JEEVANDEEP PUBLIC SCHOOL

BARALALPUR, VARANSI
SESSION: 2022-2023 PHYSICS
PROJECT
Topic : Fluid Mechanics

Submitted to : Submitted by:

Mr. Prabhat Prakash Swayam Yadav
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I Swayam yadav of class 11 science have made
this project with my full dedication so that it can
fulfil all yours needs and adaptation. I onward
crystalline my due respect to my teacher
Mr. Prabhat Prakash , for their patient
guidance. I would also like to thank Dr Mamta
Singh for her advice and assistance in keeping
any progress on schedule and for a knowledge
environment. My grateful thanks are also
extended to my classmates who helped me a
lot to understand different topics and
derivatives of the topic ‘Fluid Mechanics'.

I am also thankful to my parents who provided

me with all the aspects and also helped me to
achieve, my all goals, getting knowledge and
encouraging me to do better.
INDEX
Introduction to Fluids
There are three states of matter: solids,
liquids and gases. Both liquids and gases
are classified as fluids. Fluids do not resist
a change in shape. Therefore fluids assume
the shape of the container they occupy.
Liquids are almost incompressible.
Conversely, gases are easily compressed
and will expand to fill a container they
occupy.

Definition of a fluid
Fluid is a substance that deforms
continuously under the application of a
shear stress no matter how small the shear
stress may be.

Ideal fluid
An ideal liquid is incompressible and non-
viscous in nature. An incompressible liquid
means the density of the liquid is
constant, it is independent of the
variations in pressure.
A non-viscous liquid means that, part of
the liquid in contact do not exert any
tangential force on each other. Thus,
there is no friction between the adjacent
layers of a liquid.

Thrust of a liquid
When an object is submerged in a liquid at
rest, the fluid exerts a force on its surface
normally. It is called as thrust of the
liquid.

Density of a liquid
Density (ρ) of any substance is defined as
the mass per unit volume.
ρ = mass/volume
Pressure
The thrust experienced per unit area of
the surface of a liquid at rest is called
pressure.
• When a liquid is in equilibrium, the force
acting on its surface is perpendicular
everywhere. The pressure is the same at
the same horizontal level.
• The pressure at any point in the liquid
depends on the depth (h) below the
surface, density of liquid and acceleration
due to gravity.

Pascal’s law
According to Pascal’s Law, the pressure
applied to an enclosed liquid is
transmitted undiminished to every portion
of the liquid and the walls of the
containing vessel.
Pressure exerted by a liquid column
The normal force exerted by a liquid per
unit area of the surface in contact is
called pressure of liquid or hydrostatic
pressure.

Effect of Gravity on fluid pressure

Fluid pressure is the pressure at a point
within a fluid arising due to the weight of
the fluid.
The formula to find the fluid pressure is
given by the formula,
P=ρgh
Where p is the pressure, h is the height
of the container, ρ is the density and g is
the gravitational constant.

Hydrostatic Paradox
“The hydrostatic pressure at a certain
horizontal level of a liquid is directly
proportional to the distance of the
horizontal level from the surface of the
liquid”.
The hydrostatic paradox states that the
height of water in a container is
independent of the shape of the
container.

Hydrostatic law
Hydrostatic law determines the amount of
pressure exerted at any point of a given
area of fluid, above a surface.
It can also be defined as the total weight
of this fluid on that surface.

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure at any point is
measured as the weight of an air column
with a unit cross section extending from
the point under consideration to the top of
the atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure = density of mercury
x acceleration due to gravity x height of
column of mercury.
Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure is the difference
between absolute pressure and
atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is also known as relative
pressure. The measured value can be both
positive and negative.
Pg = P – Pa
Where Pg is gauge pressure, Pa is the local
atmospheric pressure and P is the absolute
pressure.
Units of pressure
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal
(represented as Pa) which is equal to one
newton per square metre (N/m2 or kg m-
1s-2).
Other Units Of Pressure
There are several other units of pressure
such as bar, unit of atmospheric pressure
is atm, centimetres of water, millimetres
of mercury or inches of mercury (used as a
unit of blood pressure), torr, MSW and
FSW.
Buoyancy: Archimedes’ Principle
If a body is partially or wholly immersed in
a fluid, it experiences an upward force
due to the fluid surrounding it.
The phenomenon of force exerted by fluid
on the body called buoyancy and the
force is called buoyant force.
A body experiences buoyant force
whether it floats or sinks, under its own
weight or due to other forces applied on
it.
B=ρ×V×g
Where ρ and V are the object’s density
and volume, respectively, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Water has a
density of 1000 kg/m3.
Law of Floatation
The principle of floatation states that when
an object or a body flows on a liquid
then the buoyant force which acts on the
object or the body is equal to the weight
of the object.
Archimedes states that all the objects
which are placed in a liquid experience
an upward force which allows the body
to float. The law of floatation is an
application of Archimedes’ principle.

Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid by
virtue of which an internal resistance
comes into play when the liquid is in
motion, and opposes the relative motion
between its different layers. Thus, it is the
resistance of a fluid to flow.
Viscosity= shear stress/shear strain

The Coefficient of Viscosity

The force of friction between two layers of
fluid having the area in square centimetre
and separated by distance will have a
velocity is given by:
Here, η is coefficient of viscosity and
dV/dx is velocity gradient.
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:
Viscosity decreases with increase in
temperature because force required to
maintain the flow decreases due to
increase in velocity.
Effect of Pressure on Viscosity:
It increases with increase in pressure
because force required to maintain the
flow increases due to decrease in
velocity gradient (du/ dx and increase in
area (A) of contact.
Stroke’s Law
Stroke’s Law is a mathematical equation
that expresses the settling velocities of the
small spherical particles in a fluid medium.
The force that retards a sphere moving
through a viscous fluid is directly
proportional to the velocity and the radius
of the sphere, and the fluid’s viscosity.
Stroke’s Law Equation
Sir George G. Stokes, an English scientist,
clearly expressed the viscous drag force F
as:
F=6πrηv
Where r is the sphere radius, η is the fluid
viscosity, and v is the sphere’s velocity.
Terminal Velocity
In the case of raindrops, initially, it is due to
gravity that it accelerates. As the
velocity increases, the retarding force
also increases. Finally, when viscous
force and the buoyant force is equal to
the force due to gravity, the net force
becomes zero, and so it does the
acceleration.
The raindrop then falls with a constant
velocity, known as terminal velocity.
Thus, in equilibrium, the terminal velocity V
is given by the equation:

Streamline and Turbulent Flow

In fluid dynamics, a flow in which liquid
undergoes chaos and fluctuations or
mixing is called turbulent flow. It lies
parallel with the laminar flow, in which
layers of fluid move without any disruption
and smoothly. In the turbulent flow, the
fluid receives disruptions due to changes in
pressure and velocity.
Streamline flow, also known as laminar
flow, occurs in fluid substances. It is
described as a flow where there is no
mixing of layers, no turbulence, and no
fluctuations in the velocity of the fluid
particles, all of them remain constant.

Laminar Flow
In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is a smooth
or regular movement of particles of the
fluid. In Laminar flow, the fluid flows in
parallel layers with lesser lateral mixing and
no disruption between the layers.
We call the laminar flow a streamline or
viscous flow.
Critical Velocity
The Velocity with which the liquid flow
changes from streamlined to turbulent
known as the Critical Velocity of the fluid.
The fluid’s streamlines are straight
parallel lines when the Velocity is less for
the fluid in the pipe. As the Velocity of the
fluid gradually increases, the streamline
continues to be straight and parallel to the
pipe wall. Once the Velocity reaches the
breaking point, it forms patterns.
Throughout the pipe, the Critical Velocity
will disperse the streamlines.

Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces.

Where, Re=Reynolds number

ρ=Density of the fluids
V=Flow speed
Equation of Continuity
The continuity equation is an equation
that describes the transport of some
quantities like fluid or gas. The continuity
equation is very simple and powerful when
it is applied to a conserved quantity. When
it is applied to an extensive quantity it
can be generalized. Physical phenomena
are conserved using continuity equations
like energy, mass, momentum, natural
quantities, and electric charge.

A1= cross-sectional area of region 1

V1= flow velocity in region 1
A2= cross-sectional area of region 2
V2= flow velocity in region 2
Bernoulli’s Principle
According to Bernoulli’s principle, The
total mechanical energy of the moving
fluid, which includes gravitational
potential energy of elevation, fluid
pressure energy, and kinetic energy of
fluid motion, remains constant.
Bernoulli’s principle is derived from the
principle of energy conservation.
The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is
given:
P+1ρv²/2+ρgh=constant
Where,
P is the pressure exerted.
v is the velocity of the fluid.
Ρ is the density of the fluid.
h is the height of the container.

Dynamic Lift
The force which acts on a body such as
an aeroplane wing hydro fall or spinning
ball by virtue of its motion through a fluid.
Surface Tension
The surface tension of a liquid results from
an imbalance of intermolecular attractive
forces, the cohesive forces between
molecules.
There are two primary mechanisms
responsible for the existence of surface
tension:
• Inward force – It is present on the surface
molecules of the liquid, causing it to
contract.
• Tangential force – It is present parallel to
the surface of the liquid. The net effect of
tangential force is that the liquid behaves
as if its surface is covered with a stretched
elastic membrane.

Surface Energy
Surface energy can be defined as the
work per unit area done by the force
that creates the new surface.
Excess Pressure inside a liquid drop
Due to the surface tension force, the small
bubbles and liquid drops are spherical. The
pressure inside a liquid drop or a bubble is
greater than the pressure outside it.
Excess pressure in a liquid drop or an air
bubble is 2T/R. Excess pressure in a soap
bubble is 4T/R.
Angle of contact
It is defined as the angle subtended
between the tangents drawn at the liquid
surface and the solid surface inside the
liquid at the point of contact .

Capillarity
It is an ability of a liquid in a narrow tube
or capillary tube to rise or fall as a result
of surface tension.
It is a physical process in which liquids
flow without the help of gravity.
Application of capillarity:
In pen, ink rises due to capillarity.
In plants, the water is transferred to the
leaves from the roots by capillarity.
Cotton clothes absorb water by capillarity.
The rise of any oil in the wick.
 Bibliography
1. www.vedantu.com
2. byjus.com
3. www.doubtnut.com
4. www.toppr.com
5. www.learncbse.in
6. unacademy.com
7. www.sarthaks.com
8. www.akash.ac.in
9. www.olabs.edu.in