Solid and Fluids

Matter
 Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space (volume).
 It is made up of tiny particles which are known as molecule.
 The molecules of a matter consist of an atom
 Matter existed in 3 different states which are solid, liquid and gas.
Solid
 Have definite volume and definite shape.
 When the force is removed, the solid returns to its original shape and
size.
 External forces can be applied to the solid and compress the material
Liquid
 Has a definite volume and do definite shape.
 Exists at a higher temperature than solids.
Gas
 Has no definite shape.
 Molecules are in constant random motion.
 Gas is substance that is in a gaseous, or vaporous, state of matter.
Plasma
 is an electrically charged gas. Because plasma particles have an
electrical charge, they are affected by electrical and magnetic fields.
This is the main difference between a gas and a plasma.
 Plasma exist inside stars.
Solid Materials
Crystalline
 Atoms are arranged in a highly ordered, repeating 3D structure.
 Have well-defined geometric shapes.
Polycrystalline
 Made up of numerous small crystals (grains) with varying orientations.
  A less ordered than crystalline solids but more ordered than amorphus
solids.
Amorphous
 Atoms lack a long-range order and are arranged almost randomly.
 Do not have a definite geometric shape.
Density
 It is defined as the amount of mass per unit volume
 Density tells us how "packed" or "heavy" something is for its size.
 It is the amount of mass in a given volume
 A high density means the object is heavy for its size, while a low
density means it’s light for its size.
 SI unit is kilogram per meter cube (kg/m³)
 p = m/v where p is density, m is mass and v is volume.
Pressure
 The force exerted by a fluid on a submerged object at any point is
perpendicular to the surface of the object.
 Pressure is the amount of force applied on a surface, divided by the
area of the surface.
 If you push harder or make the area smaller, the pressure increases.
 The average pressure P is the force devided by the area;
 P is pressure, F is force, A is area and Pa is pascal

Elasticity Moduli
 It is defined as the amount of mass per unit volume.
 is a measure of a material's stiffness or resistance to non-permanent
deformation. It's also known as the modulus of elasticity or simply
modulus
 Stress = elastic modulus x strain.
Elasticity Properties
 Stress is the force per unit area causing the deformation.
 Strain is a measure of the amount of deformation.
  The elastic modulus is the constant of proportionality between stress
and strain
Young’s Modulus
 Resistance to stretching or compression along a single direction
(elasticity in length).
 Measures how stiff a material is when you stretch or compress it
lengthwise.
Shear Modulus
 Resistance to shape deformation when forces act parallel to the
surface (elasticity of shape).
 Measures how a material resists shape changes when forces are
applied parallel to its surface (like sliding or twisting).
Bulk Modulus
 Resistance to volume compression when the material is subjected to
uniform pressure from all sides (elasticity of volume).
 Measures how hard it is to compress a material evenly from all sides
(change its volume).
Pascal’s Principle
 A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
 It is first recognized by Blaise Pascal, a French scientist (1623-1662).
 The hydraulic press is an important application of Pascal’s Principle.
 P is pressure, F is force and A is area.

Pressure Measurements: Manometer

Barometer
  Invented by Torricelli (1608-1647).
 a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, also
called barometric pressure. The atmosphere is the layers of air
wrapped around Earth. That air has a weight and presses against
everything it touches as gravity pulls it to Earth.
Archimedes’ Principle
 Any object completely or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up
by a force whose magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.
 287 – 212 BC
 Greek mathematician, physicist and engineer
 Inventor of buoyant force
Bouyant Force
 Upward Force is called the buoyant force
 The physical cause of the buoyant force is the pressure difference
between the top and the bottom of the object.
Bernoulli’s Principle
 1700 – 1782
 Swiss physicist and mathematician
 Wrote Hydrodynamica
 Also did work that was the beginning of the kinetic theory of gases
 When a fluid (like air or water) moves faster, its pressure becomes
lower.
 Bernoulli’s equation is a consequence of Conservation of Energy
applied to an ideal fluid
 States that the sum of the pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume,
and the potential energy per unit volume has the same value at all
points along a streamline


Laminar Flow
  Laminar flow (also called as streamline flow) is when a fluid (like
water or air) moves smoothly in straight or curved layers, without
mixing. Think of it as “calm and orderly flow.”
Turbulent Flow
 Turbulent flow is when a fluid moves chaotically, with swirling eddies
and irregular patterns. It’s the opposite of laminar flow—think “wild
and messy flow.”
Viscosity
 Viscosity is a measure of how “thick” or “sticky” a fluid is and how
much it resists flowing.
 High viscosity: Flows slowly
 Low viscosity: Flows easily
Surface Tension
 Surface tension is like an invisible "skin" on the surface of a liquid.
This happens because the molecules on the surface are pulled tightly
together, creating a tension that makes the surface resist being
broken.
 Molecules inside the liquid are pulled equally in all directions by their
neighbors.
 Molecules on the surface don’t have neighbors above them, so they
are pulled more strongly inward and sideways.
 This pull causes the surface to "tighten" and act like a stretched
elastic sheet.
Floating Tension
 A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container. It is first recognized by Blaise Pascal, a French scientist
(1623-1662). The hydraulic press is an important application of
Pascal’s Principle.

Water Droplet
  Surface tension causes liquids to take the shape that has the smallest
possible surface area. For instance: water droplets form spheres
because a sphere has the least surface area for a given volume.
Diffusion
 Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration, driven by the
molecules' natural tendency to spread out evenly.
 Molecules move randomly, and when there’s a concentration
difference (gradient), more molecules move from the high-
concentration side to the low-concentration side until balance
(equilibrium) is reached.
Osmosis
 Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a selectively
permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a
region of low water concentration.
 Water moves to balance the concentrations of solutes (like salt or
sugar) on both sides of the membrane. A selectively permeable
membrane allows water to pass but blocks solutes.
Characteristics of an Ideal Fluid
 The fluid is non-viscous
 There is no internal friction between adjacent layers
 The fluid is incompressible
 Its density is constant
 The fluid motion is steady
 The velocity, density, and pressure at each point in the fluid do not
change with time.
 The fluid moves without turbulence
 No eddy currents are present
 The elements have zero angular velocity about its center.