QUARK GLUON

PLASMA
PLASMA
Bose–Einstein condensate
Velocity-distribution data (3 views) for a gas of 
rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new
phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein
condensate. Left: just before the appearance of a
Bose–Einstein condensate. Center: just after the
appearance of the condensate. Right: after further
evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure
condensate.
Stress is a tensor.
The normal stress or longitudinal
stress (σ ) over the area is defined as
n

The tangential stress or shearing

stress σ over the area is defined as
t
 Stress

Longitudinal Shearing Volume

Tensile

Compressive
Strain (ε) is a dimensionless quantity.
Strain has no unit.

(i) Tensile strain (If the length is

increased).
(ii) Compressive strain (If the length is
decreased )
The maximum stress within which the body regains its original size
and shape after the removal of deforming force is called the elastic
limit.
If the deforming force exceeds the elastic limit, the body acquires
a permanent deformation.
 ∆𝐋
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞=
𝐅
Slope of the line OA gives the Young’s modulus of the wire
breaking stress or fracture point
tensile strength

limit of proportionality
Stress (σ )  
=constant =modulus of elasticity
Strain (ϵ )

There are three types of elastic modulus.

(a) Young’s modulus
(b) Rigidity modulus (or Shear modulus)
(c) Bulk modulus
S.I. unit of Young modulus is N m-2 or
pascal.
 The negative sign means that when
pressure is applied on the body, its
volume decreases.
 a material can be easily compressed if
it has a small value of bulk modulus.
 In other words, bulk modulus measures
the resistance of solids to change in
their volume.
 gases can be easily compressed than
solids, which means, gas has a small
value of bulk modulus compared to
solids.
 The S.I. unit of K is N m-2 or Pa (pascal).
Compressibility
 The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility.
 It is defined as the fractional change in volume per unit increase in
pressure.

Since, gases have small value of bulk modulus than solids, their,
values of compressibility is very high.
 Material can be easily twisted if it
has small value of rigidity
modulus.
 When a wire is twisted through
an angle θ, a restoring torque is
developed, that is
τ∝θ
 Since, rigidity modulus is
inversely proportional to angle of
shear, the modulus of rigidity is
small.
 The S.I. unit of η is N m-2 or
R

pascal.
 When we stretch a wire, its length
increases (elongation) but its
diameter decreases (contraction).
 That is, deformation of the material in
one direction produces deformation
in another direction.
 To quantify this, French Physicist S.D.
Poisson proposed this ratio.
 Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio
of relative contraction (lateral strain)
to relative expansion (longitudinal
strain).
 It is denoted by the symbol μ.
 For a wire of length L
with diameter D,
due to applied force, wire stretches and
hence,
increase in length be l and
decrease in diameter be d, then

 Negative sign indicates the elongation along longitudinal and contraction

along lateral dimension.
 Poisson’s ratio has no unit .
 Poisson’s ratio has no dimension (dimensionless number).
Energy per unit volume is called
energy density.
 The mechanical properties of materials play a very vital role in everyday life.
 The elastic behavior is one such property which especially decides the
structural design of the columns and beams of a building.
 As far as the structural engineering is concerned, the amount of stress that
the design could withstand is a primary safety factor.
 A bridge has to be designed in such a way that it should have the capacity to
withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the force of winds, and even its own
weight.
 The elastic behavior or in other words the bending of beams is a major
concern over the stability of the buildings or bridges.
 For an example, to reduce the bending of a beam for a given load, one should
use the material with a higher Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y).
 Young’s modulus of steel is greater than aluminium or copper. Iron comes
next to steel.
 This is the reason why steel is mostly preferred in the design of heavy duty
machines and iron rods in the construction of buildings.
 Fluids are found everywhere in
the world.
 Earth has about two-thirds of
water and one-third of land.
 Fluids are different from solids.
 Unlike solid, fluid has no
defined shape of its own.
 As far as fluid is concerned,
liquid has fixed volume
whereas gas fills the entire
volume of the container.
Pressure of a fluid:  If F is the magnitude of the normal
 Fluid is a substance which begins to force acting on the surface area A,
flow when an external force is applied then the pressure is defined as the
on it. ‘force acting per unit area’.
 It offers a very small resistance to the
applied force.
 If the force acts on a smaller area,
then the impact will be more and vice  Pressure is a scalar quantity.
versa.  S.I. unit of pressure is N m-2 or
 This particular idea decides yet pascal (Pa)
another quantity called ‘pressure’.  Dimensions of pressure is [ML-1T-2]
 Assume that an object is submerged  Another common unit of pressure is
in a fluid (say water) at rest. atmosphere, which is abbreviated
 In this case, the fluid will exert a force as ‘atm’. It is defined as the
on the surface of the object. This pressure exerted by the atmosphere
force is always normal to the surface at sea level.
of the object.  i.e., 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa or N m-2.
Density of a fluid:
 The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume.

 The dimensions of density is [ML-3].

 S.I unit of density is kg m-3.
 It is a positive scalar quantity.
 Liquid density is nearly constant at ambient pressure (i.e. at 1 atm. pressure).
 In the case of gases, there are variations in densities with reference to
pressure.
Relative density or specific gravity:

 The relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the density of a

substance to the density of water at 4 ºC.

 It is a dimensionless positive scalar quantity.

 For example, the density of mercury is 13.6 × 103 kg m-3.

Relative density =
𝑭 𝟏 + 𝑭 𝑮= 𝑭 𝟐
Pa is the atmospheric pressure which is equal to 1.013 x 10 5 Pa.
If the atmospheric pressure is neglected or ignored then P = ρgh
Pressure due to the fluid column is directly proportional to vertical distance or
height of the fluid column.
DO YOU KNOW?
 The atmospheric pressure at a place is the gravitational force exerted by air
above that place per unit surface area.
 It changes with height and weather conditions (i.e. density of air).
 In fact, the atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation.
 The decrease of atmospheric pressure with altitude has an unwelcome
consequence in daily life. For example, it takes longer time to cook at higher
altitudes. Nose bleeding is another common experience at higher altitude
because of larger difference in atmospheric pressure and blood pressure.
 Its value on the surface of the Earth at sea level is 1atm.
Statement of Pascal’s law is If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a
particular point, the change is transmitted to the entire liquid without being
diminished in magnitude.
Application of Pascal’s law
Hydraulic lift

𝑷 𝟏 =𝑷 𝟐

𝐅𝟏 𝐅𝟐
=
𝐀𝟏 𝐀𝟐
This means, with the force of 50 N, the force of 7200 N can be lifted.
 It states that when a body is partially or wholly
immersed in fluid it experiences an upward
thrust equal to he weight of the fluid displaced
by it and its upthrust act through the centre of
gravity of the liquid displaced.

Up thrust or buoyant force = weight of liquid displaced.

Viscosity is defined as ‘the property of a fluid to oppose the relative motion
between its layers’.
 Th is force is proportional to
(i) area A of the liquid and
dv (ii) the velocity gradient
When a liquid flows such that each
particle of the liquid passing through a
point moves along the same path with the
same velocity as its predecessor then the
flow of liquid is said to be a streamlined
flow.

If we assume a bundle of streamlines

having the same velocity over any cross
section perpendicular to the direction of
flow then such bundle is called a ‘tube
of flow’.
When the speed of the moving fluid
exceeds the critical speed, vc the motion
becomes turbulent.
 Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912)
formulated
 an equation to find out the nature ρ - the density of the fluid,
of the flow of fluid, whether it is v - the velocity of the flowing fluid,
streamlined or turbulent. D - the diameter of the pipe in which the
fluid flow,
η - the coefficient of viscosity of the
fluid.
Law of similarity which states that when
there are two geometrically similar flows,
both are essentially equal to each other,
as long as they embrace the same
Reynold’s number.
Difference between Streamline flow and Turbulant flow
 𝐰 =𝐔 +𝐅
𝑭 𝑮= 𝐔+𝐅
As per the theory, the following conditions must be retained while deriving
the equation.
• The flow of liquid through the tube is streamlined.
• The tube is horizontal so that gravity does not influence the flow
• The layer in contact with the wall of the tube is at rest
• The pressure is uniform over any cross section of the tube
V be the volume of the liquid flowing out per second through a capillary tube.
It depends on
(1) coefficient of viscosity (η) of the liquid,
(2) radius of the tube (r), and
(3) the pressure gradient .
1) The oil used as a lubricant for heavy machinery parts should have a high
viscous coefficient. To select a suitable lubricant, we should know its
viscosity and how it varies with temperature [Note: As temperature
increases, the viscosity of the liquid decreases]. Also, it helps to choose
oils with low viscosity used in car engines (light machinery).

2) The highly viscous liquid is used to damp the motion of some instruments
and is used as brake oil in hydraulic brakes.

3) Blood circulation through arteries and veins depends upon the viscosity of
fluids.

4) Millikan conducted the oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an

electron. He used the knowledge of viscosity to determine the charge.
These molecular forces are effective
only when the distance between the
molecules is very small about 10-9 m
(i.e., 10 Å).

The distance through which the

influence of these molecular forces
can be felt in all directions constitute
a range and is called sphere of
influence.
(1) The presence of any contamination or impurities
(2) The presence of dissolved substances
(3) Electrification
(4) Temperature

For example, the critical

temperature of water is 374ºC.
the work done in increasing the surface area per unit area of the liquid
against the surface tension force is called the surface energy of the liquid.
 𝑷𝟏

A A
𝑭𝑻
𝑷𝟐
 𝑷𝟏

A A
𝑭𝑻
𝑷𝟐
 𝑷𝟏

A A
𝑭𝑻
𝑷𝟐
 In a liquid whose angle of
contact with solid is less than
90°, suffers capillary rise.
 On the other hand, in a liquid
whose angle of contact is
greater than 90°, suffers
capillary fall.
 The rise or fall of a liquid in a
narrow tube is called capillarity
or capillary action.
 Depending on the diameter of
the capillary tube, liquid rises or
falls to different heights.
 Due to capillary action, oil rises in the cotton within an earthen
lamp.
 Likewise, sap rises from the roots of a plant to its leaves and
branches.
 Absorption of ink by a blotting paper
 Capillary action is also essential for the tear fluid from the eye to
drain constantly.
 Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because cotton dresses
have fine pores which act as capillaries for sweat.
 The pressure difference across a
curved liquid-air interface is the basic
factor behind the rising up of water in
a narrow tube (influence of gravity is
ignored).
 The capillary rise is more dominant in
the case of very fine tubes.
 But this phenomenon is the outcome
of the force of surface tension.
 The surface tension force FT, acts
along the tangent at the point of
contact downwards and its reaction
force upwards.
Surface tension T, is resolved into two
components
i) Horizontal component T sinθ and
ii) Vertical component T cosθ acting
upwards,
all along the whole circumference of
the meniscus.
Total upward force = (T cosθ) (2πr)
= 2πrT cosθ
upward force supports the weight of the liquid
column above the free surface
i.e, the smaller the radius of the tube
greater will be the capillarity.
• Mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of water. To reduce the surface
tension of water, a small amount of oil is poured. This breaks the elastic film of
water surface and eggs are killed by drowning.

• Chemical engineers must finely adjust the surface tension of the liquid, so it
forms droplets of designed size and so it adheres to the surface without
smearing. This is used in desktop printing, to paint automobiles and decorative
items.

• Specks of dirt get removed when detergents are added to hot water while
washing clothes because surface tension is reduced.

• A fabric can be made waterproof, by adding suitable waterproof material (wax)

to the fabric. This increases the angle of contact.
  In order to discuss the mass flow rate
through a pipe, it is necessary to
assume that the flow of fluid is steady.
 The flow of the fluid is said to be steady
if at any given point, the velocity of each
passing fluid particle remains constant
with respect to time.
 Under this condition, the path taken by
the fluid particle is a streamline.

 volume flux or flow rate remains constant

throughout the pipe.  equation of continuity
 the smaller the cross section, greater will be the  statement of
velocity of the fluid. conservation of mass
A liquid in a steady flow can possess
three kinds of energy.
Daniel Bernoulli proposed a theorem for
the streamline flow of a liquid based on
the law of conservation of energy.
𝐄𝐀 =𝐄 𝐏𝐀 +𝐊𝐄𝐀 +𝐏𝐄 𝐀

𝐄𝐀 =𝐄 𝐁
 This device is used to measure the rate of flow (or say flow speed) of the
incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe.
 It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem.
This Bernoulli’s concept is mainly used in
 the design of carburetor of automobiles,
 filter pumps,
 atomizers, and
 sprayers.
For example, the carburetor
has a very fine channel
called nozzle through
which the air is allowed to
flow in larger speed. In this
case, the pressure is
lowered at the narrow neck
and in turn, the required
fuel or petrol is sucked into
the chamber so as to
provide the correct mixture
of air and fuel necessary
for ignition process.