call for questions from the audience.
Early in the planning stage you need to make two further decisions. The first concerns
the type of audiovisuals (AV) that will be used and the role they will play in the
presentation. AV decisions are important enough that they are often made before
the briefing outline and text are developed.
Then you must decide on the type of presentation. Will you give a memorized speech,
read fro your manuscript, or give an extemporaneous presentation? We rule out the
impromptu briefing as an option because impromptu speaking does not involve
preparation. Your reputation and the research effort should not be jeopardized by
'winging it'.
Memorization is a risky and time-consuming course to follow. Any memory slip during the
presentation can be a catastrophe, and the delivery sound stilted and distant.
Memorization virtually precludes establishing rapport with the audience and adapting to
the reactions while you speak. 1t produces a self or speaker-centered approach and is
not recommended. Reading a manuscript is also not advisable even though many
professors seem to reward students who do so (perhaps because they themselves get
away with it at professional meetings). The delivery sounds dull and lifeless because most
people are not trained to read aloud and therefore do it badly. They become focused on
the manuscript to the exclusion of the audience. This head-down preoccupation with the
text is clearly inappropriate for management presentations.
The extemporaneous presentation is audience centered and made from minimal
notes or an outline. This mode permits the speaker to be natural, conversation, and
flexible. Clearly, it is the best choice of an organizational setting. Preparation consists
of writing a draft along with a complete sentence outline and concerting the main
points to notes. 1n this way, you can try lines of argument, experiment with various
ways of expressing thoughts, and develop phraseology. Along the way, the main
points are fixed sequentially in your mind and supporting connections are made.
Audiences accept notes, and their presence does wonders in allaying speaker fears.
Even if you never use them, they are there for psychological support. Many prefer to

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use 5-by-8 inch cards for their briefing notes because they hold more information and
so require less shuffling than the smaller 3-by-5 size. Card contents vary widely, but
here are some general guidelines for their design:
> Place title and preliminary remarks on the first card.
> Use each of the remaining c ards to carry a major sec tion of the
presentation. The amount of detail depends on the need for precision and the
speaker's desire for supporting information.
> 1nclude key phrases, illustrations, statistics, dates and pronunciation guides for
difficult words. 1nclude also quotations and ideas that bear repeating.
> Along the margin, place instructions and cues, such as slow, fast, emphas1ze,
transparency a, turn chart,
Delivery
While the content is the chief concern, the speaker's delivery is also important. A
polished presentation adds to the receptiveness of the audience, but there is some
danger that the presentation may overpower the message. Fortunately, the typical
research audience knows why it is assembled, has a high level of interest, and does not
need to be entertained. Even so the speaker faces a real challenge in communicating
effectively. The delivery should be restrained. Demeanor, posture, dress, and total
appearance should be appropriate for the occasion. Speed of speech, clarity of
enunciation, pauses, and gestures all play their part. Voice pitch, tone quality, and
inflection are proper subjects for concern. There is little time for anecdotes and other
rapport-developing techniques, yet the speaker must get and hold audience attention.

Review questions
1. What information should be included in a research report?
2. Research reports often contain statistical materials of great importance that
are presented poorly. Discuss ways to improve statistical presentation.
3. What major problems do you personally have with writing good reports?
What can you do about these problems?

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