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Diffuser Augmented Wind Turbine (DAWT) technologies

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Agha, A, Chaudhry, HN & Wang, F 2018, 'Diffuser Augmented Wind Turbine (DAWT) technologies: A
review', International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1369-1385.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
A.Agha et al., Vol.8, No.3, September, 2018

Diffuser Augmented Wind Turbine (DAWT)

Technologies: A Review
Arouge Agha, Hassam Nasarullah Chaudhry1, Fan Wang

School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK
([email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

1
Corresponding Author: Hassam Nasarullah Chaudhry, School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society,

Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK

Tel: +971 (0) 4 435 8775, [email protected]

Received: 03.04.2018 Accepted:16.05.2018

Abstract- Diffuser Augmented Wind Turbines (DAWT) are an optimised class of wind turbines that use a Diffuser to
accelerate and direct air flow onto a wind turbine rotor to drive it for higher rpm and power output than without the Diffuser.
This power output is typically rated in terms of the power augmentation. Diffuser design and theory was pioneered in the
1970’s with a recent re-emergence in a range of new technological approaches that are designed for laminar wind profiles, low
exit pressures, improved pressure recovery, improved torque generation and adaptability to wind directional and speed
changes. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) theory and software has been crucial in the advancement of design and
performance of DAWT’s. Power augmentations have been achieved within the range of 2-3 for small-medium scale turbines,
though this is largely in theory than in practice. In this review, ground-based Diffuser technologies have been presented
according to rotor type, i.e. horizontal- and vertical-axis. Large-scale on-shore and off-shore concepts have been presented
along with airborne technologies. Building-integrated DAWT’s are then presented with a description of some of the influential
economic and technical factors that currently affect the development of the DAWT industry. The current DAWT industry is
mostly research-based with very little commercialisation as the majority of technologies presented here are in their early
developmental stages. Innovations in issues associated with the increased weight of a Diffuser, the effects of loading, turbine
stability, vibrational effects during operation and yaw angle effects are necessary in the advancement of DAWT’s.

Keywords Augmentation factor, DAWT, Diffuser, Energy, Wind Turbine

Nomenclature
𝐴 Cross-sectional Area
𝐶𝑝 Power Coefficient
𝐶𝐷 Turbine Disk Loading Factor
𝐶𝑝𝑟 Pressure Recovery Coefficient
𝐶𝑝𝑒 Exit Pressure Coefficient
𝐶𝑡 Thrust Coefficient
𝐷 Diffuser Inlet Diameter
k Turbulent Kinetic Energy
L Diffuser Length
𝑚̇ Mass Flow Rate
𝑷 Power
𝑃 Pressure
Q Air Flow Rate

1
Corresponding Author: Hassam Nasarullah Chaudhry

[email protected]
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
A.Agha et al., Vol.8, No.3, September, 2018
𝑟 Augmentation Factor
𝑻 Thrust
𝑉 Velocity

Subscripts
t Diffuser Throat
e Diffuser Exit
∞ Far Upstream/Downstream

Greek/Latin Script
𝛼 Angle of Attack
𝛽 Area Ratio
𝜀 Turbulent Dissipation
𝛾 Back Pressure Velocity Ratio
Φ,𝜃 Diffuser Inlet Angle
𝜌 Density
ɳ Diffuser Efficiency
Г Circulation
𝜈 Viscosity

1. Introduction amid the oil crisis. Diffusers, also known as Shrouds3, are
aerodynamic structures commonly found in
Global energy demands for electrical power and turbomachinery for aircraft engines and so they translate
energy are continuously increasing. With depleting fossil well to applications in wind technology. They are
fuel supplies, focus has notably shifted to renewable power intended to increase wind turbine power outputs and
generation to make anthropogenic energy use and demand optimise performance by accelerating air mass flow
more sustainable. There are a few factors propelling this through their funnel-shaped structure. The Diffuser
development. Aside from the increasing need to replace therefor contributes to increasing the capacity of a typical
existing conventional power generation technologies, an turbine by increasing the rpm of the rotor and decreasing
unprecedented increase in the effects of climate change its starting torque. The Diffuser also provides the turbine
and global warming is encouraging a faster response. In and its blades some protection from adverse climatic
December 2015, an international pledge in Paris, France, conditions and atmospheric exposure whilst also extracting
was made to fund projects worth $100 billion to reduce power for stable operation in a wider range of wind
carbon emissions, slow the global temperature rise and velocities starting at low wind speeds and in turbulent
strengthen the shift toward renewable energy generation conditions. This is beneficial towards a reduction in blade-
[1]. As such, wind power generation is a promising tip losses and even encouraging a reduction in the rate of
avenue. Albeit unable to completely replace conventional bird strike as airborne wildlife can perceive the Diffuser as
power systems in the short term, wind driven a singular, stationary object compared to the blur of
technologies2 provide incredible potential and versatility moving blades [3].
in application.
It has always been assumed that up-scaling a wind
Power generation by wind energy increased at a rate turbine rotor in terms of its rotor swept area was the main
of 17.2% in 2015 up from 16.4% the previous year. way to increase power output and capacity. The use of
Current worldwide installed capacity is at its highest at DAWT’s however can be considered a lateral approach to
63.7GW [2]. The growing global agenda to shift to optimising wind turbine performance without following
renewables depends heavily on the invention of new the economies-of-scale approach. A Diffuser can, in
technologies as well as the improvement of existing theory, be applied to any conventional wind turbine.
technologies. A multitude of research produced in recent Indeed, the geometry of the Diffuser is such that it presents
years has addressed improvements in overall performance, additional requirements for manufacture, installation and
efficiencies and the life-span of wind driven technologies. maintenance. The foundation and tower would also need to
be strengthened [3].
From the early windmill to present day innovations
such as the bladeless Saphonian turbine, wind power It was during the Innovative Wind Systems Conference
technologies have progressed significantly. There is a real in the US (1979) that DAWT’s were introduced and
desire to design turbines with larger power outputs for a gained recognition as valid potentials for augmented
given rotor swept area. Augmenting power with the action power of conventional wind power systems. Unfavourable
of a Diffuser is not a new concept. Diffuser Augmented capital and O&M costs at the time however quickly
Wind Turbines (DAWT) were introduced in the 1970’s slowed down DAWT popularity and focus shifted to the
development of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

2 3
Wind driven technologies also commonly known as Wind Shrouds are often an assembly of one or more aerodynamic
Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) structures including a Diffuser

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technology [4]. Due to the improvements in analysis tools experimental testing, computational analysis has proved a
for fluid dynamics, a re-emergence in interest for DAWT’s crucial tool that has allowed an accurate understanding of
have led to a range of studies into Diffuser aerodynamic flow characteristics through the Diffuser. These include
design and analysis. velocity and pressure profiles, the effect of turbulent and
steady state flow, boundary layer effects, flow separation,
1.1 The Evolution of Diffuser Design wake rotation etc. all of which are fundamental to Diffuser
design and performance. Different approaches in assessing
One of the earliest recorded assessments of the use of augmentation have been applied in a variety of CFD
a Diffuser was in 1956 by Lilley and Rainbird [5]. studies. Most studies do not consider all influences of
Existing 1D theories on the performance of ‘unshrouded augmentation parameters in any one study as usually only
windmills’ compared to ‘ducted windmills’ were a few are prioritised based on design.
compared. Based on the 1D theory Lilley and Rainbird [5]
had calculated that a 65% increase in maximum power Jafari and Kosasih [8] modelled a simple Diffuser for
could be achieved using a duct with a 3.5 area ratio and a small turbine, AMPAIR 300, in a virtual wind tunnel for
15% pressure loss compared to a conventional system. The a range of rotor rpm’s at a constant wind speed to obtain
analysis was however based on rough geometries. tip speed ratios. Kosasih and Hudin [9] investigated the
effect of different turbulence intensities on a DAWT and
Pioneering research into DAWT’s was notably an equivalent bare wind turbine (NACA 63-210, 190mm
conducted by Ozer Igra of the Ben Gurion University of diameter) so as to measure their relative performance in
the Negev in the 1970’s. Igra investigated techniques in terms of coefficient of performance and tip speed ratio.
reducing the requirement of a large length-diameter ratio Mansour and Maskinkhoda [10] used the Spalart-Allmaras
of a Diffuser without affecting performance. One such and 𝑘 − 𝜀 RNG (Re-Normalisation Group Theory)
example was to blow or draw in air into the latter part of turbulence models to study the flow fields around flanged
the Diffuser. Igra [6] conducted wind tunnel experiments Diffusers using equal dimension flanged DAWT’s one
for three different Diffuser designs with the same inlet with an inlet and the other without and the third with just a
section and different area ratios. In the experiment, a Diffuser. Bontempo and Manna [11] performed a 2D CFD
straight wall Diffuser with a series of drilled-in ports was actuator disk method analysis in ANSYS Fluent on a bare
used with an aerofoil cross-section and flat-plate ring wind turbine and a DAWT (NACA5415) comparing the
around the exit (8mm gap between ring-flap leading edge results with the non-linear actuator-disk model. Hansen et
and Diffuser trailing edge). Bleeding and the use of a ring- al. [12] used the 1D actuator disk model to show that an
flap were investigated and compared. It was found that increased mass flow rate through a DAWT results in an
bleeding air (in or out) through all ports didn’t improve increased augmentation factor and then Vaz et al. [13]
flow separation but introduced more turbulence into the used the extended Blade Element Momentum (BEM)
system than drawing air in. While blowing through some method to compare their results against the actuator disk
ports in the higher pressure region of the Diffuser was able model previously studied. Hjort and Larsen [14] presented
to increase output power by 20%, using aerofoil ring-flaps a comparative 2D CFD study of different Diffuser designs
increased power outputs up to 65%. using the RANS solver in Comsol MultiPhysics using the
The importance of the aerofoil in Diffuser design is 𝑘 − 𝜀 turbulence model and Shives and Crawford [15]
significant. The lift achieved when using an aerofoil performed an analysis on several Diffusers with different
increases the air mass flow through a Diffuser for a given geometries where the baseline aerofoil cross section is
length-diameter ratio compared to a straight-wall Diffuser. NACA 0015.
The latter does however have its own advantages in terms While there exists issues with computational
of reduced material weight, cost and reparability. Aranake limitations and accuracy, a better understanding of air flow
et al. [7] conducted a 3D CFD analysis to compare characteristics through DAWT’s has been achieved with
Diffuser geometries with aerofoil cross sections. Four forecastable improvements in design and performance.
were computed; the Eppler E423, Selig S1223, Most studies have used an independent, case-based
NACA0006 (baseline design) and the FX 74-CL5-140. methodology in Diffuser design and usually justify a
From a 2D analysis of the flow fields it was found that the combination of different Diffuser parameters as measures
Selig S1223 exhibited the best performance. The of performance dependent on initial design. Results are
NACA0006 allowed an augmentation factor (for however uniformly published in terms of a ratio or
definition, see section 1.2) of 1.92 and for the Selig S1223 percentage of power increased compared to a bare wind
it was 3.39 at a free stream velocity of 5m/s. turbine rotor with an equivalent swept area. In CFD
Fundamental to the development of Diffusers is the analysis the main parameters influencing DAWT
use of computational analysis. The two main methods performance are the area ratio, length-diameter ratio, and
involve Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory and pressure across the rotor. The pressure recovery computed
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The former, more at the diffuser exit, tip speed ratio, disk loading and thrust
commonly used, is a simple theoretical method developed coefficient also contribute to Diffuser design and
for blade optimisation and rotor design. In CFD, Navier- performance analysis.
Stokes equations are solved with a choice of turbulence The aim of this paper is to provide a review of the various
models each approximating wind turbulence. Apart from DAWT technologies that exist either through research, as

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working technologies or as innovative concepts. This is in The Diffuser can be split into four regions, see Fig. 1:
order to provide an understanding of the current 0 – Inlet, free-stream; 1 – front of rotor; 2 – behind rotor
developmental stages of DAWT’s and a view on their and 3 – outlet/exit, far wake region [17]. 𝑉∞ = 𝑉0 due to
continuous growth. the inlet free stream condition. Since momentum is
conserved, and there is steady-state flow, thrust is equal to
1.2 Technical Background and Assessment Methods the change in momentum with mass flow conserved; 𝑚̇ =
(𝜌𝐴𝑉)0 = (𝜌𝐴𝑉)3 and can be expressed in terms of the
The 1D Actuator Disk Theory (also known as 1D pressure difference between stations 2 and 1 and the rotor
Momentum Theory) analyses the energy balance in the disk area based on the implication that it is positive; 𝑉3 <
Diffuser using Bernoulli’s equation and calculates a 𝑉0 . Assuming frictionless air flow and conserved energy,
momentum balance. This semi-empirical approach was Bernoulli’s equation is applied to either side of the rotor.
constructed from established wind turbine theory with the With velocity across the rotor being constant: 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 and
same applied assumptions. It does not take into using mass flow rate at the rotor, 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 it is found
consideration wake rotation/swirl, the definite number of that velocity in front of the rotor is an average of the
rotor blades, aerodynamic drag and associated tip losses. upstream and downstream wind speeds. The axial
In an advanced analysis, external forces acting along the 𝑉 −𝑉
induction factor, = 1 2 , quantifies the drop in velocity
Diffuser would need to be considered for a detailed 𝑉1
1
understanding of how energy is extracted from the air from upstream to the rotor, where, 𝑎 = .
3
currents across the rotor [16]. In this section, the
development in understanding of DAWT parametric 𝑷 = 𝑇𝑉𝑡 (1)
1
analysis is presented and discussed. 𝑷 = 𝜌𝐴𝑡 𝑉03 4𝑎(1 − 𝑎)2 (2)
2

Fig. 1. Schematic for a typical Diffuser. The rotor is usually placed at the smallest diameter; for a flat wall Diffuser it would be
at the inlet. The blue arrows indicate the direction of air flow. The subscripts ‘t’ and ‘e’ refer to the ‘throat’ and ‘exit’
respectively.

The semi-empirical nature of this analysis arises due characteristics in a Diffuser are therefore crucial to
to dependence on physical data for the induction factor. A understanding its real performance more accurately. In
large reduction in wind speeds increases the induction order to advance this analysis, thrust is also considered.
factor leading to a greater power output. The power
coefficient which defines the extracted power from 1.3 Pressure and Velocity Profiles for a Diffuser
available power by the rotor is then:
The velocity and pressure profiles through a Diffuser
𝑷
𝐶𝑝 = are dependent on its geometry and the change in cross-
1 (3)
𝜌𝐴 𝑉 3 sectional area. 𝑉𝑜 and 𝑃𝑜 are the ambient velocity and
2 𝑡 0 pressure respectively found far upstream and in the wake
𝐶𝑝 = 4𝑎(1 − 𝑎)2 (4)
of the Diffuser. 𝑉𝑒 is the exit velocity and the relationship
between velocities at the nozzle and exit are proportional
The main limitations with this standard theory involve to the Diffuser area ratio, 𝛽 [4]: V1 = βV3 . An under
the lack in accounting for frictional losses and the effect of pressure occurs at the nozzle when the area ratio is greater
wake rotation (i.e. vortex theory) [5]. Air Flow than 1. In other words, the exit area must be larger than

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the nozzle area with no flow separation. The back pressure factor. For a zero 𝐶𝐷 , there would be no power output;
V
velocity ratio defined as: γ = 3 . A negative back pressure 𝐶𝐷 ∝ 𝑷. As 𝐶𝐷 increases, 𝐴∞ will decrease and as 𝐶𝐷 → ∞
Vo
air flow rate will equal zero thereby resulting in no power
can exist at the exit, because air flow is forced radially output. Augmentation factor can be made dependent on
through the Kutta condition [4]. This implies that the exit
𝐶𝑝𝑟 and 𝐶𝑝𝑒 . The maximum augmentation factor, 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 , is
velocity will be different from the inlet velocity. Velocity
is calculated at different locations along the Diffuser in dependent on 𝐶𝐷,𝑚𝑎𝑥 as it is most often defined in the
accordance with the continuity equation as long as the DAWT design stage. 𝐶𝑝𝑒 and 𝐶𝑝𝑟 can be found empirically
local area to exit area ratio is known using the assumption assuming 𝐶𝐷 is independent, it can be differentiated with
of uniform velocity distribution. Velocity changes are respect to the augmentation factor and set to zero. The
dependent on Diffuser geometry within limitation. The maximum augmentation factor is:
inlet geometry of the Diffuser should therefore be designed 3
to allow for smooth inflow and prevent flow separation. (1 − 𝐶𝑝𝑒 )
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.649√ (5)
Turbine presence will cause an overall reduction in 1 − 𝐶𝑝𝑟
pressure computed at the exit which is why the best
location for the rotor should be at the smallest cross-
sectional area to allow for the smallest rotor diameter For a larger augmentation factor, the Diffuser
where it is the inlet for a straight-walled Diffuser. This was efficiency and area ratio (with small expansion angle to
further validated by [18]. Resultant pressure change or encourage streamline flow) should be as large as possible
drop is independent of Diffuser area ratio, back pressure as stated by [19]. The latter aspect means the Diffuser
ratio and the turbine’s placement in the Diffuser. The would need to have a large length-diameter ratio, a costly
limitation. Additionally, the exit pressure would need to be
amount of air passing across the rotor increases by 𝛽𝛾
as small as possible for increased augmentation. To
compared to a bare wind turbine with equivalent rotor
achieve this, the Diffuser should ideally be designed with
swept area.
an annular wing profile which (according to aerofoil
1.4 Assessing Performance of the Diffuser theory) that will allow for sub-atmospheric exit pressures.
Other theoretical models also exist that consider a
The 1D Actuator Disk theory considers a flow field at refinement of the 1D Actutor dik model to account for
atmospheric pressure. The DAWT is able to sustain sub- turbulence, shear forces, thrust loadings and velocity
atmospheric pressures at the rotor [19]. The augmentation profiles as investigated by [12, 13, 14, 20, 21].
factor is the basis for assessing and comparing the
1.5 Characterising DAWT’s
performance of all DAWTs. The turbine load factor, also
known as the disk loading coefficient 𝐶𝐷 , is sometimes
Wind Turbines are traditionally classified according to
independently set based on the choice of turbine rotor.
rotor size, scale, axis of rotation, on-shore, off-shore,
The effective-Diffuser pressure recovery coefficient 𝐶𝑝𝑟
number of blades etc. Since DAWT’s are based on the
and Diffuser exit pressure coefficient 𝐶𝑝𝑒 are also crucial conventional wind turbine with the addition of the
in quantitatively describing Diffuser performance. Diffuser, they fall into similar categories. However, among
The augmentation factor is defined as a ratio of output the DAWT community of technologies there are clear
powers from a rotor of fixed swept area when applied with distinctions between the different types of Diffusers and
a Diffuser and without a Diffuser. Using the augmentation the application of the DAWT. Figure 2 shows a
factor is a way of measuring Diffuser effectiveness against breakdown of the various DAWT classifications and their
benchmark existing wind turbines. Power out from a co-dependencies, if any, based on current technologies.
DAWT can be expressed in terms of the turbine load

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Fig. 2. DAWT Classifications based on established concepts and designs.

2. Ground-based DAWT Technologies using HAWT’s

Small wind turbines installed at low altitudes are often a non-circular 1.8MW convergent-divergent shroud
susceptible to local wind interferences and intermittencies claimed to surpass the performance of the traditional three-
that are hard to predict or ignore. Some Diffuser bladed DAWT and contribute to the development of smart
technologies have been advanced to allow for better fluid grids. The ‘Winga-E-Generator’ was designed for low
dynamic performance, synchronised rotation to wind wind speeds operating between 4 and 7m/s. The shroud
directional changes, operation at higher rpm’s, rotor was made up of a large divergent duct with a ‘Borger’
protection from wear and tear and flexibility in number of optimized convergent duct involving a Venturi structure to
blades. Diffuser designs are commonly available for small- align and accelerate air flow onto three high-solidity,
medium size rotors for small-scale applications in specific multi-bladed annular rotors. Each rotor, 8m in diameter, is
locations, such as road-side, roof-mounted, small connected to its own independent generator thereby
fields/gardens etc. Although large-scale turbines require allowing larger torque generation at an estimated optimum
additional structural and mechanical considerations, each 300rpm. In Figure 3, the Diffusers a)-c) allow a
Diffuser presented in this section can be applied in theory variability in the selection of rotor given a consideration of
to most turbines. DAWT’s are typically designed to a blade-tip clearance of at least 2%. For d) and e), the
exploit low wind speeds in areas that were otherwise close rotors shown are specific to the Diffuser design, while for
to urban development. This does not however restrict their f) there is flexibility for the blade number to increase.
potential to high wind speeds. OrganoWorld [22] proposed

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a) Tne Simple Diffuser b) Diffuser with Brim/Flange

c) Multi-Slot Diffuser d) Vorticity-based Diffuser

e) Mixer-Ejector Diffusers f) Rotating Diffusers

Fig. 3. The main types of Diffusers.

2.1 The Simple Diffuser Ciii type was chosen as it was tested with the best power
augmentation results; 2.6 times the power out from an
Diffuser types vary according to the cross-sectional equivalent bare turbine. The Wind-lens technology aims at
profile (aerofoil versus constant thickness etc.), brim-based yaw control allowing the turbine autonomous
adjustments in the area ratio, length-diameter ratio and control over wind directional changes. With the compacted
actual Diffuser diameter. The simple Diffuser, Fig. 3a), design, this technology has seen recognisable success.
involves a converging inlet that expands to a diverging Decreased loading on the overall structure has allowed for
outlet with the rotor positioned at the smallest diameter. the rotors rotational ability. Power augmentations were
typically in the range of 2-3.
2.2 Brim and Flange Technology
This new class of flanged Diffusers were then studied
Ohya and Karasudani [23] from the Kyushu by Abe et al. [24] and Ohya et al. [25]. The former studied
the flow fields behind a small flanged (so called because a
University, Japan, developed the ‘Wind-lens Technology’.
The original idea was to improve on problems such as/ brim is installed at the exit of the Diffuser) wind turbine,
large wind loads and structural weights, of a 500W DAWT Fig. 3b). It was found that for a small wind turbine flow
patterns were similar for both the equivalent bare- and
by proposing an upwind 5kW “compact acceleration
structure (compact brimmed Diffuser)”. Tests were flanged-Diffuser wind turbines. In the downstream region
at exit, vortex structures rapidly deteriorated for the
conducted to identify the best ‘compact’ geometry and the

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flanged-Diffuser system but this was observed further different area ratios, the largest ratio produced the largest
downstream in the bare wind turbine. augmentation increase of 70%. Igra [19] concluded that a
maximum augmentation factor of 3 is achievable
2.3 Multiple Slotted Diffusers compared to an ideal bare wind turbine of the same
geometry and flow conditions.
The purpose behind this technique is to reintroduce
external air flow into the wake of the turbine thereby 2.4 Vorticity Based Turbines
reenergising the boundary layer along the inner surface of
the Diffuser using high lift aerofoil Diffuser rings. This Vorticity is a physical fluid phenomenon that
should create local velocity and pressure fields which will describes the curling of velocity profiles and is used to
mean a lower pressure distribution through the Diffuser measure local fluid rotation. This concept is applied in
inducing greater mass flow of air [16, 28]. DAWT technology to reduce air pressure in the wake of
the Diffuser thereby increasing the pressure differential
Wood [27] patented a DAWT in 2014 that employed
across it. This encourages a ‘pull’ on air into the Diffuser.
one or more Diffuser rings to form a turbine cowling. This
Although achieving a laminar flow profile though the
created an effective outlet area greater than the Diffuser
Diffuser is the ideal case, this is very hard to achieve in
cross sectional area. Additionally, with the use of one or
reality due to the unpredictability of natural wind inflow
more slots connected to the vent, air can bleed from the
conditions.
system creating a suction effect. Figure 3c) shows the
DAWT geometry and how the slots are created using the Early experimental investigations on the effects of
first and second Diffuser rings. The pre-rotation vanes are swirl rotation were studied by Okhio et al. [30] on
so called because of their location, they are stationary and introducing a circumferential velocity component to
attached to the rotor to channel air flow. Note that using overcome flow separation in a wide-angle Diffuser with an
the method of multiple slots, the length to diameter ratio of open angle of 16⁰ and an area ratio of 4.4. With the use of
Diffusers can be significantly reduced, which means probes to measure static pressure, a visual profile flow was
potentially less material and weight for the DAWT. developed. Different inlet swirl strengths were tested with
the best resulted yielding a 60% reduction in total Diffuser
2.3.1 The First Generation Shroud
losses. It was found that above this threshold the creation
of a re-circulating zone lead to further dissipative losses. A
Igra designed the first generation shroud in 1980 [19]
more recent study by Mariotti et al. [31] investigated
that had a straight-wall bell-shape inlet attachment fixed
multiple local recirculations in increasing Diffuser
onto a straight-wall Diffuser with an apex angle of 8.5°
efficiency. Three Diffusers with an area ratio of 2 and
with length to diameter ratio 7:1. Although this ratio is
different divergence half-angles of 2⁰, 3.5⁰ and 5⁰ were
economically unfavourable, the maximum augmentation
subjected to induced local re-circulations along the
factor was 3 at a yaw angle of 30°. Following the work
Diffuser walls. At smaller half-angles, flow remained
carried out by Oman et al. [29], Foreman et al. [16]
attached to the Diffuser walls and with increasing half-
compared an aerofoil ring Diffuser with a boundary layer
angle asymmetric zones of separated flows developed.
Diffuser. The former achieved an average augmentation
Introducing optimal cavities aided in improving pressure
factor of 1.6 at a disk loading coefficient of 1.1. The ratio
recovery and preventing flow separation due to a decrease
for boundary layer control was defined in terms of the
in momentum losses in the re-circulation regions. In all
fractional pressure difference between the inlet and behind
cases an increase in power coefficients for the optimised
the rotor. It was 1.31 for the boundary layer Diffuser and
cases was measured around 25%.
0.9 for the aerofoil ring Diffuser. In both cases this
surpassed the design equivalent bare wind turbine which 2.4.1 WindTamer
was 0.44. These studies however lacked a comprehensive
approach to understanding flow fields around Diffusers. A Brook [32] patented a vorticity reducing cowling
second shroud, ‘model A’ was the same as the first but DAWT design in 2009, see Fig. 3d). The cowling involved
with a shorter Diffuser (area ratio of 2, compared uses a plurality of spacers that operate to couple the
previously with 3.5 and 𝐿: 𝐷 = 3.64: 1) but with the Diffuser to the shroud in a spaced apart manner thereby
addition of three aerofoil ring-flaps. It was found that with defining a bypass passage between the outer and inner
successive addition of the flaps, the pressure recovery surface of Diffuser. The cowling is mounted to the shroud
coefficient improved, which increased Diffuser efficiency upstream of rotor and operates to compress the fluid
by 86% and augmentations up to 3 (with 3 ring-flaps and flowing onto and past the blades, while reducing the
𝐶𝐷 ~0.22). From this study a third shroud, ‘model B’ was vorticity of the fluid flowing onto and past the blades. The
proposed. It was found that a Diffuser with an aerofoil WindTamer 8.0 by Arista Power, was designed to operate
cross section should in theory be able to produce high lift in wind speeds ranging from 5-12m/s for small-medium
significantly increasing performance. The new design used scale usage in an open-field or roof-mounted with a tower
a NACA 4412 Diffuser and a single aerofoil ring-flap with height upto 12m.
𝐿: 𝐷 = 3.07: 1 but no bell-shape intake. In terms of effect
of using ring-flaps, comparing the models A and B at 𝐶𝐷 =
0.5 it can be seen that the increase in augmentation was
20% and 52% respectively. When model B was tested at

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2.5 Mixer Ejector Wind Turbines 3. Ground-based DAWT Technologies using
VAWT’s
Figure 3e) shows mixer ejector technology that
involves the use of single- and multiple-stage ejector Using a Diffuser is an optimising technique for
technology that was aimed at exceeding the Betz limit. achieving greater power outputs for a given rotor swept
Presz Jr. et al [33] designed a shroud that was contoured area. In more recent years, this technique has extended its
with an inlet, a ring of stator vanes, a ring of rotating reach to VAWT’s. With the advantages of operation in low
blades and a mixer/ejector pump to increase the flow wind speeds, robustness and design simplicity (leading to
volume through the turbine while mixing the low energy low material demands, O&M costs and recyclability)
turbine exit flow with high energy wind flow that enters VAWT’s present a valid and very realistic potential
through the second stage slot. Power augmentations of 3-4 success in the DAWT sector. However, the well-
compared to an equivalent bare turbine are predicted. This established disadvantages to this type of DAWT arise from
claim is used to encourage the increase in productivity of low self-starting torques and poor efficiencies of bare
wind farms by a factor of 2 or more and will be ideal for VAWT rotors. The two main types of VAWT’s are the
populated areas because it is safer and quieter. To produce lift-type (e.g. H-rotor and Darriues) and the drag-type (e.g.
streamwise vortices, lobed mixers and vortex generators Savonius). For VAWT’s, Diffusers are usually referred to
can be used. as ‘Shrouds’ due to their thin-sheet wrap-around designs
that have a constant thickness and cross-sectional area. An
2.5.1 FloDesign
in-depth review on power augmented VAWT’s using
Shrouds was conducted by Wong et al. [36]. DAWT’s
‘FloDesign’ now owned by the Ogin Technology based on vertical axis rotors have not yet advanced as far
Company [34] was designed to create vorticities in the as their horizontal axis counterparts due mostly to the
wake of the turbine to reduce the pressure through the
lower power coefficients and augmentations, lower power
outlet as much as possible. This design was intended to ratings and lower performance stability.
accelerate airflow though the inlet and mixer, then direct
and control turbulent flow by introducing external air 3.1 Single-direction Flow
through the ejector. The ejector has a larger diameter than
the mixer to ‘spread out’ airflow in the wake also VAWT’s are often subject to both positive and
contributing to a reduced turbulence FloDesign has been negative torque, i.e. based on variable inflow wind
designed for deployment in wind and water and even for conditions, the axis of rotation can be clockwise and anti-
applications in the aircraft industry. Claims by the clockwise. Although this may appear beneficial because in
manufacturer include a reduced infra-red signature as the theory a VAWT can capture wind and produce power in
mixer-ejector shroud doubles as a passive cooling system all wind directions, the inherent problems of difficult
for the turbine, increased propeller efficiency and reduced starting torques removes the possibility of reliable power
noise. outputs. To address this, the single-direction shroud aims
2.6 Rotating Diffusers at channelling wind onto the rotor for a continuous
positive torque, similar to the operation of centrifugal
Anakata Wind Power Resources [35] in the UK pumps and the Tesla turbine. The drag-type single-
recently patented augmented wind turbine technology direction DAWT as seen in Fig. 4a) uses a wrap-around
using rotating Diffusers. Also referred to as dynamic structure and can be applied to lift-type turbines [37].
Diffusers because they can rotate around the horizontal Although it has been reported that the lift-type single-
axis of the turbine, the Diffuser ring is fixed to the turbine direction DAWT may use a deflector instead of a wrap-
to form a rotor cowling. The Diffuser therefor moves with around structure and is placed upstream of incoming wind
the rotation of the rotor. The Diffuser may have more flow [38]. The advantage of using a deflector instead of a
dynamic or aero-elastic devices attached to the trailing wrap-around structure is to prevent areas of re-circulation
edge of the Diffuser can include slot gaps to allow for that may develop between the blades and the shroud that
external flow into the turbine. The DAWT typically reduces torque-generating capabilities. There have been
includes a vortex generator and guide vanes may be significant improvements in power coefficients and
employed to prevent airflow twist. These guide vanes may augmentations, but these are still lower than for DAWT’s
comprise of pre-rotation vanes located upstream of the based on HAWT’s.
turbine or post-rotation guide vanes located downstream of
the turbine. Figure 3f) shows a schematic design. The 3.2 Omni-directional Flow
0.85m diameter A007 rated at 370W at 12.5m/s. The rotor
is the downwind type and made of Acrylic coated ABS, a The reported power coefficients and augmentations
strong, wear-resistant material that is easy to replace and for this type of DAWT are significantly higher than for the
maintain as well as allowing a weight and load reduction. single-type DAWT. However there are higher capital costs
With this technology, the blades being attached to the due to the care in design of the guide vanes involved in the
Diffuser, the blades are less susceptible to vibrations. Shroud. In the lift-type omni-directional DAWT guide
However, it is not clear the effects of the rotating Diffuser vanes are placed at specific angles to accelerate oncoming
on the aerodynamic drag of the turbine and whether this wind to an optimum angle of attack. This is aimed at
reduces the rotor rpm. controlling and reducing negative torque and turbulence,

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thereby also removing the need for a yaw mechanism [39]. the axis of rotation either above or below the rotor. There
At lower tip-speed ratios, the use of guide vanes in this are two main types of perpendicular flow turbines, the
way can increase torque output. This design feature also single-direction and omni-directional inlet as seen in Fig.
applies to the drag-type omni-directional DAWT. The 4c). In the single-direction flow, the cowling is at the
Zephyr VAWT was specifically designed to have a high centre of this turbine and is made of two parts. Air is
solidity at low tip speed ratios to define the upper limits of directed into the vent tube using guide vanes and
optimum performance [40]. Power coefficients are still recirculates. A pressure differential is then induced along
quite low for this technology. In another design, a Vortical the chimney to the atmosphere where air is then drawn out
Stator Assembly (VSA) uses two ring shaped discs that of the turbine. Efficiencies are low with this type of
contain the guide vanes, similar to the one shown in Fig. turbine but improve with fewer blade numbers. The omni-
4b). The aim here was to create ‘vortical’ flow that would directional perpendicular flow turbine is based on the same
pull in and accelerate oncoming wind to the rotor and principles as the single-direction where air is drawn in
reduce its negative torque. The power coefficients and through the inlet and recirculates. In this case, air is then
augmentations were more promising for this DAWT [41]. directed through an accelerating column where it is driven
through a turbine in a tunnel perpendicular to the incoming
3.3 Perpendicular Flow wind. This type of turbine does not typically have high
efficiencies and directing air flow through a complex
In a new approach to controlling and channelling wind pathway depends heavily on its aerodynamic design and
flow onto a rotor, these types of turbines direct inlet air to availability of high wind speeds. The energy dissipative
drive torque and then leave the turbine in the direction of effects would need to be considered.

a) Single-direction Flow b) Omni-directional Flow c) Perpendicular Flow

Fig. 4. Examples of the different types of DAWT’s based on VAWT’s. a) and b) are the drag-type examples with the Savonius
rotor. The lift-type and perpendicular flow turbines are subject to changes in the rotor used and the geometry and number of
guide vanes and cowling employed.
4. Large-scale On-Shore DAWT’s success of large-scale DAWT’s. It is expected that future
tower support structures will be constructed using steel
There are examples of utility-scaled DAWT’s that and/or concrete in modular units [42].
aimed at capturing and accelerating high wind speeds for
smaller starting torques than traditional medium-large 4.1 Igra’s Turbine
scale bare wind turbines. The main advantages are the
higher levels of augmented power and the suitability to Following his own work on Multi-slot Shrouds, one of
wind farm application. Most of the research in this the earliest DAWT’s was built by [19]. The throat was 3m
particular field has been experimental with the aim of in diameter with outer diameter 6m and length 8m. The
observing performance and efficiency changes when the Diffuser cross section was a NACA 4412 positioned at a
DAWT is up-scaled. Questions of increased noise levels, 5° angle of attack. The prototype pilot plant was positioned
increased climatic exposure, strains on yaw control and 3.5m above the ground, down from 9.5m as originally
pressure recovery effectiveness still need to be addressed planned. Figure 5 shows the test rig for the pilot plant that
for large-scaled DAWT’s. In the latter case, if recovery is was set up in the backyard of the Israel Aircraft Industry
poor, a strong suction effect may be created which could campus where it was manufactured. The tested free stream
potentially damage the rotor and overcome torque velocity was 5m/s and the design power was 0.8kW. The
generation. Additional obvious considerations of increased actual power output achieved was 0.66kW with an
weight, load and material erosion may defined the ultimate efficiency of 82.5% and an augmentation factor of 2. This

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was calculated based on the theoretical maximum power survived stormy conditions and showed strength in
output of 0.33kW. The tested prototype fell short of the durability. Igra and previously, Foreman, discussed the
intended design due to a limited budget, it was not importance of cost and size reduction of Diffuser design.
aerodynamically accurate. Nonetheless, the DAWT

Fig. 5. The Pilot Plant for Igra’s Turbine. ‘q’ refers to volumetric air flow rate (m3/s) [19].

4.2 DonQi Urban Windmill 5. Large-scale Off-Shore DAWT’s

The ‘DonQi Urban Windmill’ developed by TU Delft For the deployment of DAWT’s in off-shore
University, was developed to work as a large-scale DAWT applications, changing marine environments and much
that is compact and quiet and can be installed in urban harsher climatic conditions need to be carefully
environments on large and small buildings [43]. Part of a understood. There already exist example of off-shore wind
class of ‘Urban Windmills’, the DonQi has a three-bladed farms and even underwater turbines. Nonetheless, access
rotor with a diameter of 1.5m. The Diffusers’ cross section to maintenance and water pollution due to damage present
is an aerofoil with an area ratio of 1.73 and has a Gurney very realistic limitations. The increased weight of a
Flap attached to the outlet of width 40mm. The DonQi is DAWT accentuated by its increased rotors size will require
able to catch wind speeds from 2.5m/s to 12.5m/s. substantial platforms and foundations in the sea bed. Two
approaches have arisen to address this. One method looks
4.3 Catching Wind Power closely at the design of a robust tower structure that may in
some cases serve to accommodate more than one rotor at a
Raymond Green [44] created a working prototype of a time or a floating platform that will allow for improved
‘bladeless’ DAWT in California in 2007 that was aimed at access to shallow waters as well as deep and adaptability
being wildlife friendly and conducive to deployment in to wind directional changes.
wind farms with power augmentations claimed upto 2. The
‘Compressed Air Enclosed Wind Turbine’ weighs 20 kg, 5.1 Wind-Lens Wind Farm and the Honeycomb
while the turbine assembly itself measures 30 cm in Concept
diameter and the vorticity-based Diffuser which surrounds
it has a diameter 78 cm at its widest point. The ‘Inner In a desert area of North West China, six 5kW
Compression Cone Technology’ aims to draw in wind downwind units of the ‘Wind-Lens Turbines’ were
through its inlet, pushing air through the smallest diameter successfully installed on irrigation land. The units were
of the shroud where the rotor is positioned. Due to this each set-up as part of a micro-grid power distribution
technology, the rotor blades can be kept shorter for a given network feeding in to a central pumping system. The
power output compared to a bare turbine, thereby running power from the turbines were stored in battery technology
for a quieter operation. The aim was to install multiple at the station. At a seashore park in Fukuoka City, Japan
DAWT’s on a single tower to capture wind at similar three 5kW downwind turbines were installed with a hub
altitudes. height of 15m. The exact location these turbines were
determined from an examination of the wind profiles in the
area at 15m. They have been placed near the entrance of
the major river at Hakata Bay where it was found that air

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accelerated across the waters on to land but decelerated designs but didn’t reach manufacturing success due to a
over high-rise buildings. lack of interested investors. ‘Vortec 7’ was then developed
further for off-shore applications. A 5 MW upwind turbine
Following this, an innovative design in off-shore wind
with a V66 blade was designed with a single large
farms was then proposed. At the Renewable Energy
diameter, ‘thick’ tower structure fixed to the ocean floor
International Exhibition in 2010, the Wind-Lens
aimed at withstanding rough deep sea conditions [45]. If
Technology was re-introduced for application in a wind
successful, this concept would have a mega-watt capacity
farm as the ‘Honeycomb’, see Fig. 6. It would be a
potential per unit DAWT albeit at high capital costs.
hexagonal array of connected floating platforms. The
Unless prioritised, the safety and access risks would also
entire platform would be mobile and rotate to capture wind
be very high.
flow as well as match wind-induced wave flow. Intended
initially for shallow waters, the hexagonal array was 5.3 Innowind
chosen to reduce the potential overall weight of the
platform and provide a strong structural support. Each lens ‘Innowind’ [46], a Norwegian company produced
is approximately 112m in diameter and as estimated to be DAWT technology for use off-shore and potentially in an
able to power an average household. The concept off-shore wind farm based on Diffuser mixer-ejector
endeavoured to re-invent off-shore wind farming as theory. The approach was to increase the surface area of
efficient, re4liable, aesthetically pleasing and easy to the turbines without building excess structural weight
access. Building an array platform also has the advantage which is why the off-shore turbines are triple headed.
of holding the capacity for combined collection and Innowind’s on-shore equivalent has a large diameter in the
monitoring of electrical output and output losses can be range of 20-30m for power outputs of 1.5-3MW.
reduced instead of feeding electricity from a single unit.
The project is still in its early stages of implementation.
[22].

5.2 Vortec 7 Wind Farm Concept

The Vortec Energy World Power Company in New

Zealand expanded their operations to offshore wind power.
The ‘Maxi Vortec’ and the ‘Mini Vortec’ were intended

Fig. 6. The Honeycomb Concept [22]

6. Airborne DAWT Technologies treated as a balloon-like structure that can be filled with a
gas such as helium to encourage buoyancy which will
There are two main approaches to suspending lighten the turbines load. While the latter approach may
DAWT’s in different altitudes. The first approach requires allow better atmospheric mobility for the turbine,
a dedicated design to an anchor-transmission system that is achieving a precise aerodynamic profile for a gas-filled
robust and can distribute and stabilise the weight of the structure may be very difficult even with the use of
DAWT system as it will move in many degrees of motion. lightweight, aero-elastic material. However, managing yaw
Although not a typical fixed-ground-station system, this control with unpredictable directional changes may be a
DAWT will usually have a rigid tether containing the challenge. The idea of the floating turbine was proposed
transmission line for electricity and may be restricted to by TU Delft University as seen in Fig. 7. The aim and
some degrees of motion [48]. Working like a wind vane, advantage of this system is to access a wider range of wind
this type of ‘tethered’ DAWT, see Fig. 7a), will be able to speeds, especially at higher altitudes where wind speeds
align its inlet to oncoming wind. Yaw control, stability in are more predictable in terms of direction and magnitude,
lack of wind conditions and blade loading due to multi- while using a smaller rotor but allowing for a greater
directional and atmospheric changes could result in poor power extraction threshold compared to a bare wind
efficiencies. In the second approach, the Diffuser can be turbine.

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very similar to the hydro-Straflo turbine because the size
of the turbine bulb can be reduced. Inflow air can be used
6.1 Polifemus via the multiple inlet slots in the tubular case to provide
cooling through the polar pieces of the generator.
Ponta et al [47] carried out a study on floating water-
current turbines. The concept was then applied to wind 6.2 Altaeros
turbines. Inspired by the floating DAWT concept by TU
Delft University, the ‘Polifemus Project’ was introduced. The ‘Altaeros’, developed in 2010 is an innovative
This turbine uses double-flow channelling, co-axial vortex concept in power augmentation from a given rotor at
generator and modular assembly. The so-called variable altitudes, Fig. 7b). The Altaeros can reach 600
channelling device is made of an internal Diffuser with meters in altitude where wind speeds have between five to
aerofoil cross section and external deflectors that eight times greater power density. It is expected that the
encourage the ‘suction effect’, i.e. the pull of a greater Altaeros can produce power augmentations up to 2. With
mass of air. The co-axial generator was included to add a an automated control system and a helium-inflatable shell
tornado-eye effect to the suction in the wake at low channels the Altaeros is a large but lightweight structure.
pressure. The generator and double-flow techniques The shell with dimensions 15m by 15m is able to stabilise
effectively increase the power extraction capacity of the itself whilst floating at high altitudes and producing
turbine which implies an intercepted area greater than the aerodynamic lift and buoyancy [48].
equivalent physical area of the rotor. This characteristic is

a) Tetherered b) Floating

Fig. 7. The main types of airborne DAWT’s.

7. Summary of DAWT Technologies recognition from the concept itself. Due to limitations in
weight and efficiencies, DAWT technology has so far been
In Table 1, the main advantages and disadvantages restricted to small-medium scale. These limitations are
based on technical features have been summarised. For subject to further study and innovation. Relative to each
Diffusers in their conceptual phases, the augmentation other, the more successful DAWT technologies usually
factors are still missing as research is required in these employ horizontal-axis wind turbine rotors due to better
areas to either validate or invalidate these concepts. The visualisation and manipulation of wind flow profiles.
lack of augmentation data does not however remove any

Table 1 Summary of main DAWT technologies presented in this paper. ‘S’, ‘M’ and ‘L’ refer to small- (˂5m), medium- (5-
20m) and large-scale (≥20m) rotors respectively.

Tech. Name Rotor Power Augmentation Main Advantage(s) Main Disadvantage(s)

Rating Factor
Type Scale

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Simple HAWT S,M Up to 2-3 Design flexibility Bulk weight

Diffuser MW Increases air mass flow rate Need for large length-
onto rotor diameter ratio
Favourable pressure
distribution through Diffuser
Mixer-ejector HAWT S,M kW N/A Increasing air acceleration Increased turbulence
Multiple slots HAWT S,M kW 2-3 Re-energised boundary layer Dissipative losses in wake
regions
Rotating HAWT S,M kW N/A Removal of tip-blade losses Increased rotational strain
on supporting nose cone,
nacelle and tower
Vorticity- HAWT S,M,L kW N/A Re-circulation of air for Prone to inducement of
based lower exit pressures turbulence
Brim/Flange HAWT S,M kW 2-3 Reduces requirement of Limited design flexibility
larger L/D ratio
Single- VAWT S <kW <1 Encourages continuity in Doesn’t encourage
direction positive torque production laminar accelerated flow
Omni- VAWT S <kW <1 Greater potential for positive Low efficiencies
directional torque generation
Perpendicular VAWT/ S,M <kW N/A Production of re-circulation Low efficiencies
HAWT zones
Tethered HAWT S,M kW N/A Availability to greater Long term structural risks
Floating HAWT S,M,L kW <2 variety of wind speeds and Transmission and
directions collection of electricity
found that the specific power costs associated with
8. Business Opportunities DAWT’s were only lower than WECS’s when the rotor
diameter was either very small (< 20𝑚) or very large (>
Proof-of-concept exists for DAWT technologies but 50𝑚).
there has not been any significant market penetration yet
9. Other Considerations
due to lack in popularity, awareness, capital cost,
maintenance and lack of an established industry presence.
Other than the emphasis on the design of Diffusers,
Masukume et al [49] conducted a study on a ducted wind
there are other influences that affect the developments of
turbine installation in South Africa. The Levelled Unit
DAWT technologies. The considerations highlighted
Cost of Energy (LUCE) based on the capital costs and
below have been identified as crucial to DAWT’s.
recovery factors for the generator, battery bank, inverter
Following these considerations, a consequential study of
and controller were computed along with the annual
factors such as advances in yaw control techniques,
electrical energy of the system (in this case, 1900 hours of
electricity transmission and storage and improvements in
operation at a mean annual speed of 5m/s) to give US
tower supports and structural strength and integrity will be
0.26/kWh which was found to be lower than the equivalent
necessary.
bare wind turbine. Wind power generation can potentially
reduce water and carbon dioxide levels unlike 9.1 Increasing the Number of Turbine Blades
conventional power plants due to lower consumptions.
Current engineering cost models however, do not take Wang and Chen [51] studied the effect of the number
these factors into account due to a focus on the direct of rotor blades on a DAWT’s performance. The
relationship between capital costs and electrical outputs. investigation used NACA4412, NACA4420 and
Foreman et al [50] conducted one of the first NACA4416 aerofoil cross sections for the Diffuser. Using
economic analysis of the DAWT system. The DAWT can the ANSYS CFX package the RANS solver was used and
provide an operational advantage because it can reduce the the 𝑘 − 𝜀 turbulent model. For an air incident angle of 7°
minimum cut-in wind speed and raise the high-speed and the different Diffusers were tested for 2, 4, 6, and 8 rotor
cut-out wind speeds compared to a conventional system. blades with two different rotor of blades. It was found that
Also providing stability to turbine blades DAWT’s are less increasing the number of blades increases the starting
likely to be damaged by cyclic operation. It was claimed, torque and reduces the cut-in speed. But, increasing the
that turbulence and intermittent wind speeds can be number of blades also leads to greater blockage effects and
moderated allowing the DAWT access to a wide range of a gradually reduced entrance velocity. The number of
applications and wind capture at yaw angles ±30°. Costs blades should be chosen in alignment with generator
were compared between DAWT’ and WECS based on choice. Generally, the tip-speed ratios for both the
equal rotor diameters and equal power output’s. For simulated blades were in the range 4-6 and above this the
example, at an augmentation factor of 1.89 and a 40m power coefficient reduced [52, 53]. Further to this,
DAWT turbine, the equivalent WECS in terms of power optimising blade design for bare wind turbine rotors (e.g.
output would need to have a 55m turbine. However, it was HAWT’s) for improvements in both turbine efficiency and

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rotations in low wind speeds should also be carefully Diffuser, with augmentations achievable between 2 and 3.
considered [54, 55, 56]. Currently, an understanding of DAWT technology
depends mostly on the design of Diffusers. There is no set
9.2 Material Considerations methodology for the design of a Diffuser, a wind turbine
rotor is typically chosen and a Diffuser is designed to
It is expected that developments in the field of carbon- allow the turbine to accomplish a greater output. There are
based materials and 3D printing will be able to transform measurable design parameters, such as the area ratio,
the wind turbine industry for faster and frequent length-diameter ratio, turbine disk loading etc. that have
manufacture, durability and reduced weight. Additionally, been outlined in this paper and can be used as key
developments in high strength fabrics enable specific outcomes of performance in terms of power output and
lightweight aerodynamic structures to be strong and efficiency. In theory, the Diffusers presented can be
weather resistant. Wang et al [57] conducted wind tunnel adapted to any given wind turbine rotor, accounting for
experiments to assess the effect of a flanged (with a soft blade-tip clearances.
brim) Diffuser (namely the Wind-Lens) on the blades of a
3kW turbine placed inside it. The tested blades were made The established flat-walled and simple Diffusers for
of carbon-reinforced plastic (CRFP) with a solid foam horizontal-axis turbines are still the most recommended
core. The tests were carried out at wind velocities from designs due to a clear understanding of the improvements
6.9m/s to 11.6m/s and across yaw angles from 0 − 30°. in laminar wind profiles and adaptability to a wider range
Results showed that the blade rotational speed was higher of bare wind turbine rotors, albeit small-scale. The
with the flanged Diffuser than without, but centrifugal technologies presented are valid concepts but have not yet
forces acting on the blades also increased though not as reached commercial success due mostly to high capital
much as for when conventional materials were used in the costs, low popularity and additional loading due to
blade manufacture. The soft foam structure prevented a Diffuser weight. The most pressing needs for the
large increase in centrifugal forces in small wind turbines. development of DAWT technologies include the relative
There were larger dynamic strains observed in the blade contributions to performance of each Diffuser perhaps by
root and higher tensile strains in the rest of the blade for employing a single continuous rotor and the practical
the flange Diffuser system than the bare wind turbine. In issues involving bulkiness, installation and operation. A
conclusion, it was found that large yawing angles can further consideration should be given to the visual impacts
reduce strains on the blades. The results were extrapolated of the DAWT system and its levels of acceptance and
to a higher wind velocity, to a maximum of 30m/s. At this perceptions among mainstream renewable technologies.
speed it was found that there would be maximum tensile
force on the blades under a no loading condition and 0°
yaw angle, but with the flanged Diffuser this force would
be less that the ultimate strength of the blades. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Heriot-Watt University
9.3 Air Inflow Angles and the School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and
Society for supporting this research.
The numerical study of multi-directional flow onto the
rotor of a DAWT has not yet been studied. Existing
technology has tried to address this issue by using a
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