∆V/V= 0.10% = 0.10/100 = 0.

0001
K = P/(∆V/V)
 P = K (∆V/V) = 2.2 × 109 × 0.001
P = 2.2 × 106 Nm-2

Animated Video : Mechanical properties of Solids

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LytaVRxD5tU
Unit VII Properties of Bulk Matter

Chapter 10. Mechanical Properties Of Fluids

GIST OF THE CHAPTER:

*Hydrostatic refers to the study of fluids at rest and the forces and pressures
associated with them
*Fluid: A substance which begins to flow when a tangential force is applied on it e.g.
Liquids and gases.
*Thrust and Pressure of the Fluid:-
Thrust: The normal (perpendicular) force exerted by liquid at rest on a given surface
in contact.
Pressure: The normal force (or thrust) exerted by a liquid at rest per unit area of the
surface in contact.
P=F/A
Pressure is a scalar quantity because at one level Inside the liquid the pressure is
exerted equally in all direction.
SI unit = N/m2 Dimension = [M1L-1T-2]
Pressure plays a crucial role in many everyday situations. Here are some common
examples:
Air Pressure in Tires: The pressure inside car, bicycle, and other vehicle tires keeps
them inflated and ensures proper contact with the road for safe and efficient travel.
Hydraulic Systems: Car brakes and heavy machinery like excavators use hydraulic
systems where fluid pressure is applied to control and move parts.
Water Supply: Water pressure in plumbing systems allows water to flow from taps
and showerheads.
Atmospheric Pressure: Weather patterns and human activities, such as breathing,
depend on atmospheric pressure. Barometers measure atmospheric pressure to
forecast weather.
Soda Cans and Bottles: Carbonated drinks are bottled under high pressure to keep
the carbon dioxide dissolved. When opened, the pressure release causes the fizz.
Cooking with Pressure Cookers: These cookers use steam pressure to cook food
faster. The pressure increases the boiling point of water, cooking food more quickly.
Syringes and Pipettes: Medical syringes and laboratory pipettes rely on pressure
differences to draw in and expel liquids.
Airplanes: The cabins are pressurized to maintain a safe and comfortable
environment for passengers and crew at high altitudes where the atmospheric
pressure is low.
Balloons: Inflating balloons involves increasing the air pressure inside them, making
them expand.
Blood Pressure: The pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood
vessels is a critical measure of cardiovascular health.

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Pascal's law:
Pascal's law states that when pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure
change is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid.
In simpler terms, if you squeeze a liquid in a closed container, the pressure will
increase everywhere inside the container equally, not just where you are squeezing.
This principle is the reason why hydraulic systems, like car brakes and hydraulic jacks,
work.
Effect of gravity on fluid pressure:
Gravity Increases Pressure with Depth: When you go deeper in a fluid (like water),
the pressure increases because the weight of the fluid above you increases. This is
why divers feel more pressure the deeper they go underwater.
Fluid Pressure in a Container: In a container filled with fluid, gravity causes the
pressure at the bottom to be higher than at the top because the fluid's weight adds to
the pressure as you go down.
Hydrodynamics is the study of how liquids (like water) move and the forces that act
on them.
Viscosity:
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to deformation or flow. It describes how
much a fluid resists being moved or stirred.
High Viscosity: Fluids with high viscosity, like honey or oil, resist motion more and
flow slowly.
Low Viscosity: Fluids with low viscosity, like water or alcohol, resist motion less and
flow easily.
Viscosity is influenced by factors such as temperature and the internal friction
between molecules in the fluid.
η=-
SI unit poiseuille , Dimension [η] = [ML-1T-
1]

Stokes' law describes the force of friction experienced by a small, spherical object
moving through a viscous fluid.
According to Stokes' law, the force of friction (or drag force) on the ball is proportional
to the ball's radius, the fluid's viscosity, and the ball's speed..
The formula is:
𝐹=6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
Where: F is the drag force, η (eta) is the fluid's viscosity, r is the radius of the sphere,
V is the velocity of the sphere.
This law helps in understanding how particles settle in fluids and is useful in fields like
engineering and physics.
Terminal velocity:
Terminal velocity is the constant speed that an object reaches when the force of gravity
pulling it down is balanced by the air resistance pushing it up.
When you drop an object, it starts to fall faster and faster. As it speeds up, the air
resistance against it also increases. Eventually, the air resistance becomes equal to
the force of gravity, so the object stops accelerating and falls at a steady speed. This
steady speed is called the terminal velocity.
For example, when a skydiver jumps out of a plane, they speed up until the air
resistance balances their weight. At this point, they fall at a constant speed.
Raindrops falling from clouds accelerate due to gravity. However, they reach terminal
velocity when the upward force of air resistance equals the downward force of gravity.
The terminal velocity of raindrops depends on their size and shape.

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When a parachute opens, it significantly increases its surface area, which increases
air resistance. As a result, the parachutist slows down and reaches terminal velocity
at a much lower speed than during free fall.
Objects like feathers, leaves, or small paper pieces falling through the air will
eventually reach terminal velocity. The terminal velocity of these objects is much lower
than that of a skydiver due to their small mass and large surface area.
Expression for terminal velocity: Let a spherical body of radius r falling through a
viscous liquid of density 𝜎 and coefficient of viscosity 𝜂. Let 𝜌 be the density of the
body.
4
(i) Weight of the body acting vertically downward. W= mg =⁡3 𝜋r3 𝜌⁡g
4
(ii) Upward thrust equal to weight U = 3 𝜋r3⁡𝜎⁡g
(iii) Force of viscosity F acting in upward direction F=6 𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣

When body attains terminal velocity: U + F = W

4 4
𝜋r3⁡𝜎⁡g + 6 𝜋 𝜂 𝑟 𝑣 = ⁡3 𝜋r3 𝜌⁡g
3
4
6 𝜋 𝜂 𝑟 𝑣 = 3 𝜋r3 (𝜌 − 𝜎) g
2 r2⁡(𝜌−𝜎)⁡g
𝑣 =⁡9⁡
η

Streamline and Turbulent Flow:

Streamline flow, also known as laminar flow, occurs when a fluid flows smoothly in parallel
layers with minimal mixing between them.
Characteristics: It's characterized by orderly motion where fluid particles follow
predictable paths called streamlines.
Example: When you pour honey or syrup, it flows in a smooth, predictable manner.
Water flowing through a narrow pipe with a slow and steady flow also exhibits
streamlines flow.
Turbulent Flow:
Turbulent flow is chaotic and irregular motion of a fluid, characterized by mixing and
swirling of fluid particles.
Characteristics: It's characterized by eddies, swirls, and rapid changes in velocity and
pressure throughout the fluid.
Example: When you stir a cup of coffee vigorously, the motion of the coffee becomes
turbulent. Water flowing rapidly over rocks in a river or the air in a turbulent wind gust
are also examples of turbulent flow.
Bernoulli's theorem
It is based on principle of conservation of energy applied to ideal liquids in streamline
motion.
Statement: For the streamline flow of an ideal liquid, the total energy (sum of pressure
energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) per unit mass remains constant at every
cross-section, throughout the flow.
P + (½)ρv2 +ρ g h = constant

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Proof: Consider a streamline along which a fluid element is moving. Let points 1
and 2 be two points along the streamline. The fluid element has a volume dV, a
mass dm = ρdV, where ρ is the density of the fluid.
Work-Energy Principle: The work done on the fluid element as it moves from point 1
to point 2 is equal to the change in its mechanical energy.
Work done by the fluid WP = (P1−P2) dV
where P1 and P2 are the pressures at points 1 and 2, respectively.
𝟏
Change in kinetic energy of the fluid: ΔKE =⁡ ⁡ρdV (v22 – v12)
𝟐
where v1 and v2 are the velocities at points 1 and 2
Change in potential energy of the fluid ΔPE = ρ g dV (h2−h1)
where h1 and h2 are the heights of points 1 and 2 above some reference level, and g
is the acceleration due to gravity.
𝟏
(P1−P2 ) dV =⁡𝟐ρ (v22 – v12) dV + ρg (h2−h1) dV
𝟏
(P1−P2 ) =⁡𝟐ρ (v22 – v12) + ρg (h2−h1)
𝟏 𝟏
P1 + 𝟐ρ v12 + ρ g h1 = P2 + 𝟐ρ v22 + ρ g h2
𝟏
P + ρ v2 + ρ g h = Constant
𝟐

Applications of Bernoulli's Principle

● Venturimeter
● Atomizer or sprayer
● Lift of an aircraft wing
● Curved path of a spinning ball
Surface Tension:
Definition: Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to contract to the
smallest possible area. It arises because molecules at the surface of a liquid
experience a net inward force due to unbalanced intermolecular forces.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆⁡
Surface Tension = 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

Effect: Surface tension allows small objects, like paper clips or insects, to float on
water without sinking. It also causes water droplets to form spherical shapes and
enables capillary action, where liquids rise or fall in narrow tubes.
Measurement: Surface tension is measured in units of force per unit length (e.g., dyne
per centimeter or newton per meter).
Expression for excess pressure inside a liquid drop/ soap bubble :
Initial surface area = 4𝜋R2
Final surface area = 4𝜋(R + dR)2 = 4𝜋R2 + 8𝜋R dR (dR2 is neglected )
Increase in surface area = 8𝜋R dR
Work done in enlarging the drop = increase in surface area x surface tension
= 8𝜋R dR. 𝜎
But work done = F X d = p X 4𝜋R2 X dR
p X 4𝜋R2 X dR = 8𝜋R dR. 𝜎

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 2𝜎
Excess pressure, p = 𝑅
In a soap bubble, 4𝜎
p= 𝑅

Surface Energy:
Definition: Surface energy is the energy required to increase the surface area of a
liquid by a unit amount. It is a thermodynamic property that describes the tendency of
a liquid to minimize its surface area to reduce its energy.
Relation to Surface Tension: Surface tension is related to surface energy through the
equation Surface Tension =
Applications: Surface energy influences the wetting and spreading of liquids on solid
surfaces, affecting processes like painting, printing, and adhesion in various
industries.
Angle Of Contact: It is the angle enclosed between the tangents to the liquid surface
and the solid surface inside the liquid, both tangents being drawn at the point of contact
of the liquid with the solid.
e.g. * Liquid which wet the surface, angle is acute. Water-glass=80
* Liquid which does not wet the surface, angle is obtuse. Mercury-glass=140o
Silver-water=90o, Pure water-glass = 0o
Factors affecting Angle of contact:
• Depends on the nature of the liquid and solid in contact
• Depends on the medium that exists above the free surface of liquid
• Is independent of the inclination of solid to liquid surface.
• Is fixed for a given pair of solid and liquid and surrounding medium.

Capillarity and Capillary action: The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a

capillary tube in comparison to the surrounding is called capillarity

Rise of liquid in a capillary tube (Ascent formula)

h=

174
 PASCAL’S LAW

Applications of Bernoulli’s principle

Mind Mapping

175
 Terminal velocity
Terminal velocity is the constant speed that a freely falling object eventually reaches when
the resistance of the medium (usually air) prevents further acceleration. At terminal
velocity, the force of gravity pulling the object downward is balanced by the drag force
acting upward, resulting in a net force of zero and, consequently, no further acceleration.

Skydiving: When a Objects in Fluids:

skydiver jumps from an Rain Droplets: Small rain droplets
Objects sinking in water
airplane, they accelerate quickly reach their terminal or other fluids reach
until the drag force equals velocity and fall at a constant, slow terminal velocity when
the gravitational force. At speed. the drag force from the
this point, they reach V= QUOTE fluid balances their
terminal velocity and fall weight.
at a constant speed.

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 FLOW OF
Streamline FLUIDS
Streamline flow, also known Turbulent
as laminar flow, is a type of Turbulent flow is a type of fluid
fluid flow in which the fluid flow characterized by chaotic
travels smoothly or in regular changes in pressure and flow
paths the motion of the fluid is velocity turbulent flow is
orderly, and the layers of fluid irregular and involves mixing
slide past each other without and swirling motions. This type
mixing. of flow is common in natural and
Blood Flow: In small blood industrial processes.
vessels, blood flows in a Rivers and Streams: Fast-
laminar manner, ensuring flowing rivers and streams
efficient transport of nutrients exhibit turbulent flow, creating
and oxygen. white-water and rapids.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli's Principle, named after the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli, states that
in a flowing fluid, an increase in velocity occurs simultaneously with a decrease in
pressure or potential energy. This principle is fundamental in fluid dynamics and has
numerous applications in engineering and science.
P + QUOTE ρv2 +ρ g h = constant

Practical Applications Of Bernoulli’s principle

Aircraft Wings (Air foil): The shape of an aircraft wing is designed so that the air
moves faster over the top surface than the bottom surface. According to Bernoulli's
Principle, the pressure on the top surface is lower than on the bottom, creating lift.
Venturi Effect: In a Venturi tube, the fluid velocity increases as it passes through a
constricted section, causing a drop in pressure. This principle is used in devices like
carburettors and flow meters.
Atomizers: In devices such as perfume sprayers, a high-speed air jet reduces the
pressure, drawing the liquid up through a tube and dispersing it as a fine mist.

Multiple Choice Questions

Q.1-Which law states that the pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible
fluid is transmitted equally in all directions?
a) Boyle's law b) Archimedes' principle
c) Pascal's law d) Bernoulli's theorem

Q.2-What is the SI unit of viscosity?

a) Pascal (Pa) b) Newton (N)

177