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Systems Operation - Fundamentals

Electrical System for All Caterpillar Products
Media Number -SEGV3008-01 Publication Date -01/06/2004 Date Updated -28/06/2004

i02100232

Basic Circuit Theory

SMCS - 1400; 1450

Introduction to Basic Circuit Theory

This information covers basic direct current theory by reviewing the three basic types of electrical
circuits and the laws that apply to each type circuit:

• Series Circuits

• Parallel Circuits

• Series-Parallel Circuits

Series Circuit

Illustration 1 g01070312

A series circuit is the simplest kind of circuit. In a series circuit, each electrical device is
connected to other electrical devices. There is only one path for current to flow. In Illustration 1,
current flows from the battery (+) through a fuse (protection device) and a switch (control device)
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to the lamp (load) and then returns to frame ground. All circuit devices and components are
connected in series. The following rules apply to all series circuits:

• At any given point in the circuit, the current value is the same.

• The total circuit resistance is equal to the sum of all the individual resistances. This is called
an equivalent resistance.

• The voltage drop across all circuit loads is equal to the applied source voltage.

The following rules are for a series circuit:

• Voltage is the sum of all voltage drops.

• Current is the same at any given point in the circuit.

• Resistance is the sum of all individual resistances.

Applying the Rules

Illustration 2 g01070313

Illustration 2 shows that the circuit is made up of various devices and of various components. This
includes a 24 volt power source. Since two of the circuit values are given (voltage and resistance),
solving for the unknown value is simple.

The first step in solving the above circuit, is to determine the total circuit resistance.

The following equation is used for determining total resistance:

Rt = R1 + R2 + R3, or Rt = 3Ohms + 3Ohms + 6Ohms, or Rt = 12Ohms.

Since the value for the power source was given as 24 volts and the circuit resistance has been
calculated as 12Ohms, the only value remaining to calculate is the current flow. Total circuit
current is calculated by using the Ohm's Law Circle and by writing the following equation:

I = E/R, or I = 24V/12Ohms, or I = 2 amperes.

The remaining step is to plug the value for current flow into each of the resistive loads. One of the
rules for series circuits stated that current was the same at any given point. The equation E = I × R
 Página 3 de 9

for each resistor will determine the voltage drop across each load. The following equations are for
voltage drops:

• E1 = 2A × 3Ohms = 6V

• E2 = 2A × 3Ohms = 6V

• E3 = 2A × 6Ohms = 12V

All of the circuit values have now been calculated. Verify each answer by using the Ohm's Law
Circle.

Parallel Circuit

Illustration 3 g01071099

A parallel circuit is more complex than a series circuit because there is more than one path for
current to flow. Each current path is called a branch. All branches connect to the same positive
terminal and negative terminal. This causes the branches to have the same voltage. Each branch
drops the same amount of voltage, regardless of resistance within the branch.

The current flow that is in each branch can be different. The difference depends on the resistance.
Total current in the circuit equals the sum of the branch currents.

The total resistance is always less than the smallest resistance in any branch.

In the circuit shown in Illustration 3, current flows from the battery through a fuse and a switch.
The current divides into two branches. Each branch contains a lamp. Each branch is connected to
frame ground.

The following rules apply to parallel circuits:

• The voltage is the same in each parallel branch.

• The total current is the sum of each individual branch currents

• The equivalent resistance is equal to the applied voltage divided by the total current, and is
always less than the smallest resistance in any one branch.

The following rules are for parallel circuits:

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• Voltage is the same for all branches.

• Current is the sum of the individual branch currents.

• Equivalent resistance is smaller than the smallest resistance of any individual branch.

Illustration 4 g01070318

The circuit is made up of various devices and various components. This includes a 24 volt power
source. The resistance of each lamp is given along with the value of source voltage. Before you
apply the basic laws of parallel circuits, it will be necessary to determine an equivalent resistance
in order to replace the two 4 ohm parallel branches.

The first step in developing an equivalent circuit is to apply the basic rules for determining the
total resistance of the two parallel branches. The total resistance of the combined branches will be
smaller than the smallest resistance of an individual branch. The circuit above has two parallel
branches, each with a 4Ohms lamp, therefore, the total resistance will be less than 4Ohms.

The following equation is used to solve for total resistance.

1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2

1/Rt = 1/4 + 1/4 or

1/Rt = .25 + .25 = .50 or

Rt = 1/.50 or Rt = 2 ohms

One of the rules for parallel circuits states that the voltage is the same in all parallel branches.
With 24 volts applied to each branch, the individual current flow can be calculated by using Ohm's
Law. The equation I = E/R is used to calculate the current in each branch as 6 amps. In this
particular case, the current flow in each branch is the same because the resistance values are the
same.

Solving Current Flow in a Parallel Circuit

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Illustration 5 g01070320

The circuit that is shown in Illustration 5 is a typical DC circuit with three parallel branches. The
circuit also contains an ammeter connected in series with the parallel branches (all current flow in
the circuit must pass through the ammeter).

Applying the basic rules for parallel circuits makes solving this problem very simple. The source
voltage is given (24 volts) and each branch resistance is given (R1 = 4Ohms; R2= 4Ohms; R3 =
2Ohms). Applying the voltage rule for parallel circuits (voltage is the SAME in all branches) you
can solve the unknown current value in each branch by using the Ohm's Law Circle, whereas, I =
E/R.

I1 = E1/R1 or I1 = 24/4 or I1 = 6 amps

I2 = E2/R2 or I2 = 24/4 or I2 = 6 amps

I3 = E3/R3 or I3 = 24/2 or I3 = 12 amps

Since current flow in parallel branches is the sum of all branch currents, the equation for total
current is It = I1 + I2 + I3 or 6+6+12 = 24 amp. With the source voltage given as 24 volts and the
total current calculated at 24 amp, the total circuit resistance is calculated as 1 ohm. (Rt = Et/It).

Series-Parallel Circuits

Illustration 6 g01070324
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A series-parallel circuit is composed of a series section and a parallel section. All of the rules
previously discussed regarding series circuits and parallel circuits are applicable in solving for
unknown circuit values.

Although some series-parallel circuits appear to be very complex, the series parallel circuits are
solved quite easily by using a logical approach. The following tips will make solving series-
parallel circuits less complicated:

• Examine the circuit carefully. Then determine the path or paths that current may flow
through the circuit before returning to the source.

• Redraw a complex circuit to simplify the appearance.

• When you simplify a series parallel circuit, begin at the farthest point from the voltage
source. Replace the parallel resistor combinations one step at a time.

• A correctly redrawn series parallel (equivalent) circuit will contain only ONE series resistor
in the end.

• Apply the simple series rules for determining the unknown values.

• Return to the original circuit and plug in the known values. Use Ohm's Law to solve the
remaining values.

Solving a Series-Parallel Problem

Illustration 7 g01070325

The series parallel circuit, as shown in Illustration 7, shows a 2Ohms resistor in series with a
parallel branch that contains a 6Ohms resistor and a 3Ohms resistor. To solve this problem it is
necessary to determine the equivalent resistance for the parallel branch. Using the following
equation, solve for the parallel equivalent (Re) resistance:

1/Re = 1/R2 + 1/R3

1/Re = 1/6 + 1/3 or

1/Re = .1666 +.3333 = .50 or

 Página 7 de 9

1/Re = 1/.50 or Re = 2 ohms

Illustration 7 has been redrawn (See Illustration 8) with the equivalent resistance for the parallel
branch. Solve circuit totals by using simple Ohm's Law rules for series circuits.

Illustration 8 g01070328

Using the rules for series circuits, the total circuit resistance can now be calculated by using the
equation Rt = R1 + Re or Rt = 2 + 2 or 4 ohms.

The remaining value that is unknown is current. Again, using Ohm's Law Circle, current can be
calculated by the equation:

I = E/R or

I = 12/4 or

I = 3 amp

Illustration 9 shows all the known values.

Illustration 9 g01070330

Circuit calculations indicate that the total current flow in the circuit is 3 amps. Since all current
flow that leaves the source must return, you know that the 3 amps must flow through R1. It is now
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possible to calculate the voltage drop across R1 by using the equation E = I × R, or E = 3A ×

2Ohms, or E1 = 6 volts.

If 6 volts is consumed by resistor R1, the remaining source voltage (6V) is applied to both parallel
branches. Using Ohm's Law for the parallel branch reveals that 1 amp flows through R2 and 2
amps flow through R3 before combining into the total circuit current of 3 amps returning to the
negative side of the power source.

Other Methods and Tips for Solving Complex Series Parallel

Circuits
As stated earlier, complex circuits can be easily solved by carefully examining the path for current
flow and then draw the circuit again. No matter how complex a circuit appears, drawing an
equivalent circuit and reducing the circuit to the lowest form (series circuit) will provide the
necessary information to plug into the original circuit.

Illustration 10 g01070333

1. Trace current flow from the (+) side of the battery to the (-) side of the battery. All the
current leaving the source is available at "TP1" (test point 1). At "TP1" the current is
divided among the two parallel branches and then recombined at "TP2" before flowing
through the series resistor "R3" and returning to ground. Now that you have identified the
path of current flow, the next step is drawing an equivalent circuit for the parallel branches.

2. Use Ohm's Law to calculate the equivalent resistance for the parallel branch. There are two
equations that are available for solving parallel branch resistances. The following equations
are used to solve for resistances.

◦ 1/Re = 1/R1 + 1/R2

◦ Re = R1 × R2/R1 + R2

The second equation is called product over sum method that is used for combining two
parallel resistances. When the circuit contains only two branches the product over sum
method is the easiest equation.

3. Redraw the circuit substituting the Re value to represent the equivalent resistance. The
circuit now has two resistors in series, shown as Re and R3. Further reduce the circuit by
adding Re and R3 as a single resistance called Rt. The following circuits reflect those steps.
 Página 9 de 9

Illustration 11 g01070335

Illustration 12 g01070336

Illustration 13 g01070337

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Electrical Measurement
SMCS - 1400; 1450

Digital Multimeter
This information covers the basic functions and operation of the digital multimeter. Although an
analog multimeter and test light may be used by a service technician, the digital multimeter performs
the more complex measurements on the newer electronic systems. Digital multimeters use the metric
system, in order to make it easier to work with large numbers.

Digital Multimeter
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Illustration 1 g01070520

The digital multimeter is highly accurate. The digital multimeter is used to find the precise value of
any type of voltage, current or resistance. The meter is powered by a 9 volt alkaline battery. The
meter is sealed against dirt, dust, and moisture.

The meter has four main areas: the liquid-crystal-display, push buttons, rotary dial function switch,
and inputs for the meter leads.

Liquid Crystal Display

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Illustration 2 g01070522

The meter's liquid crystal display, or LCD, uses display segments and indicators. Digital readings are
displayed on a 4000 count display with polarity (±) indication and automatic decimal point
placement. When the meter is turned ON, all display segments and annunciators appear briefly during
a self test. The digital display (1) updates four times per second. When frequency readings are taken.
The display updates three times per second.

The analog display (2) is a 32 segment pointer that updates at 40 times per second. The display
segments have a pointer that rolls across the segments indicating a measurement change. The display
also uses indicators to abbreviate various display modes and meter functions.

Push Buttons
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Illustration 3 g01070524

The buttons on the meter are used to perform additional functions. The additional buttons will be
covered later in the course as they apply to the type of measurement taken.

When the meter is first switched on and a measurement is made, the meter automatically selects a
range. The meter will display the word "AUTO" in the upper left corner. Pressing the range button
will put the meter in manual range mode. The range scale will be displayed in the lower right corner
of the meter. With each additional press of the range button, the next increment will be displayed.
Press and hold the range button in order to return to the auto range mode. The yellow button can be
used to backlight the meter display.

Rotary Switch
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Illustration 4 g01078604

Various meter functions are selected by turning the meter's rotary switch. Each time the rotary switch
is moved from OFF to a function setting, all display segments and indicators turn on as part of a self
test routine. Moving clockwise from the OFF switch, the first three positions on the rotary switch are
used for measuring AC voltage, DC voltage, and DC millivolts. The top position is used for
measuring resistance. The next position will allow the meter to check diodes. The last two positions
are used for measuring AC and DC current in amperes, milliamperes, and microamperes.

Meter Lead Inputs

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Illustration 5 g01070529

Depending on the measurement that you wish to make, the meter leads must be placed in the correct
terminals. Notice the insides of the input terminals are color coded, red or black. The positive lead
can go in any of the red inputs.

The "Com" or common terminal is used for most measurements. The black lead will always remain
in the "Com" terminal.

The first input terminal that is on the left side of the meter is for measuring amps. This input is fused
at 10 amps continuous (20A for 30 seconds).

The next position to the right is for measuring milliamperes or microamps. No more than 400
milliampere can be measured when the rotary switch is in this position. If you are unsure of a circuit's
amperage, you may want to start out with the red meter lead in the 10 amp input jack (highest range).

The input terminal on the right side of the meter is for measuring voltage, resistance, and diode test.

Overload Display Indicator

While you make some measurements, you may see "OL" displayed. "OL" indicates that the value
being measured is outside of the limits for the range selected. The following conditions can lead to an
overload display:

• In autorange, a high resistance reading indicates an open circuit.

• In manual range, a high resistance reading indicates an open circuit or an incorrect scale that
has been selected.

• In manual range, a voltage reading that exceeds the range selected.

• When you perform a diode check, voltage readings are greater that 3 volts or open test leads.

Input Terminal and Limits

The following chart shows the meter functions, the minimum display reading, the maximum display
reading, and the maximum input for the 9U7330 Digital Multimeter.

Table 1
Function Min Reading Max Reading Max Input

AC Volts 0.01 mV 1000V 1000V

DC Volts 0.0001V 1000V 1000V

mVolts 0.01mV 400.0 mV 1000V

Ohms 0.01Ohms 40.00 MOhms 1000V

AC/DC Amps 1.0 mA 10.0 A (cont) 600V

mA/µA 0.01 mA 400.0 mA 600V

0.1µA 4000 µA 600V

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Measuring AC/DC Voltage

When you use the multimeter to make voltage measurements, remember that the voltmeter must
always be connected in parallel with the load or with the circuit under test. The accuracy of the
9U7330 multimeter is approximately ± 0.01% in the five AC/DC voltage ranges with an input
impedance of approximately 10 mOhms when connected in parallel.

To measure voltage, perform the following tasks:

1. Make sure that the circuit is turned ON.

2. Place the black meter lead in the "Com" input port on the meter and the red lead in the
VOLT/OHM input port.

3. Place the rotary switch in the desired position AC or DC.

4. Place the black meter lead on the low side or the ground side of the component or circuit that is
being measured.

5. Place the red meter lead on the high side or the positive side of the component or circuit that is
being measured.
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Illustration 6 g01070559

Observe the circuit in Illustration 6. The tests leads are connected in parallel across the circuit load.
With a 12 volt power source connected to the load, the meter should read a voltage drop equal to the
source voltage or to 12 volts.

If the meter reads a voltage drop less than 12 volts, it would indicate that an unwanted resistance was
present in the circuit. A logical process would be to measure the voltage drop across the closed switch
contacts. If a voltage reading was present, it would indicate that the switch contacts were corroded.
This will require the switch to be replaced.

Note: In actual measurements, the meter reading will not exactly equal the power source voltage,
because the individual wires will offer some small resistance. In most practical applications, a voltage
drop of 0.1 volts is acceptable for normal circuit wiring conditions.

The 9U7330 digital multimeter is a high impedance meter. This means the meter will not
significantly increase the current flow in the circuit that is being measured. Voltage measurements
should always be made with the circuit under power. The 9U7330 Digital Multimeter is ideal for use
in circuits controlled by solid state devices such as, electronic components, computers, and
microprocessors.

Measuring AC/DC Current

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Illustration 7 g01070561

When you use the multimeter to make current measurements, it is necessary that the meter probes
must be connected in series with the load or circuit under test. To toggle between alternating and
direct current measurements, use the "Blue" push button.

When you measure current, the meter's internal shunt resistors develop a voltage across the meter's
terminals. This is called burden voltage. The burden voltage is very low, but the voltage could
possibly affect precision measurements.

When you measure current flow, the Fluke 87 multimeter is designed with low resistance to not affect
the current flow in the circuit. When you measure current in a circuit, always start with the red lead of
the multimeter in the Amp input (10 A fused) of the meter. Only move the red lead into the mA/µA
input after you have determined the current is below the mA/µA input maximum current rating (400
mA).

The meter has a buffer which allows it to momentarily measure current flows higher than 10A. This
buffer is designed to handle the surge current when a circuit is first turned on. The meter is capable of
reading 20 amps for a period not to exceed 30 seconds.

To measure current, perform the following tasks:

1. Place the black multimeter input lead in the "Com" port and the red input lead in the "A" (amp)
port.
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2. Create an open in the circuit, by pulling the fuse, or by opening the switch.

3. Place the leads in series with the circuit, so that the circuit amperage is flowing through the
meter.

4. Apply power to the circuit.

NOTICE

If the current flow exceeds the rating of the fuse in the meter, the fuse
will open.

Illustration 8 g01070563
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Measuring Resistance
When you use the multimeter to make resistance measurements, it is necessary to turn off the circuit
power and discharge all capacitors before attempting circuit measurements. If an external voltage is
present across the component being tested, it will be impossible to record an accurate measurement.

The digital multimeter measures resistance by passing a known current through the external circuit or
the component. The digital multimeter measures the respective voltage drop. The meter then
internally calculates the resistance using the Ohm's Law equation R = E/I. It is important to remember
that the resistance displayed by the meter is the total resistance through all possible paths between the
two meter probes. To accurately measure most circuits or most components, it is necessary to isolate
the circuit or the component from other paths.

The resistance of the test leads can affect the accuracy when the meter is in the lowest (400 ohm)
range. The expected error is approximately 0.1 to 0.2 ohms for a standard pair of test leads. To
determine the actual error, short the test leads together and reads the value displayed on the meter.
Use the "REL" mode on the 9U7330 to automatically subtract the lead resistance from the actual
measurements.

To accurately measure resistance, perform the following tasks:

1. Make sure that the circuit or the component power is turned OFF.

2. Place the red lead in the jack marked Volt/Ohms and the black lead in the jack marked "Com".

3. Place the rotary selector in the Ohms position.

4. Place the meter leads across the component or the circuit that is being measured.

Note: It is important that your fingers are not touching the tips of the meter leads when you are
performing resistance measurements. Internal body resistance can affect the measurement.
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Illustration 9 g01070568

Note: In the circuit under test in Illustration 9, the power source is isolated from the circuit by
opening the switch. The switch isolates the resistor from any other path that may affect the accuracy
of the measurement.

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Circuit Voltage
SMCS - 1400; 1450

Circuit Faults
The following information will describe the circuit malfunctions of series, parallel, and series
parallel circuits.

Circuit Malfunctions
There are several ways that a circuit can malfunction. Most electrical malfunctions are caused by
the following conditions: opens, shorts, grounds, high resistance, or intermittents.

Opens
An open in any part of a circuit is an extremely high resistance that results in no current flow in
the circuit. An open can be caused by any of the following components that have failed:

• Switch

• Fuse

• Broken wire

• Connector

• Component (load)

The physical location of the open determines how the circuit will react. In a series circuit, any
open connection will result in no current flow in the circuit. Illustration 1 shows an open in a
series circuit. The switch acts as an open. Therefore, no current will flow through the two loads
when the switch is open.
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Illustration 1 g01070634

Troubleshooting an open circuit is easily accomplished by using a multimeter and by measuring

the source voltage. If source voltage is available at the connection ahead of the switch and not
available on the load side of the switch, the switch contacts are open. If voltage is available on the
load side it would be necessary to continue checking the circuit until the open is identified.

In a parallel circuit, identifying an open depends on where the open occurs. If the open occurs in
the main line, none of the loads or components will work. All parallel branches will not operate.
Additionally, an open in the return ground path would have the same effect as an open in the main
line. An open in the return ground path is referred to as an open ground.

If the open occurs in any of the branches below the main line, only the load on that specific branch
is affected. All other branch loads will operate normally. Illustration 2 shows an example of an
open in the main line and in a parallel branch.
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Illustration 2 g01070636

When you are troubleshooting or diagnosing an open in a circuit, the result is normally a
component that fails to operate or to function. Since most circuits are protected with some type of
a fuse or circuit protection device, it is recommended that the fuse or device be checked visually.
If a visual check does not reveal an open condition, remove the device and perform a continuity
check in order to ensure that the device is functional. The next most probable place to check for an
open is at the component. Using a multimeter and a electrical schematic, determine if the system
voltage or source voltage is available. If voltage is not present at the component, the next step is to
determine what other electrical devices, such as switches or connectors, are in the circuit path.
Eliminate those devices, starting at the easiest location and working back toward the voltage
source.

Shorts
A short in a circuit is a direct electrical connection between two points. There is usually a very
low resistance or opposition to current flow. A short in a circuit often describes an unwanted or an
incorrect electrical connection. This may draw higher than expected current. In describing
malfunctions that are caused by electrical shorts, the types of shorts are usually identified as a
short to ground or a short to power.

A short to ground occurs when current flow is grounded before it was intended to be. This usually
happens when wire insulation breaks and the conductor actually comes in contact with the
machine ground. The effect of a short to ground depends on the design of the circuit and on the
location in relationship to other circuit components (protection devices, switches, loads).
 Página 4 de 8

Illustration 3 g01070638

Illustration 3 shows the short occurring after the protection device and the switch, but before the
circuit load (lamp). In this example, a low resistance path to ground occurs whenever the switch is
turned on and the source voltage is available. The result of this unwanted path will result in a
blown fuse when the switch is turned on.

Illustration 4 shows the short to ground occurring before the switch. This condition is often
referred to as a dead short. In this situation, the fuse will blow anytime that the circuit voltage is
applied.
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Illustration 4 g01070640

A short to power occurs when one circuit is shorted to another circuit. The symptoms of a short to
power depends on the location of the short. The result of this of condition generally causes one or
both circuits to operate improperly. A component that is being energized when it is not supposed
to be is an example. The root cause of this condition is caused by worn electrical wiring or frayed
electrical wiring. Also, this condition seldom causes protection devices to open or cause damage
to other components.

Illustration 5 shows the short to power occurring before the controlling devices (switches). This
condition allows both switches to control the two loads.
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Illustration 5 g01070643

Illustration 6 shows the short to power that occurrs after the load in one branch, and before the
load in the other. In this case, if the switch that controlls circuit no. 2 is turned on, the load does
illuminate, but if the switch that controls circuit no. 1 is turned on, a direct short to ground occurs
resulting in the fuse blowing.
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Illustration 6 g01070646

Grounds
A grounded circuit usually results in a component that fails to operate. A grounded condition
indicates that the circuit has an unwanted path to the machine frame. The effect on the circuit is
determined by where the ground occurs.

High Resistance
Circuit malfunctions also occur when resistance levels become too high. The circuit effect usually
results in the component failing to operate or the component does not operate according to
specification. The cause of high resistance is a build up of corrosion on connections, or dirt on
connections and on contacts.

Intermittent
An intermittent condition occurs when contacts or connections become loose or when internal
component parts break. These problems usually results in lights flickering, or in components
working intermittently. This problem usually appears as the result of vibrations or machines
moving. These problems are not easily diagnosed because the condition corrects itself when the
machine is stopped.
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