CHAPTER I

Personality: Earliest Theories, Definition, Methods of Assessment

and Filipino Culture

Lesson 1: The Earliest Theory of Personality

Learning Outcomes:

After going through the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Identify the earliest theories of personality and its corresponding proponents.

2. Critique the earliest theories of personality if it is agreeable or not.

The Earliest Theory. The Greek Philosopher Hippocrates believed that there were four
natural elements- air, water, fire and earth – and the four bodily fluids or humors – blood,
phlegm, yellow bile and black bile – that affect human behavior. This was further elaborated
by the Roman physician Galen. He said that a person with a high ratio of blood is sanguine
or cheeful; one with a lot of phlegm is slow or unemotional; one with an oversupply of yellow
bile is melancholic or sad and lonely.

The four personality types according to Hippocrates: (note that no one perfectly
conforms to any of these types)

1. SANGUINE (Super Salesman)

Strengths: Warm, friendly, outgoing, witty, optimistic, and fun to be around with –
the life of the party. Good at communications, public relations, entertainment, and
short bursts of energy. Basically, a people person.

Weaknesses: can be superficial, quickly discouraged, and easily hurt by

rejection. Often covers up deep feelings of inferiority and inadequacy with a
happy-go-lucky façade.

2. MELANCHOLIC (Super Philosopher)

Strengths: imaginative, creative, sensitive, and artistic- a real lover of beauty,
solitude, and perfection. Usually quiet, gentle and philosophical. Able to
concentrate, feel deeply, go to the heart of things, stay at something a long time,
and remain calm in adversity. Basically an ideal person.

1
 Weaknesses: can be moody, touchy, withdrawn and extremely shy. Easily hurt by
broken relationships and capable of extreme depression. Tendency to escape
from reality and the relationship into themselves.

3. CHOLERIC (Super Leader)

Strengths: strong, self-confident, disciplined, determined and dedicated, usually
successful in whatever is undertaken. Good at organizing, taking risks, planning
great endeavors and following through with zeal. Basically, a born leader.

Weaknesses: can be cruel, sarcastic, hot-tempered, and intolerant. Sometimes

ruthless, unscrupulous, insensitive, and often “burned out” before life is over.

4. PHLEGMATIC (Super Friend)

Strenghts: easy going, likable, dependable, loyal, ever cautious, conservative,

and practical. A good follower, friend, and partner for a strong-willed person. One
who is inclined towards unselfish service, peace making, and the simple life.
Basically, is a support person.

Weaknesses: can be lazy, half-hearted, easily stepped on and abused by the

other personalities. Open, has deep feelings of low self-esteem and self-worth.

In the 19th century, Franz Gall, a phrenologist, attempted to connect personality with
bymps and the shape of the skill. Later in the same century, Cesare Lombroso, influenced
by Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, argued that physical features of criminals marked
them as evolutionary “throwbacks”. According to Lombroso, criminals have features, such as
prominent jaws and eyebrows and asymmetric skulls, which make them insensitive to pain
and prone to impulsive behavior.

During the early part of the 20 th century, German psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer
presented personality classification based on body built:

1. Asthenic – thin, tall, fragile, narrowly built and looks very weak
2. Athletic – muscular and energetic
3. Pyknic – round and robust or plump
4. Dysplastic – malproportioned body, a combination of any of the above body built.

Kretschmer, through his long psychiatric practice, was convinced that there are
significant relationships between body built and two major forms of mental disorders. He
concluded that those with the pyknic body built were more likely to be manic-depressive; and

2
schizophrenia was associated with the asthenic body built. However, Kretschmer gave no
direct evidence to support his observation.

In the first half of the 20 th century, William Sheldon examined the relationship
between body type and personality (Constitutional Theory of Personality, 1944). He divided
the human physique into two types, namely: the hypothetical biological structures called
morphogenotype and; the external observable physique called phenotype.

Sheldon’s Primary Component of Body Built

I. Endomorphy – (plump with fatty tisssues) round, soft bodies with large abdomen.
II. Mesomorphy – (lots of muscles) hard, sturdy with strong bones and muscles.
III. Ectomorphy – (bony) thin, small boned, fragile, with flat chest.

Sheldon further identified three components of temperament – endomorphy was

associated with viscerotonia, mesomorphy with somototonia, and ectomorphy with
cerebrotonia.

I. Endomorphy with viscerotonia

 Sociable
 Fond of food and people
 Even tempered
 Affectionate
II. Mesomorphy with somototonia
 Love of physical adventure
 Enjoyment of exercise and vigorous activity
 Competitive aggressiveness
 Assertiveness of behavior
III. Ectomorphy with cerebrotonia
 Inhibited in movement
 Love of privacy
 Secretive
 Self-conscious

Secondary Components of Body Built

1. Dysplasia – malproportioned or inconsistent mixture of the three primary

components in various parts of the body.
2. Gynandromorphy – g index – characteristics associated with opposite sex; male
with high g index has soft body, long eyelashes with effeminate features and is
fragile.

3
 Primary g index – body built is seen at a distance or can be inferred even
from photographs

Secondary g index – needs direct observation of the person

3. Textural Index – t index – refers to smoothness and fineness of physical texture.

Primary t index – can be inferred even from photographs
Secondary t index – needs direct contact with the person.

PROCESSING QUESTIONS:

1. From a social work standpoint, who among the proponents of the earliest theories of
personality is agreeable and who is not? Defend your position.

2. As future social worker who looks at individuals holistically, what can you say about the
reliability and validity of the earliest theories of personality in relation to social work
practice specifically in the assessment phase of the helping process?

Lesson 2: Personality: Nature and Definition

Learning Outcomes:

After going through the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Identify the factors that contribute to differences in personality.

2. Describe what personality is based on the different definitions given by
psychologists.
3. Explain the origin of consistent behavior patterns.

Factors that Contribute to Personality Differences

1. Heredity – We are born with a set of genes and chromosomes which we inherit from our
forefathers and out parents. Theses set the limits to out potential. This potential is
achieved to the fullest by the proper use of environment – our experiences over the
years, especially our interaction with other people.
There have been many attempts to estimate the relative importance of heredity and
environment on personality development. There is evidence that children reared in poor
environments generally suffer deficient language and intellectual development and
develop general personality defects, such as lack of emotional responsiveness and

4
 inadequacy in relating to other persons. However, not all children reared in impoverished
environments are equally defective.
Twins who are reared in separate environments show greater equality of scores on
intelligence tests than unrelated children reared in separate environments. The greater
similarity of intelligence between twins is explained on the basis of greater similarity in
genetic endowments. Yet, there is ample evidence that intelligence scores of children
are influenced by environmental circumstances.
2. Environment – This consists of your family, school, church, social groups, and other
groups with whom we interact from the very beginning. Each group puts pressure on us
and we behave in certain ways as a result of being with these groups. Our behavior
changes with each situation and with the people we are with. We behave differently
when we are with our friends than when we are with our parents, teachers, and others
older than us.
3. Experiences. These consist of everything that we do or get in touch with, everywhere
we got, in short, everything that we are exposed to in our lifetime, whether physical,
emotional, or social experiences.

What Personality Is

Personality may be defined as the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a
person as shown in his/her manner of walking, talking, dressing and his/her attitudes,
interests, and ways of reacting to other people. It refers to all the factors within the person
that influence his/her characteristic ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling. It is your image
on others.

The origin or the ethymological derivative of personality comes from the word
“persona”, theatrical masks worn by the Romans in Greek and Latin drama. Personality also
comes from the two Latin words “per” and “sonare” which literally means “to sound through”.
This concept extends to Jung’s component of “persona”, meaning “public image” which
refers to the role expected by social or cultural convention.

Some definitions of personality by psychologists

1. Personality is the totality of individual psychic qualities, which includes temperament,

one’s mode of reaction and character, two objects of one’s reaction (Fromm, 1947).
2. Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given
situation (Cattell, 1950).

5
 3. Personality may be biologically defined as the governing organ or superordinate
institution of the body in as much as it is located in the brain. “No brain, no
personality” (Murray, 1951).
4. Personality is the relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations
which characterize a human life (Sullivan, 1953).
5. Personality is a person’s unique pattern of traits (Guilford, 1959).
6. Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of the psychological
systems that determine his/her unique adjustment to his/her environment (Allport,
1937).
7. Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organization of a person’s
character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines his/her unique
adjustment to the environment (Eysenck, 1970).
8. Personality are structural and dynamic properties of an individual as they reflect
themselves in characteristic response to a situation (Pervin, 1975).
9. Personality is the record of a person’s experiences and behavior together with the
psychophysical systems, which contribute casual determination to the existing and
functioning record. Some casual determination is found within the record itself
(Cartwright, 1979).
10. Personality is the impression an individual makes on others. It refers to his/her social
skills, charismatic qualities and the like (Hall, Calvin and Gardner, 1985).
11. Personality is generally defined as the individual’s unique and relatively stable
patterns of behavior, thoughts and emotion (Burger, 1990).
12. Personality is the stability in people’s behavior that leads them to act uniformly both
in different situations and over extended periods of time. (Felman, 1994).
All the definitions above equate personality as the essence or the uniqueness of
behavior.

Allport’s definition of personality

In 1937, Allport defined personality as “what a man really is”. This statement
indicates that personality is the typical and peculiar characteristics of a person. In 1961, after
24 years, All port modified his definition as a dynamic organization within an individual of the
psychophysical system that determines his/her characteristic behaviors and thoughts.
…dynamic organization… personality is constantly evolving and changing. A newborn
infant lacks personality because his/her behavior keeps on changing. An infant’s personality
is influenced by heredity and by the surrounding condition. Personality development begins
at birth and unfolds gradually until death.

6
…psychophysical… personality is neither exclusively mental nor exclusively neural. The
organization entails the operation of both body and mind. People’s functions includes
vegetative, sentient, and rational functions.
…determine… personality is what lies behind specific acts. It is within the individual. A
person is not simply a passive reactor to the environment but does something about it.
…characteristic behaviors and thoughts… the replacement of the phrase “unique
adjustments to the environment” in Allport’s original definition of personality (1937). The
earlier definition seemed to emphasize too much in biological needs. His revised definition
covers all behaviors and thoughts, whether or not they are related to adaptation to the
environment.

Laurence Pervin’s view of personality (1975):

a. Personality includes both structure and dynamics. Personality is viewed in terms of both
the parts and the relationship among the parts of a system.
b. Personality is ultimately defined in terms of behavior.
c. Personality manifests consistencies in individuals and in a group of individuals.

Other Conceptual Views of Personality

Personality is sometimes defined as a person’s public self or what he/she selects to

display to the world, as in Jung’s concept of persona.

Others view personality as a complex set of responses – “you are what you do”. Self-
theorists states that an internal mechanism determines a person’s personality.

Most personality theorists agree that personality can be described in terms of

consistent behavior patterns. The tendency to respond consistently to various situations is
what gives a person identity. These consistent behavior patterns make it possible for future
behaviors to be predicted with a certain degree of accuracy. That is why when someone we
know behaves in a manner inconsistent with his/her past behavior, we say “That is not like
him/her”. When people no longer respond to a situation in the same way as they did in the
past, we say that their personality has changed.

Origin of Consistent Behavior Patterns

1. Genetic. Genes definitely influence personality, but to what degree and in what manner
genes influence personality are questions interesting to explore further. There are

7
 constitutional or biological properties transmitted by genes such as physical and mental
diseases.
2. Sociocultural. Many psychologists agree that culture strongly influences the behavior of
people (ex., socio-economic level, birth order, race). Interpersonal relationship with
parents and other significant individuals also affect adult personality characteristics.
3. Learning. According to learning theorists, the difference between a successful and
unsuccessful person is found in the patterns of reward. Certain behaviors are rewarded
while others are ignored. Those that are rewarded tend to persist. The implication of this
viewpoint is that one can control personality development by controlling the
circumstances under which rewards are dispensed or withheld.
4. Existential Humanistic Consideration. Proponents of existential humanistic
consideration in personality minimize the importance of knowing the origins of
personality or who acquire what personality completely, how you find meaning to your
existence. These theorists emphasize, “What does it mean to you?” rather than “Why are
you the way you are?”.
5. Unconscious Mechanism or “depth” theorist. The primary concern of “depth”
theorists is to discover the underlying causes of behavior. The ultimate cause of behavior
is unconscious and originates in childhood. To understand personality, one must get to
the unconscious mind utilizing complex tools, such as dream and symbols analysis, free
association, hypnosis, etc.

PROCESSING QUESTIONS:

1. In your own words, describe what personality is.

2. Explain the role of environment in hindering or developing one’s potential and give 10
situations. (5 situations each for the positive and negative influence of environment)
3. Explain how people develop consistent behavior patterns. Give examples to demonstrate
your point.
4. Based on your experience and observation, which do you think is more effective in
improving one’s personality – reward or punishment? Explain.

Lesson 3: Methods of Assessing Personality

Learning Outcomes:

After going through the lesson, the students are expected to:

8
 1. Identify erroneous methods of assessing personality.
2. Select a scientific method in assessing personality appropriate for individual
client.

Erroneous Methods of Assessing Personality

1. First Impression. A first impression gives some people a clue to the pattern of the
observed individual. They then brand that person as a certain “personality type” and
ascribe to him/her the supposed characteristics of that type. A first impression also
determines what others will expect of a n individual and the expectations, in turn,
influence his/her behavior. Later observations and further interaction with the individual
may reinforce or contradict a first impression.
A first impression may be based on physical appearance, facial features or
expressions, mannerisms, style of dressing, name, nationality, race, what a person says
and how it is said, what one does and how it is done, or some other physical or
physiological characteristics which is identified in the mind of the observer with a certain
kind of personality type or stereotype.
Once an impression of an individual’s personality is formed, the individual gains the
reputation of being that certain type, and is judged in terms of this reputation. Studies of
social acceptance and prejudice demonstrate how difficult it is to change a reputation
gained from first impressions. An individual may change his/her behavior, but that will not
guarantee that the reputation acquired will automatically change. That reputation will
change only when the attitude of others on him/her changes.

2. Pseudo-Scientific Methods
A. Physiognomy
This is a method of judging personality through the measurement and study of a
person’s physical features, most especially facial features. The underlying
assumption is that physical features are closely correlated with personality traits.
Using sex and age group norms, the physiognomist uses the physical features, such
as the distance between the eyes, the size and shape of the chin and the color of the
hair, as clues to assess personality characteristics. The belief in physiognomy has
been strengthened by widely accepted stereotypes, such as the person who is tall,
well-built and moves with an air of self-confidence is viewed as a likely leader.

B. Phrenology

9
 In this method, personality is judged by the size and shape of the skull. Elaborate
techniques and tools are used to measure the skull. These measurements are then
translated into personality characteristics corresponding to them.

C. Graphology
This method uses a person’s handwriting to know his or her personality. General
penmanship and the way a letter is formed has a corresponding personality
characteristic.

Scientific Methods of Assessing Personality

Assessing personality is more difficult than measuring aptitude and achievement
tests. This is basically because of the following reasons:
1. Disagreement regarding the components of personality.
2. The tendency to fake responses so as to present oneself in a more favorable
light.
Sundberg and Tyler (1962) summarized the issue as,
“…it is not the question of whether one should use assessment, but how best
to do it…”
Personality assessment can be defined as the set of processes used for developing
impressions and images, making decisions and checking hypothesis about a person’s
pattern of behavior in relation with the environment.

Common Methods of Assessing Personality

1. Objective Test. Written self-rating tests or the Inventory Test variety. Usually
questionnaires to be answered with yes or no, true or false.

2. Behavioral Method.

1.1 Interview – face to face interaction for a specific purpose. Limitation of this method
is that it is highly dependent on the skills of the interviewer; untrained interviewers
tend to be influenced by first impressions and irrelevant issues.
1.2 Life History Method – makes use of the biographical and autobiographical
techniques, diary or anecdotal reports.
3. Projective Techniques. Employs ambiguous test stimuli to which the subject is to
respond. The responses manifest the innermost feelings, motives, and conflicts of the
subject. The most widely used techniques that falls under this category are:

10
 1.3 Word Association – the oldest method in which the subject is asked to respond to
some stimuli with the first word that comes to mind. This method was used by Galton
in 1879 and was later employed by Wundt as a laboratory device for studying human
sensory processes. In 1910, Jung reportedly used Word Association to provide
insight into a patient’s “emotional complexes”.
1.4 Sack Sentence Completion – consists of 60 incompleted sentences. The instruction
is to complete the sentences with the first thing that comes to the subject’s mind. It
measures four areas: family, sex, interpersonal relationships and self-concept.
1.5 Thematic Perception Test – consists of a set of 20 pictures. The instruction is to
narrate the past, present and projection of the future of the subject.
1.6 Rorschach Inkblot Test – consists of ten inkblot pictures with the instruction to
describe what the blot looks like and what it might be. The responses are recorded
on three basis: location, determinant and content.
1.7 Expressive Technique – a type of projective test that assesses personality through
self-expression. Examples of this technique are the drawing and toy test.
a) Drawing – Ex: Machover Draw a Person Test (DAP). The instruction is to draw a
person. Upon completion, the subject is asked to draw a house, a tree and
another person. The drawing test is culminated by an oral inquiry and the
quantitative analysis.
b) Toy Test – dolls and puppets are used to assess the child’s attitude towards
his/her family, fears, aggression and aspirations.

PROCESSING QUESTIONS:

1. Suppose you are a social worker meeting your client for the first time. You know that it is
erroneous to assess your client’s personality based on first impression but on the part of
your client, it is the other way around. He/she will try to gauge if you are a competent and
trustworthy social worker. How will you conduct yourself in front of your client, utilizing
first impression to your advantage?
2. What is/are the appropriate method/s that should be employed when assessing a minor
rape victim? Explain why.

Lesson 4: Filipino Personality and Culture

Learning Outcomes:

11
 After going through the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Describe the typical Filipino personality traits

2. Assess how Filipino personality traits can be utilized in the attainment of better
interpersonal relationships and achievement of identified social and economic
goals.

The following traits are based on scientific research and observations of the cultural
way of life of Filipinos:

1. Smooth Interpersonal Relations (SIR) – the ability to get along with others in such a
way that any signs of conflicts are avoided. SIR is acquired by:
a) Pakikisama – derived from the the Filipino word “sama”, meaning to go along. It
refers to the yielding of a person to the will of the leader or majority so as to make the
group’s decision unanimous. It is the “we” identification to the group.
Pakikisama is a positive Filipino value. It encourages mutual assistance in
times of need or sympathy in times of sorrow. Helpfulness is extended to outsiders
as hospitality or congeniality.
b) Go-between – the need for a mediator or facilitator. A third party is used to avoid the
feeling of inadequacy in a face-to-face encounter, or to act as an intermediary when
asking for a favor.
c) Euphemism – Stating an unpleasant truth, opinion, or request with beautiful
language and a fine manner. Harsh and insulting speech is frowned upon and
regarded as a sign of ill breeding.
2. Hiya – In 1965, Fr. Jaime Bulatao defined hiya as the painful emotion arising from a
relationship with an authority figure or with a society which inhibits self assertion even if
one is in a situation which is perceived as dangerous to one’s ego. Egan (1970) equated
hiya with self-esteem, pride and personal dignity. Lynch (1970) considered hiya as
shame. Such sentiment is associated with the unpleasant experience of embarrassment
that prevents one from wrongdoing.
3. Bahala Na – an expression derived from the Filipino word “Bathala” or God. It is the
“come what may” or “que sera sera” attitude and at times rests on the line of least
resistance that one need not exert any effort because God will take care of everything. It
is a fatalistic resignation which is manifested with the withdrawal or running away from
personal responsibilities; the tendency to leave initiative and action to superiors; the
religious belief that humankind is governed by forces beyond hi/her control. Lagmay

12
 (1977) and Jocano (1978) pointed out that bahala na is utilized to maintain mental
balance in times of stress and gives courage and determination.
4. Ningas Kugon – “ningas” literally means to catch fire and “kugon” is a fast burning kind
of grass. It is defined as the enthusiasm which is intense only at the start but gradually
fades away. It could be a hindrance towards initiative and productivity. This attitude
reflects the low achievement motive among Filipinos that could be attributed to child-
rearing practices.
In our culture, child rearing practices do not put emphasis on self-reliance and
independence training. One of the consequences of this practice is the curtailment of the
initiative to plan, organize and execute. The child’s life is often dominated by
overindulgent adults, leaving very little room for creativity. Ideally, the child should be
trained to be self-reliant and to have a sense of responsibility and integrity.
5. Utang na Loob – Reciprocity or debt of gratitude is of primary importance in the Filipino
value system. This value permeates and influences all facets of the Filipino way of life,
business, education, politics, morality and religion. Since utang na loob stems from a
service rendered, though sometimes a material gift may be involved, qualification is
impossible. Children owe their parents respect, gratitude and obedience because
parents raise, feed and spend for their education and other needs; therefore, children are
expected to care for their parents in their old age.
Utang na loob could have some negative effects like when used with the “lagay
system”, which means bribery and extortion. However, utang na loob can also be a
modern virtue provided it is modified to apply not only to one person but to many
persons. Utang na loob to the community can mean loyalty to a community interest, a
commitment in return for a debt that can never be repaid.
6. Hospitality – welcoming others to one’s home and offering the best to visitors while
denying the same to members of the family (Samson, 1965).
7. Amoral Familism – the tendency to become individualistic and inward directed; hence,
the inability to look beyond the family circle (Sendan 1974; Ramirez, 1966; Lapuz, 1967;
Guthrie, 1966).
Philippine society has now become segmented, group centered, possessed by the
“tayo-tayo” attitude which are the marks of social individualism. Corollary to these are
family expectations, such as the sharing of the gains one member gets with the entire
family, which can tend to discourage one to be more creative and productive (Pal, 1967);
holding on to children by making them feel guilty if they leave their “helpless” parents,
which could be a hindrance to success.

PROCESSING QUESTIONS:

13
1. In your own words, describe the typical Filipino personality traits.
2. Determine how negative Filipino traits can be modified into positive ones. Cite some
examples.
3. lustrate possible ways of utilizing Filipino traits in attaining social and economic goals
when you are already deployed to organize a community.

14