ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHTS AND METHODS

CONTENTS
Introduction
What you will learn in this course
Course Aims
Course objectives
Working through this course
Course Materials
Study units
Textbooks and References
The Assignment File
The Presentation Schedule
Assessment
Tutor-marked Assignment
Final Examination and grading
Course marking scheme
How to get the most from this course
Facilitators/ Tutor and Tutorials
Summary

INTRODUCTION

There have been methods of acquiring knowledge in the past, but those methods were
not applied the same way and practically different across all world societies. The
introduction of science (the most reliable way of knowing) to knowing and knowledge
creation paved a path for an organized method of acquiring knowledge and rejecting
dubitable facts. Thus, the historical development of science's birth cannot be ignored to
establish the antecedent of sociology as a discipline.
This course will expose students to the elements that constitute scientific thoughts and
methods. It will also expose students to variable, hypothesis, fact, theory, model and
law.
 Sources of knowledge
Acquiring Scientific Knowledge
Goals of Science
Scientific Thinking
Elements of Scientific Thinking

Introduction to Sociology as a Science

Comtean Perspectives in Sociology
Durkheimian Perspectives in Sociology

Sociology and the Problem of Objectivity

Value-free Sociology
Max Weber on Value-free Sociology

Components of Science

The weakness of Scientific Methods

Essentials of Sound Scientific Thinking

Basic Concepts in Scientific Methods

- Variable
- Concept
- Hypothesis
- Theory
- Facts

Perspectives in Sociological Explanation

- Positivism
- Interpretivism
- Phenomenology
- Symbolic Interactionism
 - Ethnomethodology
- Hermeneutics

Introduction to Research Design

- Meaning and Content of Research Design

- Purposes of Research
- Units of Analysis
- Introduction to Methods in Social Research
- Relationship between Theory and Research

Population and Logic of Sampling

- Meaning of Population
- Probability Sampling
- Non-Probability Sampling
- Determinants of Sample Size

Instrumentation in Social Research

- Quantitative Instrument
i. Questionnaire
ii. Experiment
iii. Simulation

- Qualitative Instruments
i. Observation
ii. In-Depth Interview
iii. Key Informant Interview
iv. Focus Group Discussion
v. Case Studies
vi. Life Histories

Social Context of Research

- The Ethics and Politics of Social Research

- The Uses of Social Research

KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge is the ideas or facts that are acquired through observation, experience and
study. There are things in the universe that we do not need to go to the library to study
before we know them, but our contact with them forms our experiences. When you eat
hot foods without allowing them to cool a bit before taking them and get hurt in the
process, the next time you see such foods with the degree of hotness, you will be
cautious before taking them. This type of knowledge is gathered via our experiences of
the phenomenon.

Knowledge is also derived from the study or what is generally agreed to be true. For
example, we know there is a virus called Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), and we
also know that this virus causes Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). This
virus is acquired when a person shares sharp objects with an affected individual, or get
involved in unprotected sex.

You could also be told by your History lecturer that the Northern and Southern
Protectorates of Nigeria were amalgamated in the year 1914 or that Lagos State
University was established in 1983 by the enabling law of Lagos State. This is a pointer
that knowledge could also be derived from instructors or authorities. Some of the things
we know are based on our personal experience and observation. Most of the things we
claim to know are based on societal agreement and belief. That validates the fact that
knowledge claim is not static but a tentative one that changes over time. What is known
to be true today may not be true tomorrow.

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

People get to know things through several sources, and these sources are divided into
two (2) broad ways. They are
1. Traditional Sources of Knowledge and
2. Scientific Knowledge

Traditional Sources of Knowledge

Intuition

Commonsense

Tradition/Custom

Authority

Tenacity

Intuition

Intuition is a personal spiritual experience that requires no reasoning process. Spiritual

flashes and glimpses of truth, inspiration, revelation and spiritual insight comes through
intuition. This method of knowing is neither empirical nor logical.

Commonsense

Common sense is the essential ability to perceive, understand, and judge things shared
by nearly all individuals and are expected to be displayed by all the individuals without a
cause for debate. This method of knowing is neither empirical nor logical.

Tradition/Custom

Knowledge gained from traditions or customs makes most humans act and think like
robots that have been programmed in a way that will make them not feel of other
options. The Boko Haram, ISIS, Al-Qaeda insurgencies are good examples. Recruits in
such groups believe whatever they are told and follow such knowledge to death. This
knowledge is conventional, and people hardly question this kind of knowledge except
those regarded as deviants.
This knowledge has to do with what people know or believe. By accepting what
everybody knows, we avoid the overwhelming task of starting from scratch in our search
for regularities and understanding. Knowledge is cumulative, and an inherited body of
information and understanding is the jumping-off point for the development of more
knowledge. We often speak of "standing on the shoulders of giants," that is, on those of
previous generations. This method of knowing is neither empirical nor logical.

Authority

Despite the power of tradition, new knowledge appears every day. Aside from the
personal experience we encounter, we benefit from others' discoveries and
understandings throughout our lives. You're more likely to believe that you are a 'tabula
Raza' (an empty slate) as at the time you were given birth to but became a social being
due to your interaction with other humans, especially when your sociology lecturer says
this to you.
Like tradition, authority can both assist and hinder human inquiry. We are often too
quick to trust the judgment and words of the person who has special training, expertise,
and credentials in a given discipline or speciality.
Then, both tradition and authority act as double-edged swords in the search for
knowledge about the world. Simply put, they provide us with a starting point for our
inquiry, but they can lead us to start at the wrong end and push us off in the wrong
direction. This method of knowing is neither empirical nor logical.

Tenacity

Knowledge derived from tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so often that
you begin to believe it is accurate. Then, despite evidence to the contrary, you cling
stubbornly to the belief. This method is often used in political campaigns, where a
particular slogan is repeated so often that we begin to believe it. Advertisers also use the
tenacity method by repeatedly repeating their slogan for a specific product until they
associate the slogan with the product and think it meets its claims. This method of
knowing is neither empirical nor logical.
Goals of Science

The goal of science is not to deduce generalizations and undertake research to confirm
them but to deduce 'conjectural hypotheses' and engage in research to reject them.
There are three (3) primary goals of science, and they are
(1) To describe behaviour,
(2) To predict behaviour, and
(3) To explain behaviour.
Description
Science describes patterns of behaviour, thought, or emotions in humans. For example,
researchers might observe and clarify students' lecturers' work behaviour or study
behaviour. Description allows us to learn about behaviour and when it occurs. Careful
observation and Description would be needed to determine whether or not there were
any gender differences in channel surfing. Description allows us to observe that two
events are systematically related to one another. Without Description as a first step,
predictions cannot be made.

Prediction
Science allows us to identify the factors that indicate when an event or events will occur.
When the level of one variable is known, it allows us to predict the other variable's
approximate level. We know that if one variable is present at a certain level, then it is
likely that the other variable will be present at a certain level. For example, if we
observed that more males get involved in multiple sexual relationships than females, we
could predict that males are likely to be infected with STIs.

Explanation
Science allows us to identify the causes that determine when and why a behaviour
occurs. In an attempt to explain behaviour, there is a need to demonstrate that we can
manipulate the factors needed to produce or eliminate the behaviour. For example,
there are different reasons for males' involvement in multiple sexual relationships. It
may be associated with the family lifestyle or peer group influence. There are a wide
variety of possible explanations. As scientists, we test these possibilities to identify the
best explanation of why a behaviour occurs. When we try to identify the best explanation
for a behaviour, we must systematically eliminate alternative explanations. To eliminate
alternative explanations, we must impose control over the research situation. The aspect
of control variable will be explained later.

Scientific Knowledge

Science is the method of investigating nature. It is the deliberate way of knowing about
nature that produces reliable knowledge. Science is the collection of facts, concept and
useful idea about nature. Science entails using systematic methods of empirical
investigation, analysis of data, theoretical thinking and logical assessment to develop a
body of knowledge about a particular subject matter (Gosling, 2010).

Science is a particular form of ideology insofar. It is based on a very clear guiding

principle, namely that valid knowledge is based on strict rules of evidence that are both
reliable and valid. It is gaining knowledge through empirical methods and logical
reasoning.

Science is the logical and systematic methods by which knowledge of the universe is
obtained and the actual body of knowledge produced by these methods. Science, which
is 'Scire' or 'Scientia" in Latin, means 'to search for' or 'to find'.

Scientific knowledge is the product of a collective human enterprise to which scientists

make an individual contribution which is purified and extended by mutual criticism and
intellectual cooperation.

Scientific knowledge is distinguished from other sources of knowledge based on the fact
that its contents are condensable. The goal of science is to achieve the highest degree of
consensuality. Scientific knowledge is embodied by fact and principle that are firmly
established and accepted without serious doubt.

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Sociology is a discipline that is affiliated with social .sciences. The term sociology means
the science of society. Sociology's etymology came from the words' Socius' (Latin) that
may variously mean society, association, togetherness or companionship and 'Logos'
(Greek), which connotes 'Study of'. Sociology as an academic discipline arose in the first
half of 19th century and 1838 when the Frenchman coined the name named Auguste
Isidore Xavier Marie Francois Comte (1798 - 1857). Thus, the etymological, literal
definition of sociology is that it is the word or speaking about society. A simple
definition here is that it is the study of society and culture. The discipline is a special
science dedicated to unravelling the fundamental laws governing the societal
phenomena and human social relationship with a primary interest in analyzing the
modern, western world's problems and societies.

Sociology is the scientific study of society interested in studying the social relationship
between people in the group context. Sociology is interested in how we as human beings
interact with each other (the pattern of social interaction); the laws and principles that
govern social relations and interactions; the influence of the social world on the
individuals, and vice versa. It deals with a factually observable subject matter, depends
upon empirical research, and involves attempts to formulate theories and
generalizations that will make sense of facts.

The debate as to whether or not sociology can be considered a science is an important

one, mainly because of the status attached to the idea of scientific knowledge in our
society. Scientific knowledge depicts the world "as it is", rather than 'what it ought to
be'. In this respect, the idea of scientific knowledge holds out the prospect of truly
understanding the world's nature, rather than being dependent upon simple opinions or
assumptions.

Every science, to be such, must be a domain of force. Until a group of facts and
phenomena reaches the stage at which these can be generalized into laws, which, in
turn, are merely the expressions of the uniform working of its underlying forces, it
cannot be appropriately denominated a science. Therefore, the mere accumulation of
facts does not constitute a science, but a successful classification of the facts recognizes
the law underlying them and is, in so far, scientific. Then, if sociology is a science, it
must agree with all others in this respect. According to this principle, all knowledge that
is not systematized must be ruled out of society's science.

COMTEAN PERSPECTIVE IN SOCIOLOGY

To understand the nature of the question as to whether or not sociology can be

considered "scientific", it would be useful to briefly outline some of Comte's ideas
concerning the nature of sociology.

Auguste Comte: Sociology as the Science of Society.

Comte's writings date from the middle of the 19th century and reflect a general
preoccupation, at this time, with the methodology of scientific thought.

Just as natural scientists like the physicists, chemists and other scientists who study the
natural world to theorize and discover the nature of the Laws that determined the
behaviour of matter in the physical world, Comte argued that it was possible to discover
the Laws governing the behaviour of people in the social world. How this could be made
possible, he argued, in "The Positive Philosophy" (1853) was through the development
of a "positive" (or scientific) philosophy of human social development.

He argued that the methodology and insights of the natural sciences could be expressed
through "Positivism". For Comte, Science is not interested in ontology or origin of
matter. Rather, it is interested in how things relate to one another regarding invariable
and universal laws. The initial basis for positivist sociology (according to Comte) was the
assumption that the social world had similar forms of regular, objective, features to
those found in the natural world. Since the operation of natural laws governed the
natural world, so too, it was assumed, was the social world governed by the operation of
social laws.
Natural scientists' task was to discover the laws governing the natural world and the
task of social scientists too (sociologists in particular) was that of discovering and
elaborating the laws governing the social world. Given the assumption, there was a
correspondence between the natural and the social world. With this, Comte argued that
the way to discover laws governing the social world was to adopt the natural sciences
methodology.

Comte advocated the development of a new positive outlook which was founded upon
the certainties of science. The old traditions and values that people held high no longer
made any sense to the people living in French society. They lived in a state of chaos and
anarchy, and the 18th century Enlightenment had not stemmed but had contributed to
the decline. What therefore was needed was a new basis of intellectual, moral and social
life. This would be provided by the methods, findings and instrumental utility of science;
sociology would be the crowning pinnacle in this new order. The emergent industrial
society (of competition, social conflict, ideas of free enterprise) were seen as
scientifically calculable. Social and political beliefs could be matched to the scientifically
possible. The discovery of social physics laws [sociology] would ensure that people
accept the inevitable and would only change that which could be changed.

According to Comte, the main task of sociology was to discover the general laws of social
development and, in this respect, he categorized these general laws thus:

1. Laws of coexistence or social statics:

These were the laws that governed the relationship between different parts of society.
They involved, therefore, an examination of the functions and inter-relationships
between those various parts.

2. Laws of succession or social dynamics:

These were laws governing social change, and they involved an examination of how the
nature and function of social institutions changed over time.

DURKHEIMIAN PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY

Emile Durkheim
 Emile is a significant figure in the development of Sociological methodology. He showed
his contributions in 3 books in particular:

- The Rules of Sociological Methods,

- Suicide: A Study in Sociology and,
- The elementary form of religion.

These contributions reflect what can be called "Positivist Methodology" or "Positivism."

Durkheim used Inductive Positivism to explain Suicide because he saw it as more social
than psychological occurrence. He used the following steps:

• Collect facts (used official statistics)

• From the data, establish regularities.

• Having identified the regularities, establish the social factors that correlated with these
events.

Like Comte, Durkheim elaborated a form of positivism that was essentially inductive in
its approach to studying the social world. In "Suicide", for example, he argued that we
could explain suicides in social, as opposed to psychological, terms. To do this, the
sociologist had:

 Firstly, to collect "facts" about the concept of Suicide. In this case, Durkheim used
Official Statistics concerning rates of Suicide in different countries.

 From these facts, Durkheim argued that it was possible to identify regularities in the
data, over time. This was significant because, if Suicide was simply explicable in
psychological terms, such regularities should not exist: If Suicide is simply a personal
decision that is unaffected by external, social, factors then one would, logically, expect
that rates of Suicide would not exhibit any kind of pattern - suicides would, for example,
be randomly distributed throughout the year.
 Having identified these regularities, Durkheim then sought to explain them and to do
this he had to identify the social factors that correlated with (and ultimately, perhaps,
caused) Suicide. That is, he had to devise a theory that "explained" the facts he had
discovered.

In this respect, Durkheim lies within the basic positivist methodological tradition.
However, in a very important respect, Durkheim's methodology differed markedly from
that of a theorist such as Comte (and many 20th century positivists). The difference lies
in the theoretical explanation of the social causes of Suicide (which, in turn, implies a
methodological difference), and we can illustrate this difference in the following way.

Durkheim's theoretical break with Comtean positivism is to be found in the way he

sought to explain Suicide as a social phenomenon. For the true positivist, the
"explanation" of Suicide would be found in a positive correlation between, for example,
religious affiliations/beliefs and rates of Suicide. Thus, Durkheim found, for example,
that Catholics were less likely to commit Suicide than Protestants, that rates of Suicide
declined in times of war and that they increased in times of economic crisis (such as, in
contemporary times, the Wall Street Crash in America in 1929).

In positivist terms, the differences in rates of Suicide, about religious affiliations, would
have to be explained in terms of, for example, the concept of social isolation (that is, a
concept that can be empirically measured in some way). Thus:

 Protestant communities were located predominantly in urban areas.

 The urban way of life was more transitory and impersonal.
 This left increasing numbers of people socially isolated.
 This made them more vulnerable to Suicide...
There is a positive correlation between two observable and measurable phenomena
(social isolation and Suicide). However, Durkheim wanted to go further than the above
form of positivist explanation would allow. In this respect, he developed a form of what
is termed a "Realist methodology": That is, a form of methodology that looks at the
underlying, non-observable, factors that underpin social relationships and social
behaviour. In this respect, Durkheim argued that the causes of Suicide were to be found
in the idea of "invisible" moral forces that constrained individuals' behaviour; forces
that acted upon and conditioned social behaviour.

Durkheim argued that the regularity of suicide rates was a social fact; that is, it can only
be explained in terms of the different forms of the social life of various social groups.
Durkheim held that in modern society there were two principal causes of high (and
rising) suicide rates: (egotistic) Suicide was higher where individuals were not well
integrated into collective social life, and (anomic) Suicide was higher when society's
norms and values were too weak to regulate individual desires and drives. The
relationship between social integration levels and regulation and suicide rates
demonstrated that society exerted an independent influence over the individual. In
Durkheim's terms, society was external to the individual, so much so that even such a
supremely individual act as Suicide had its roots in society.

In the above respect, Durkheim located the underlying causes of Suicide in a

combination of:

1. The social circumstances of an individual's life.

2. The psychological state of mind that these circumstances produced.

Thus, given the "right" social conditions, it was possible to conclude that certain social
groups and/or individuals were more likely than others to consider suicide an option.

Objectivity in Social Science

There is no absolutely "objective" scientific analysis of the culture or put perhaps more
narrowly but certainly not essentially differently for our purposes of "social phenomena"
independent of special and "one-sided" viewpoints according to which expressly or
tacitly, consciously or unconsciously they are selected, analyzed and organized for
expository purposes. This lies in the character of the cognitive goal of all research in
social science which seeks to transcend the purely formal treatment of the legal or
conventional norms regulating social life.

On the one hand, we wish to understand the relationships and the cultural significance
of individual events in their contemporary manifestations and on the other the causes of
their being historically so and not otherwise. Now, as soon as we attempt to reflect about
how life confronts us in immediate concrete situations, it presents an infinite diversity of
successively and coexistent emerging and disappearing events, both "within" and
"outside" ourselves. The absolute infinitude of this assortment is seen to remain
undiminished even when our attention is focused on a single "object," for instance, a
concrete act of exchange, as soon as we seriously attempt an exhaustive description of
all the individual components of this "individual phenomenon," to say nothing of
explaining it causally.

All the analysis of infinite reality that the finite human mind can conduct rests on the
implicit assumption that only a finite portion of this reality constitutes the object of
scientific investigation. Only it is important in the sense of being worthy of being known.
It has often been thought that the decisive criterion in the cultural sciences was in the
last analysis, the "regular" recurrence of certain causal relationships. The "laws" which
we can perceive in the infinitely manifold stream of events must, according to this
conception, contain the scientifically essential aspect of reality. As soon as we have
shown some causal relationship to be a "law," (that is if we have shown it to be
universally valid utilizing comprehensive historical induction, or have made it
immediately and tangibly plausible according to our subjective experience), a great
number of similar cases order themselves under the formula thus attained.

Sociology and the Problem of Objectivity

There is no absolutely "objective" scientific analysis of the culture or put perhaps more
narrowly but certainly not essentially differently for our purposes of "social phenomena"
independent of special and "one-sided" viewpoints according to which expressly or
tacitly, consciously or unconsciously they are selected, analyzed and organized for
expository purposes. This lies in the character of the cognitive goal of all research in
social science which seeks to transcend the purely formal treatment of the legal or
conventional norms regulating social life.

On the one hand, we wish to understand the relationships and the cultural significance
of individual events in their contemporary manifestations and on the other the causes of
their being historically so and not otherwise. Now, as soon as we attempt to reflect about
how life confronts us in immediate concrete situations, it presents an infinite
assortment of successively and coexistent emerging and disappearing events, both
"within" and "outside" ourselves. The absolute infinitude of this assortment is seen to
remain undiminished even when our attention is focused on a single "object," for
instance, a concrete act of exchange, as soon as we seriously attempt an exhaustive
description of all the individual components of this "individual phenomenon," to say
nothing of explaining it causally.

All the analysis of infinite reality that the finite human mind can conduct rests on the
implicit assumption that only a finite portion of this reality constitutes the object of
scientific investigation. Only it is important in the sense of being worthy of being known.
It has often been thought that the decisive criterion in the cultural sciences was in the
last analysis, the "regular" recurrence of certain causal relationships. The "laws" which
we can perceive in the infinitely manifold stream of events must, according to this
conception, contain the scientifically essential aspect of reality. As soon as we have
shown some causal relationship to be a "law," (that is if we have shown it to be
universally valid utilizing comprehensive historical induction, or have made it
immediately and tangibly plausible according to our subjective experience), a great
number of similar cases order themselves under the formula thus attained.

Value-free Sociology
Sociology is a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in
order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects. In "action" is
included all human behaviour when and insofar as the acting individual attaches a
subjective meaning to it. Action in this sense may be either overt or purely inward or
subjective; it may consist of positive intervention in a situation or deliberately refraining
from such intervention or passively acquiescing in the situation. Action is social insofar
as, under the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual (or individuals),
it takes account of others' behaviour and is thereby oriented in its course.

COMPONENTS OF SCIENCE

Science possesses three (3) comp0onents that when followed, produce reliable
knowledge. The three components are

Empiricism

Rationalism and

Skepticism

Empiricism is a component of science that is mostly used by the positivists.

Empiricism has to do with what can be seen, felt, tangible and concrete. It is evidence of
being true. Empirical evidence is evidence that can be seen, hear touched, tasted and
smelt. One can perceive using the five senses. Empirical evidence is important because it
is the evidence that others besides one can experience, and it is repeatable. Empirical
evidence is the only type of evidence that possesses these attributes. Therefore,
scientists and critical thinkers use the only type to make vital decisions and reach sound
conclusions.

Another name for empirical evidence is natural evidence, which is the evidence found in
nature. Naturalism is of the philosophy that 'reality and existence' (that is, the universe,
cosmos or nature) can be described and explained solely in natural evidence, natural
processes and natural laws. This is what science does.
Rationalism is concerned with the making of knowledge. It is the practice of logical
reasoning. With this approach, ideas are precisely stated, and logical rules are applied to
arrive at a logically sound conclusion. Logic allows us to reason correctly. Logical
thinking is different from emotional thinking, hopeful thinking or wishful thinking
because they are easier than logical thinking.

Rational ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism. There are two aspects to it,
and they are inductive and deductive reasoning.

Induction and Deduction

Inductive reasoning moves from generalized assertion to specific assertion. Induction is
an approach in social research which argues that empirical generalizations and
theoretical statements should be derived from the data. It is the inverse of deduction, in
which hypotheses are derived from theory and then tested against data. Induction is
associated with qualitative research and naturalism, where the intent is to be 'true to the
data themselves', allowing the data 'to speak for themselves'. A priori assumptions and
theoretical ideas should not be used to interpret data; rather, the social meaning
inherent in the data alone should be used as the basis for any empirical generalization or
theoretical statement.
For example:
All humans eat for survival;
I am a human;
Therefore, I eat.

Deductive reasoning moves from a specific assertion to a generalized conclusion.

To deduce means to draw logical conclusions by reasoning; the deduction is the process
of reasoning by which logical conclusions are drawn from a set of general premises. In
the methodological literature, a deduction is an approach to data analysis, explanation
and theory that sees empirical social research as conducted based on a hypothesis
derived from the social theory which is then tested against empirical observation and
then subsequently used to confirm or refute the original theoretical proposition. This
approach is called deduction because research hypotheses are deduced from theory by
process of logical reasoning. It is associated with positivism and natural science models
of social research and is the inverse of induction. The deduction has a long pedigree in
the philosophy of science, where it is more properly termed the hypothetico-deductive
method', and was seen as one way to establish natural science laws.
For example:
Lagos State University has a chapel;
Lagos State University is a citadel for learning;
Therefore, all citadels of learning have chapels.

This syllogism should identify for you the problem with gaining knowledge by logic.
Although the syllogism is logically sound, the content of both premises is not necessarily
true. If the premises' content was true, then the conclusion would be true in addition to
being logically sound. However, if the content of either of the premises is false (as is the
premise "Lagos State University has a chapel"), then the conclusion is logically valid but
empirically false and therefore of no use to a scientist. Logic deals with only the form of
the syllogism and not its content. Researchers are interested in both form and content.

Skepticism is the final key idea in science and critical thinking. It is the constant
questioning of one's belief and conclusion. Skepticism connotes 'doubting everything
that looks dubitable'. The only way to escape deception is to repeatedly and rigorously
examine your basis for holding your beliefs. In this case, you must question the truth
and reliability of others' knowledge claims and the knowledge you already possess.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time,
endeavour to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary)
representation of the world. The scientific method is the best way yet discovered for
winnowing the truth from lies and delusion.

Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions and our
interpretations of natural phenomena, we aim to use standard procedures and criteria to
minimize those influences when developing a theory. As a famous scientist once said,
 "Smart people (like smart lawyers) can come up with very good explanations for
mistaken points of view." In summary, the scientific method attempts to minimize bias
or prejudice in the experimenter when testing a hypothesis or a theory.

Seven (7) Steps of Scientific Methods

1. Observation and Description of the phenomenon
2. Formulation of a hypothesis to validate a phenomenon. (in physics, the hypothesis can
take the form of calculation.
3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena or results of new
observations.
4. Performance of experimental test to validate or invalidate assumptions.
5. Modify/Formulate theory in the light of results
6. Regenerate newer hypotheses
7. Generalize based on regularity or validation of a phenomenon, theories, and
experiment.

The weakness of Scientific Methods

The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of the scientist's bias on an
experiment's outcome. When testing a hypothesis or a theory, the scientist may have a
preference for one outcome or another, and it is important that this preference, not bias
the results or their interpretation. The most fundamental error is to mistake the
hypothesis to explain a phenomenon, without performing experimental tests.
Sometimes "common sense" and "logic" tempt us into believing that no test is needed.
There are numerous examples of this, dating from the Greek philosophers to the present
day.

Another weakness is to ignore or rule out data which do not support the hypothesis.
Ideally, the experimenter is open to the possibility that the hypothesis is correct or
incorrect. Sometimes, however, a scientist may believe that the hypothesis is true (or
false), or feels internal or external pressure to get a specific result. In that case, there
may be a psychological tendency to find "something wrong", such as systematic effects,
with data which do not support the scientist's expectations. In contrast, data which do
agree with those expectations may not be checked as carefully. The lesson is that all data
must be handled in the same way.

Weakness arises from the failure to estimate quantitatively systematic errors (and all
errors). There are many examples of discoveries missed by experimenters whose data
contained a new phenomenon, but who explained it away as a systematic background.
Conversely, there are many examples of alleged "discoveries" which later proved to be
due to systematic errors not accounted for by the discoverers.

In a field where there are active experimentation and open communication among
members of the scientific community, individuals or groups' biases may cancel out
because experimental tests are repeated by different scientists who may have different
biases. Also, different types of experimental setups have different sources of systematic
errors. Over a period spanning various experimental tests (usually at least several
years), a consensus develops in the community as to which experimental results have
stood the test of time.

Basic Concepts in Scientific Methods

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative theory that has not yet been tested. Typically, a scientist
devises a hypothesis and then sees if it "holds water" by testing it against available data.
If the hypothesis does hold water, the scientist declares it to be a theory. A hypothesis is
a limited statement regarding cause and effect in specific situations; it also refers to our
state of knowledge before experimental work has been performed and perhaps even
before new phenomena have been predicted. To take an example from daily life,
suppose you discover that your car will not start. You may say, "My car does not start
because the battery is low." This is your first hypothesis. You may then check whether
the lights were left on, or if the engine makes a particular sound when you turn the
ignition key. You might check the voltage across the terminals of the battery. If you
discover that the battery is not low, you might attempt another hypothesis ("The starter
is broken"; "This is not my car.").

Null Hypothesis:
Null hypothesis indicates an exact definitive relationship between two variables. It
usually reflects 'no difference' or 'no effect' situation. It means that there is no difference
between two populations in the aspect of some property and that the difference if any is
only accidental and unimportant. The null hypothesis is akin to the principle that a man
is innocent until he is proved guilty. It constitutes a challenge and the function of
research to give facts a chance to reflect this challenge.
There is no difference between male and female in their productivity.
Statistically expressed: Ho: μ1 =μ2
Where,
Ho is the null hypothesis
μ1 is the productivity of the male worker.
μ2 is the productivity of the female worker.

Alternative hypothesis:
It is opposite of the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is a statement which
expresses a relationship between two variables or indicates the difference between
groups. It is the acceptance condition statement for each of the alternative courses of
action or solution to the problem. Example: male worker will have more productivity
than female workers.
Statistically expressed: H1=μ1 > μ2
Where H1= alternative hypothesis
μ1= the productivity of the male worker
μ2= the productivity of the female worker

Theory
A scientific theory represents a hypothesis, or a group of related hypotheses, confirmed
through repeated experimental tests. Theories in physics are often formulated in terms
of a few concepts and equations identified with "laws of nature," suggesting their
universal applicability. Accepted scientific theories become part of our understanding of
the universe and the basis for exploring less well-understood areas of knowledge.
Theories are not easily discarded; discoveries are first assumed to fit into the existing
theoretical framework. It is only when, after repeated experimental tests, the new
phenomenon cannot be accommodated that scientists seriously question the theory and
attempt to modify it. The validity that we attach to scientific theories as representing
realities of the physical world is to be contrasted with the facile invalidation implied by
the expression, "It's only a theory." For example, it is unlikely that a person will step off
a tall building on the assumption that they will not fall, because "Gravity is only a
theory.

Fact

Fact is a datum of experience which when verified can be used as a basis of inference (a
thing that is known to be

In popular usage, a theory is just a vague and fuzzy sort of fact. But to a scientist, a
theory is a conceptual framework that explains existing facts and predicts new ones. For
instance, today, I saw Sunrise. This is a fact. The theory explains that the earth is round
and spins on its axis while orbiting the sun. This theory also explains other facts, such as
the seasons and the phases of the moon, and allows me to make predictions about what
will happen tomorrow.

This means that in some ways, the words fact and theory are interchangeable. The solar
system organization, which I used as a simple example of a theory, is normally
considered a fact Newton's theory of gravity explains. And so on.

Concepts

This is a mental construct that represents some part of the world, inevitably in a
simplified form. 'Society' is itself a concept, as are the societies' structural parts,
including the family, economy, religion, and politics. Sociologists also use concepts to
describe individuals, by noting, for example, their sex, race or social class.

Variable

A variable is a concept whose value changes from case to case. It is also the
characteristics of a population that can take on multiple characteristics. The familiar
variable 'price', for example, changes from item to item in a supermarket. Similarly,
people use the concept' social class' to evaluate people as 'upper class', 'middle class' or
'lower class'. The use of variables depends on measurement, which assigns numerals to
variables according to rules.

Some variables are easy to measure, such as adding up income at tax time. But
measuring many sociological variables can be far more difficult. For example, in an
attempt to measure a person's social class, one might be tempted to consider the
dressing style, pattern of speech, occupation, educational background or residential
area.

The variable's scientific idea is the cause and effect (a relationship in which we know
that change in one variable causes changes in another). A familiar cause-and-effect
relationship occurs when a girl teases her brother until he becomes angry. The variable
that causes the change (in this case, the teasing) is called the INDEPENDENT variable.
The variable that changes (the behaviour of the brother) is known as the DEPENDENT
variable. The value of one variable, in other words, is dependent on the value of another.
Variables in terms of cause and effect are important because they give room for
prediction, and researchers use what they know to predict what they do not know.

Perspectives in Sociological Explanation

Positivism

This is the understanding of the world based on science. Auguste Comte coined the
concept of positivism. He believed that society conforms to invariable laws, much as the
physical world operates according to gravity and other natural laws. Human behaviour
is often more complex than natural phenomena, and science is more sophisticated than
we thought before. Thus, human beings are creatures with considerable imagination, so
that any rigid 'laws of society can fully explain our behaviour'. Likewise, the universe
may be much more 'chaotic' and 'emergent' that we previously thought, making
observations and laws much more difficult. Positivism began as a social theory body
that originated with the French sociologist Auguste Comte in the nineteenth century. It
was used to describe the application of science to study society rather than metaphysical
or theological speculation.
Positivism subscribes to applying natural science methods and practices to the social
sciences, a position sometimes also confusingly called naturalism. At one time,
positivism was the orthodoxy in the mainstream of social sciences and the principal
understanding of how social science research should be undertaken. However, by the
1960s it had become a derogatory term due to sustained attack by philosophers of
science, such as Thomas Kuhn (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions) and Karl Popper
(The Poverty of Historicism, The Logic of Scientific Discovery and Conjectures and
Refutations).

Interpretivism
Phenomenology
In Edmund Husserl's (1859-1938) words, the German philosopher who founded
phenomenology as a new method of inquiry, we must be true to the nature of
phenomena themselves, free of preconceptions and prior assumptions. Phenomenology
is about bracketing off preconceived ideas about phenomena through phenomenological
reduction, to achieve a state of pure knowledge and understanding uncontaminated by a
priori beliefs. As such, it is easy to see the attraction of phenomenology in the post-
empiricist, the post-positivist climate of the 1960s, when Hermino Martins argued there
was a 'cognitivist revolution' in the social sciences. Once freed from the constraints of
natural science models of social research with the attack on positivism, the focus shifted
to issues like people's cognition, perceptions, beliefs, interpretations and social
meanings (a tradition also known as interpretative sociology or hermeneutics).
The social science focus on subjectivity fitted the cultural ethos of the time, with the
decade of the 1960s seeing a burgeoning of similar traditions, such as existential
sociology and ethnomethodology. These ideas entered social science through the work of
one of Husserl's disciples, Alfred Schutz (1899-1959), and it is Schutz's writings that
primarily impacted on the cognitivist revolution in the 1960s through interpreters like
Berger and Luckmann, whose book The Social Construction of Reality in 1966 first
popularised phenomenology.

Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that deals with the understanding of
individual interaction.
Simmel was one of the first European sociologists to influence the development of U.S.
sociology. Georg Simmel differed from both Spencer and Marx. Whereas they were
chiefly concerned with macro theoretical issues-large institutions and whole societies in
their evolution through the course of history-Simmel was more interested in how
individuals interacted "with one another. In other words, his thinking and research took
a "micro" turn, thus calling attention to aspects of social reality that are invisible in
Marx's or Spencer's theory, For example, he began by examining dyads (groups of two
people) and triads (groups of three). Similarly, he wrote about "the web of group
affiliations."
His focus on the nature of interactions particularly influenced George Herbert Mead
(1863-1931), Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929), and others who took up the cause and
developed it into a powerful paradigm for research.
For example, Cooley introduced the idea of the "primary group," those intimate
associates with whom we share a sense of belonging, such as our family and friends.
Cooley also wrote of the "looking-glass self" we form by looking into people's reactions
around us. If everyone treats us as beautifuL, for example, we conclude that we are.
Notice how fundamentally the concepts and theoretical focus inspired by this paradigm
differ from Spencer and Marx's society-level concerns.
Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology emerged in the 1960s as a critique of mainstream social research
and, in particular, the problematic relationship between the research strategies
traditionally employed and the nature of the data collected. The American sociologist,
Harold Garfinkel coined the term. It quite literally meant the study of (ology) the
methods (method) that people (ethno) employ to make sense of the social world. Social
life for ethnomethodologists is a constant achievement and is something that we create
and recreate continuously. Consequently, this programme aims to uncover everyday
practices through which people construct social reality and make sense of their own and
other's activities.
Garfinkel outlined the main themes and ideas underpinning this approach in his book
Studies in Ethnomethodology (1967), and this remains one of the most influential texts
in the field. Drawing upon Edmund Husserl and Alfred Schutz's phenomenological
writings, Garfinkel declared that one of the key tasks of ethnomethodology was to make
the taken-for-granted unnoticed features of everyday life a matter of theoretic interest.
As ethnomethodology is based on the assumption that social order is constructed in
society's members' minds through a process of common-sense reasoning, it was
necessary to develop ways of making this process subject to analytic scrutiny. To achieve
this, ethnomethodologists developed various techniques designed to disrupt the taken
for granted nature of everyday life and thereby illuminate the `rules' and procedures
that people used to maintain order and stability.

Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is a term derived from the Greek for 'to translate and interpret' and has
its roots in the mythological figure 'Hermes' who was the gods' messenger and
interpreter. This etymology is reflected in its contemporary usage, where hermeneutics
is the science or method of interpretation. It is in wide currency in theology. It is
associated with a form of textual analysis that believes sacred texts contain material that
reveals their true meaning and interpretation. It was particularly associated with
Protestant theologians at the time of the Reformation given the contention in reformed
theology that each individual can read and interpret Scripture.
However, the term has come to be used loosely in social science discourse to describe an
approach that studies people's social meanings, much like Verstehen. It is not
appropriate to use either term as interchangeable with social meanings, although it is
easy to see how the mistake occurs.

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Research Design is the plan, structure and strategy for conducting research. It describes
the general framework for collecting, analyzing and evaluating data. It helps to obtain an
answer to research questions and to control variance. It enables the researcher to
answer research questions to validity, objectively, accurately and economically as
possible. The design should be carefully worked out to yield a dependable and valid
answer to the research questions.
Collection of data
At this stage, the researcher has to collect data as expected. Data can be obtained from
the primary source or secondary source. A questionnaire, interview, observation are
major instruments to collect data. This step is also called fieldwork because a researcher
has to visit the field to administer the research instruments to collect data.

Data analysis
Data analysis means the categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarising of data
to obtain an answer to research's question. Its purpose is to reduce data to intelligible
and interpretable form so that the ecstasies of a research problem can be studied and
tested. Different statistical techniques are used at this stage.

Interpretation and generalization

Interpretation takes the result of data analysis, makes inference pertinent to the
research relation studied and drew a conclusion about the relations. A generalization is
an act of giving general form to these conclusions.

Report preparation
Finally, the researcher has to prepare a report of his/her research. Its objective is to tell
readers the problems investigated, the method used to solve problems, the investigation
results, and the conclusion from the result.

Purposes of Research
- To facilitate the understanding of human behaviour.
- To acquire knowledge about social phenomena, events, issue, problems etc.
- To identify functional relationship existing in the social phenomena.
- To find out the natural laws that regulate or directs social phenomena.
- To standardize the society concept, e.g. culture, struggle, generation gap, social
distance etc.
- To formulate a solution to social problems.
- To maintain social organization, remove social tension, misconception, etc.
- To develop a social revival plan.
Elements of research design
1. Problem:
A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks what relation exists
between two or more variables. The answer is what is being bought in the research.
Research design is based on the research problem.
2. Methodology:
It deals with a choice of research design methods of measurement and types of analysis.
All of these must be congruent. They must fit together. The methodology should be
appropriate to the research problem.
3. Data gathering:
To implement a general plan of research, methods of data collection must be used.
There is always a mutual inter plan of the problem and method. Problems dictate
methods to a considerable extent. It can use internal or external sources. The tools can
be a questionnaire, observation, interview, etc.
4. Report writing:
It involves the preparation and presentation of the research report. A report presents
the research findings directed to a specific audience to accomplish a specific objective.

Types of research design:

1. Descriptive research design:
Descriptive research design is designed to describe something. It simply portrays an
accurate profile of organizations, events, situation or any phenomena. It describes
conditions or relationships that exist, an opinion held, a process that is going on, and
the effects of evidence or trends. It is a fact-finding operation design to search for
information.
Investigators collect, classify and correlate data to describe that exists. But it does not
answer why phenomena behave as they do. Descriptive research is appropriate in the
following conditions:
• Portraying the characteristics of social or any phenomena and determining the
frequency of occurrence.
• Determining the degree of to which variables are associated.
Purposes of descriptive research
- To collect detailed factual information that describes existing phenomena.
- To identify problems or justify current conditions and practice.
- To make comparisons and evaluations.
- To determine what others are doing with similar problems or situations and
benefit from their experience in making plans and decisions.

2. Exploratory research design

It is designed to explore ideas and insights to obtain a proper definition of problems at
hand. It is appropriate for the early stage of the decision-making process. It is designed
to obtain a preliminary investigation of the situation with a minimum time and cost
expenditure.
Purpose of exploratory research
- To identify problems and opportunities.
- To develop a more precise formulation of a vaguely identified problems or
opportunity.
- To gain perspective regarding the breadth of variables operating in a situation.
- To establish priorities regarding the potential significance of various problems or
opportunities.
- To identify and formulate alternative courses of action.
- To gather information on the problems associated with doing conclusive
research.
- To gain management and researchers perspective regarding the character of the
problem situation.
3. Experimental research design:
It describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
The focus is on the variable relationship. The purpose of experimental research is to
investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships and understand the nature of the
functional relationship between caused factors and affect to be predicted. An
experimental design involves the specifications of:
- Treatments that are to be manipulated.
- Test units to be used.
 - Dependent variables to be measured.
- Procedures for dealing with extraneous variables.

Relationship between Theory and Research

There are three ways in which theory is relevant to social research. First, theories open
up research problems by identifying what has hitherto been hidden, misunderstood or
misinterpreted. Not all research issues are necessarily opened up utilizing social theory,
but many are. Theories offer ways of looking at the social world. The different social
theories often explicate new domains, revise understanding of existing domains and
offer competing interpretations that infuse social research practice.
Second, the theory can draw together unrelated fragments of empirical evidence and
research. The ideas and propositions that comprise theory can provide imaginative leaps
in understanding that connect situations, not before related or research data not
previously seen as fitting together. Theory can thus highlight and explain the empirical
regularities appearing in the social world.
Third, research is theory dependent. As argued in the philosophy of social research and
the critique of abstract empiricism, all research involves some theory. However, just
what form this takes varies. Sometimes, theory-dependence is not acknowledged, but
theoretical assumptions and propositions are contained in the choice of research
methods used or how the research problem is defined. On other occasions, the theory is
present in the ideas that the research is designed from the outset to test or
operationalize. This is what is called deduction.
Research is conducted in the light of theory and used to verify the original theoretical
ideas. Sometimes theory is intended as the outcome of the research, either in theoretical
inferences or some fully-¯edged grounded theory. This is called induction and describes
an approach by which theories develop from research. Induction and deduction offer
alternative conceptualizations of the theory-research relationship, but in both views,
research is theory dependent. This dependency is mostly intended and deliberate, but it
exists implicitly even where theory is unacknowledged by the social researcher.
Theory dependency is a virtue rather than something to be denied. It is commonly
acclaimed that good social research goes beneath surface-level understandings and
appearances or helps to understand social life in a new way. From this standpoint,
empirical investigations concerned with how things occur will not generate good
research unless theoretical questions are also asked.
Profound social questions require the theory to interpret the empirical observations;
those empirical observations that can be explained without reference to the theory are
not likely to illuminate the questions they pose. Therefore, research is theory dependent
since questions of fact that can be empirically pursued without theory are not the sorts
of questions worth answering in social research.

POPULATION AND LOGIC OF SAMPLING

Sampling design
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It
refers to the procedure the researcher will adopt in selecting items from the sample. It is
designed before data collection. In designing a sample, the researcher must consider
three things: sampling frame, selection of sampling items and sample size. The basic
components of a sample design are :
- Choosing the sample units (who are to be surveyed)
- Choosing the sample size (how many to be surveyed)
- Choosing the sampling procedure (how to ensure that those who are to be
interviewed are included in the sample)
- Choosing the media (how to reach respondents in the sample-through mail
survey, personal interview, telephone interview.)
Types of sampling
Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling

Probability sampling: -
Each item or element in-universe has an equal chance of being selected. It is called
random/chance sampling. Each element of the population has a known chance of being
selected for the sample. The sampling is done by mathematical decision rules that leave
no discretion to the researcher or field interviewer. Four main types of probability
sampling are:
a. Simple random sampling: -
In it, the individual observation or individuals are chosen so that each has a chance of
being selected, and each choice is independent of any other choice. This is used only in
those studies where the entire population can be listed that are finite population. A good
example is when we wished to draw a sample of 50 students from a population of 600
students in the Social Sciences faculty; we can use simple random sampling.
b. Systematic random sampling or systematic sampling:
It consists of the selection of each nth term from a list. First, the item is randomly
selected, and then a sample item at every nth interval is selected. It is the simplest and
widely used method of drawing sample. It is used when population size is large and
when it becomes very tiresome to use the table of the random number to select a
sample.
c. Stratified random sampling or stratified sampling:
It involves dividing the population into strata (subgroup). It is used when we have to
elect a sample from a heterogeneous population. Example: If a researcher has to select
300 students from a college for study, he must first stratify the student population into
two strata; their sex-male and female or in a similar way.
d. Cluster or area or multistage sampling:
It is success random of sampling of units or sets and subsets. Cluster is a naturally
occurring group of participants. They are randomly selected. Once the cluster has been
selected, then all participants within the cluster are surveyed. It is also called multistage
sampling because sample selection passes through a sequence of the stage. Example:
Universities in the South-Western part of the country can be randomly selected, then
the particular schools, then faculties and finally departments and even levels could be
considered.

Non-probability sampling
All the population items don't have an equal chance of being selected, and it uses that
ever subjects are available rather than following a specific subject selection process.
Samples are determined by personnel convenience or judgment of the researcher but
not by chance. The various type of non-probability sampling is as follows.
a. Convenience sampling: -
It refers to samples selection based on the convenience of the researcher. A sample is
chosen purely for expedience because it is cheap to find. The sample then would not
necessarily be a representative one. Commonly used convenient samples are friends,
relatives, family members, associations etc.
b. Purposive/Judgment Sampling:
It refers to the sample selected based on what some experts think particular sampling
units or elements will contribute to answering particular questions at hand. It is an
expert judgment based sampling. Using this method, specialists in the survey subject
matter choose what they believe to be the best sample for that particular study. It is
moderately used in practice. Example: - A group of sales manager might select a sample
of grocery stores in the city that they regard as representative in some sense.
c. Quota sampling:
Quota sampling derives its name from the practice assigning quotes or proportions of
kind of people to interviewers. It involves three steps; Selection of control characteristics
(sex, age, education, etc.) and determination of the universe's proportion having an
equal set of characteristics.
Allocation of the sample among cells (how large a sample should be taken from each
cell) Selection of the sample item. Example: An interviewer may be instructed to
conduct the interviews with 30 years old and a half with people under 30 years. Here,
the control characteristic is the age of respondents.
d. Sequential sampling:
In fixed-size sampling, the number of items is decided upon in advance, whereas in
sequential sampling, the number of items is not presented. It accounts for only a single
unit of the population or a group of population units at a time. The measurement of each
group is cumulated with those of previously measured groups. The data are analyzed as
they are assembled, and the sample size is not predetermined. The mathematics
underlying sequential samplings are more complex and time-consuming.
e. Snowball sampling:
It refers to a procedure in which initial respondents are selected randomly. Additional
respondents are then obtained from a referral or by other information provided by the
initial respondents. One uses this method, where respondents are difficult to identify
and are best located through a referral network. The "snowball" gather subjects as it
rolls along. It is widely used to study drug culture, teenage gang activities, community
relations etc. Its purpose is to estimate various characteristics that are rare in the total
population.
INSTRUMENTATION IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

Quantitative Instrument
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a format list of questions designed to gather respondent from the
respondent on a given topic. It is a formalized schedule for data collection. It is used
when fractional information is designed. When opinion rather than facts are desired,
opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. A questionnaire is a term used for almost any
instrument with questions or items to which individuals respond. A questionnaire is a
list of questions to several persons for them to answer. It secures standardized results
that can be tabulated created statistically.
Types of questionnaire
Open or open-ended question:
It calls for a free response in the respondent's own words.
It requires the respondents to provide their answer to the question.
No alternative answer is given.

Close or close-ended question:

It is also called restricted questionnaire. It offers the respondent choice among two or
more alternatives.
Answer to each question is predetermined and included in the question form. The
respondents mark yes or no or write a short response or check an item from the
suggested response list.
Types of close- questionnaire
Dichotomous questionnaire:
It offers only two alternatives; positive and negative. The response would be yes or no;
agree or disagree; and so on. It is also known as a two-way questionnaire.
Multi chotomous questionnaire:
It is also called multiple-choice questionnaires.

QUALITATIVE INSTRUMENTS

Observation
It is a method of gathering primary data physically or mechanically recording events or
aspect of the phenomenon under investigation. It involves the recording of the
respondents' behaviour. It is recognizing noting people, objects and occurrence of
events rather than asking for information. It can supplement the information collected
through questionnaire and interview.
Observation is the process of recognizing and recording the behaviour of people, objects
and events. Observation is a systematic and deliberate study through the eye, of
spontaneous occurrence at the time they occur.
Example: instead of asking the consumer what brand they buy or what television
program they watch, the researcher arranges to observe what product is brought and
what program they watch.
Characteristics of good observations
- Observation should be carefully planned, systematic and perceptive. Observers
should know what they are looking for and what is irrelevant in a situation.
- It should focus on wholeness of what is observed.
- Observers should not only be alert to significant details; they should also know
that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts.
- It should be objective and bias-free. Observers should strive to eliminate their
influence on what to see and report.
- It should separate the facts from the interpretation of facts. Observers observe
the facts and make their interpretation at a later time.
- It should be checked and verified whenever possible by repetition or by
comparing those of other competent observers.
 - It should be carefully and expertly recorded. Observers use appropriate
instruments to systematize, qualify and preserve the result of their observations.
Observations are collected in such a way that they are valid and reliable.

Focus Group Discussion

Focus groups can be described as a research approach whereby a group of individuals is
selected to discuss together the topic under research in a focused and moderated
manner.
Focus groups can be used both as a self-contained method and a technique used in
conjunction with others. Flexibility, therefore, is one of the greatest benefits of this
approach. Focus groups, however, are often perceived as a quick and easy approach to
carrying out research. Of course, this is a misconception that regularly tarnishes the
image of qualitative research as a whole.
The focus group method is often thought of as another form of group interviewing.
However, it is important to highlight the differences between both approaches. With
group interviewing, the emphasis is placed on the questions and responses between the
researcher and participants. Focus groups, on the other hand, rely on the interaction
within the focus group itself. Advantageously a real benefit of this interaction is the
sharing of views, experiences and stories between participants, and the insightful and
rich data often produced. Consequently, this can often be more intense and valuable
than if all the participants were interviewed separately. Observing this interplay and the
positions taken within the focus group has direct linkages for the researcher with
participant observation technique.
The practical organization of focus groups involves formulating the research questions,
which should be open-ended and tested so that they are easily understood. The more
unstructured the focus group, the fewer questions should be used, to give ample time for
wider discussion. Unstructured focus groups usually have between two to three
questions for a two-hour session.
Focus group sessions usually last from one to two hours. Anything less than one hour
would not allow enough time to get to grips with the subject. Some form of an icebreaker
at the beginning of the session can help to make participants feel at ease.
It is crucial to introduce and explain what is being researched, why the individuals are
being asked to participate and why their views are being sought. The time slot of focus
groups should be sensitive to the target group to ensure full attendance. Likewise, the
choice of venue can help avoid either negative or positive associations with a particular
location.

Case study
A case study refers to a specific unit of analysis for the study. The unit may be a person,
family, a social group, a social institution or committees. A case study involves an
intensive study of a relatively small number of situations. It views a social unit as a
whole. It places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions another behaviour. It is a longitudinal approach, so in development over a
period, the case study processes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors
that explain present status or influence change or growth. The purpose is to understand
the life cycle or an important part of the unit's life cycle.
A case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the social unit's life, be that unit a
person, a family, institution, culture, group or even entire community.
Characteristics of Case Study
- Case studies are in-depth investigations of a given social unit resulting in a
complete well-organized picture of that unit.
- It is a study of a unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social
group, an institution, a committee or situation.
- It is quantitative analysis not based on scientific analysis.
- It follows on sameness rather than uniqueness.
- It examines a small number of units across a large number of variables and
conditions.
- A generalization drawn from a single case cannot be applied to a case in a given
population.
- It is a longitudinal approach. It shows development over some time.
- It deals with both what and why of the subject. It describes the complex
behaviour pattern of a unit.
Steps/phases in a case study
- State the objectives. What is the unit of study and what characteristics and the
process will direct the investigation?
- Design the approach. How will the unit be selected?
- What are the sources of data available? What is the data collection method used?
- Collect the data.
- Organize the information to form a coherent, well-integrated reconstruction of a
unit of study.
- Report the result and discuss their significance.
Strength/merits of case study
- Inferences are obtained from the study of an entire situation.
- A case study is Describing a real event or situation, whereas a statistical study
involves abstraction from the real situation. Example: an average may be typical
of a large group, but not descriptive of a single unit group.
- More accurate data are obtained.
- A case study is particularly useful as background information for planning major
investigations in the social sciences.
- It is the source of an important hypothesis.
- The researcher gains many new insights into human behaviour and becomes
emotionally mature.
Limitations of case study
- Since the case study gives a detailed Description of complete situations, it is
difficult to develop a formal observation and recording method. The informal
method tends to become subjective rather than objective.
- Lack of objectivity carries out into the analysis case data. This may lead to
unwanted conclusions.
- In analyzing cases, investigators are inclined to generalize, although the case
study method does not lend itself to generalization. Case studies are limited in
their representatives because of their narrow focus on a few units.
- It is highly expensive and time taking.
 - It lacks the sampling method.

Social Context of Research

Research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that

needs a solution. It contributes to the general body of knowledge. It also corrects human
knowledge.

Social research now can be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and
recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalization,
principles or theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events in
society. It attempts to answer or solve social problems. Social research is a systematized
investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomenon and problems.

The Ethics and Politics of Social Research

Social research's ethics is about creating a mutually respectful, win-win relationship in

which participants are pleased to respond candidly, valid results are obtained, and the
community considers the conclusions constructive. Social research is a dynamic process
that often involves an intrusion into people's lives and therefore, largely depends on
establishing a successful relationship between the researcher and respondent(s).
The etymology of the term 'ethics' is gotten from the Greek word 'ethos' when translated
to English means' character'. The ethics of social research guides the researcher from
being subjective or bias while doing research. The researcher's moral integrity is a
critically important aspect of ensuring that the research process and the researcher's
findings are trustworthy and valid.

History of ethics in research

History of ethics in social research can be traced to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study of 1932,
where 400 African-Americans men who have untreated syphilis were matched with 200
who did not have. When the cure for syphilis was discovered in the 1940s, it was
withheld from these affected people even when the researchers knew that untreated
syphilis could lead to infertility and death. As of 1972, more than 100 of these people
have died of advanced syphilis infection. With this, the study was tagged "ethically
unjustified".
Evidence from history showed that the subjects were not given informed consent, and
they were equally unaware of the essence of the study. This led to formal consideration
of the rights of the subjects. The first among them was the Nuremberg Code (1949),
which stipulates that participation must be voluntary.

ETHICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Voluntary consent
Voluntary consent is considered by many as the central norm governing the relationship
between the researcher and the participant. A major tenet of medical research is that
participation must be voluntary, which applies to social research. Simply put, this means
that an individual partakes in research according to his/her own free will. Therefore a
good researcher should inform participants that the research is voluntary and that they
can withdraw at any time.

Informed consent
They are closely aligned with voluntary participation in the principle of informed
consent. On ethical and methodological grounds, encouraging individuals to participate
in research requires that clear and accurate information about the research is delivered
to them. Information given should cover all aspects of the research in question, such as
the research aims, methods to be used and intended outcomes.

Anonymity and confidentiality

One of the most important aspects of social research is the protection of the
participants' identity. Participants should not have to share highly personal information
with a researcher unless they and the researcher can be certain that their data will be
kept from falling into the wrong hands. As part of obtaining informed consent, it should
be made clear to participants how their responses will be treated.
Adhering to the principles of anonymity and confidentiality is, therefore, imperative
ethical considerations when undertaking any social research.
While these terms are used interchangeably, there are important distinctions between
them. Anonymity means that the researcher will not and cannot identify the respondent.
Instead of writing respondents' names, it will just be an alphabet like 'Mr. A' or 'Mrs. Z'.
Confidentiality means that the researcher can match names with responses, such as a
face-to-face interview, but ensures that no one else will have access to the respondent's
identity. Confidentiality should only be assured if it can be genuinely maintained.

No harm to participants
The danger of potential harm caused by partaking in research may be more obviously
evident in medical or psychological experiments; nevertheless, whilst perhaps less
evident, dangers in social research can and do exist. In any instance, social research
should never cause harm, whether physical or mental, to the participants involved.

The Uses of Social Research

- It is directed towards the solution of problems. The ultimate goal is to discover
the cause-and-effect relationship between social problems.
- It emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will
help predict future occurrences.
- It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
- It demands accurate observations and Description. Researchers may choose from
a variety or non-qualitative Description of their observations.
- It involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing data for a
new purpose.
- Although social research activities may be somewhat random and unsystematic,
it is more often characterized by a carefully designed procedure that applies
rigorous analysis.
- It requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the
problem and how others have investigated.
- It strives to the objective and logical applying every possible test to validate the
procedure employed, data collected, and a conclusion reached.
- It involves the guests for an answer to unsolved problems.
- A patient and unhurried activity characterize it. A researcher must expect
disappointment and discouragement as they pursue the answer to a difficult
question.