Addis College

Research Methods
And
Technical Report Writing
Chapter 4
Research Design
 Contents
Research Design and Methodology
1. Research Design
2. Need for Research Design
3. Research Design for various types of Research
4. Developing a Research Plan
5. Elements of a Research Proposal

2
1. Research Design
 The next step that follows the task of defining the
research problem is the preparation of the design of the
research project, popularly known as the “research
design”.
 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by
what means concerning an inquiry or a research study
constitute a research design.
 A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.
 In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.

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1. Research Design
 The study type may dictate certain research designs.
 More commonly, the study objectives can be achieved
through a number of alternative designs.
 The researcher has to select the most appropriate and
most feasible design.
 The type of research design chosen depends on:
 Type of problem;
 Knowledge already available about the problem; and
 Resources available for the study.

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1. Research Design
 The design includes an outline of what the researcher will
do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data.
 More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in
respect of:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed? and
 In what style will the report be prepared?
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2. Need for Research Design
 Research design is needed because it facilitates the
smooth sailing/as planned of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
 Just as for better, economical and attractive construction
of a building, we need a blueprint, similarly we need a
research design or a plan in advance of data collection
and analysis for our research project.
 Therefore, Research design stands for advance planning
of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant
data and the techniques to be used in their analysis,
keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money.
 Preparation of the research design should be done with
great care as any error in it may affect the entire project.
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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
 Different research designs can be conveniently described
if we categorize them as:
 Research design in case of exploratory research
studies;
 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies, and
 Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies.
 Each category is dealt with separately in subsequent
discussions.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.1 Exploratory Research Design
 The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a
problem for more precise investigation or of developing
the working hypotheses from an operational point of
view.
 The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of
ideas and insights.
 The research design appropriate for such studies must be
flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering
different aspects of a problem under study.
 Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because
the research problem, broadly defined initially, is
transformed into one with more precise meaning in
exploratory studies, which may necessitate changes in
the research procedure for gathering relevant data.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.1 Exploratory Research Design
 Generally, the following three methods in the context of
research design for such studies can be considered.
 The survey of concerning literature;
 The experience survey; and
 The analysis of „insight-stimulating‟ examples.
3.1.1 Literature Survey
 The survey of concerning literature happens to be the
most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely
the research problem or developing hypothesis.
 Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed
and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further
research.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.1 Exploratory Research Design
3.1.1 Literature Survey
 In this way the researcher should review and build upon
the work already done by others, but in cases where
hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to
review the available material for deriving the relevant
hypothesis from it.
3.1.2 Experience Survey
 Experience survey means the survey of people who have
had practical experience with the problem to be studied.
 The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relating
to the research problem.
 For such a survey people who are competent and can
contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as
respondents to ensure a representation of different types
of experience. 10
3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.1 Exploratory Research Design
3.1.2 Experience Survey
 Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to
define the problem more concisely and help in the
formulation of the research hypothesis.
3.1.3 Analysis of Insight-stimulating Examples
 Analysis of „insight-stimulating‟ examples is also a
fruitful method for suggesting hypotheses for research. It
is particularly suitable in areas where there is little
experience to serve as a guide.
 This method consists of the intensive study of selected
instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested.
 For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be
examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place,
or some other approach may be adopted.
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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 Descriptive research studies are those studies which are
concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic
research studies determine the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with something else.
 The studies concerning whether certain variables are
associated are examples of diagnostic research studies.
 In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the
researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants
to measure and must find adequate methods for
measuring it along with a clear cut definition of
‘population’ he wants to study.
 Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information in the said studies, the procedure to be used
must be carefully planned.
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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 The research design must make enough provision for
protection against bias and must maximize reliability
with due concern for economical completion of the
research study.
 The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible
and must focus attention on the following:
 Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is
about and why is it being made?);
 Designing the sources and methods of data collection (what
techniques of gathering data will be adopted?);
 Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?);
 Collecting the data (where can the required data be found
and with what time period should the data be related?);
 Processing and analyzing the data; and
 Reporting the findings.
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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify
the objectives with sufficient precision to ensure that the
data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully,
the study may not provide the desired information.
 Then comes the question of selecting the methods by
which the data are to be obtained. In other words,
techniques for collecting the information must be
devised.
 Several methods (such as observation, questionnaires,
interviewing, examination of records, etc.), with their
merits and limitations, are available for the purpose and
the researcher may use one or more of these methods
which have been discussed in detail in previous sub
topics.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies the
researcher takes out sample(s) and then wishes to make
statements about the population on the basis of the
sample analysis.
 To obtain data free from errors introduced by those
responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to
supervise closely the staff of field workers as they collect
and record information. Checks may be set up to ensure
that the data collecting staff perform their duty honestly
and without prejudice.
 As data are collected, they should be examined for
completeness, comprehensibility, consistency and
reliability.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 The data collected must be processed and analyzed. This
includes steps like coding the interview replies,
observations, etc.; tabulating the data; and performing
several statistical computations.
 To the extent possible, the processing and analyzing
procedure should be planned in detail before actual work
is started.
 Finally, statistical computations such as averages,
percentages and various coefficients must be worked out.
Probability and sampling analysis may as well be used.
 The appropriate statistical operations, along with the use
of appropriate tests of significance should be carried out
to safeguard the drawing of conclusions concerning the
study.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings.
This is the task of communicating the findings to others
and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner.
 The layout of the report needs to be well planned so that
all things relating to the research study may be well
presented in simple and effective style.
 Thus, the research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic studies is a comparative design throwing light
on all points narrated above and must be prepared
keeping in view the objective(s) of the study and the
resources available.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches
3.3 Hypothesis-testing Research Design
Definition:
 A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the
relationship between two or more variables.
 A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what
you expect to happen in your study.
 For example, a study designed to look at the relationship
between sleep deficiency and test performance might
have a hypothesis that states,
 "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep
deprived people will perform worse on a test than
individuals who are not sleep deprived.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches

 Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known

as experimental studies) are those where the researcher
tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between
variables.
 Such studies require procedures that will not only
reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit
drawing inferences about causality.
 Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence,
when we talk of research design in such studies, we
often mean the design of experiments.

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3. Research Design for various types of Researches

 Unless you are creating a study that is exploratory in

nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you
expect to happen during the course of your experiment or
research
Elements of a Good Hypothesis
When trying to come up with a good hypothesis for your own
research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:
I. Is your hypothesis based on your research of a topic?

II. Can your hypothesis be tested?

III. Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent

variables?
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THANK YOU!

21
 Addis College

Research Methods
And
Technical Report Writing
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
4.1 Sample Design
 Contents
Sample Design
1. Research Methodology
2. Sampling Basics
3. Bias and Error in Sampling
4. Selecting the Sample
5. Types of samples
6. Sample size

23
1. Research Methodology
 The researcher must decide exactly how to achieve his
stated objectives: i.e., what new data will be needed in
order to shed light on the problem selected and to collect
and process this data.
 Indicate the methodological steps you will take to
answer every question, to test every hypothesis
illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section or address
the objectives you set.
 Methodology should be chosen carefully; consider all of
your options before choosing how you will proceed with
your experiment or analysis.
 Sometimes you will even be able to use combined
methodology or develop your own instruments. If you
have financial needs for your experiment or analysis, be
sure to budget for your methodology.

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1. Research Methodology
 The methodology section describes how your research will
be performed and the process you go through. This
includes the type of research methods as well as a
step‐by‐step description of the research.
 Discuss the different materials and apparatuses you will
use in the study, including anything from surveys in the
social sciences, to raw materials, or chemicals and
equipment in the hard sciences.
 You will also need to discuss the participants if relevant to
your study: how you choose them, on what basis, who they
are, background information, etc.
 Discussing how you plan to analyze your data is also
important. You may also mention when and where your
research will be conducted.

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1. Research Methodology
 What belongs in the "methodology" section of a research
proposal?
 Information to allow the reader to assess the
credibility of your approach;
 Information needed by another researcher to replicate
your experiment;
 Description of your materials, procedure, theory;
 Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and
calibration plots;
 Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity; and
 Description of your analytical methods, including
reference to any specialized statistical software.

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1. Research Methodology
 The proposal should describe in detail the general
research plan. (may not necessarily be true for all types
of research):
 Description of study area;
 Description of study design;
 Description of study participants;
 Eligibility criteria ( if any);
 Determination of sample size (if any);
 Description of selection process (sampling method);
 Methods of data collection;
 Description of the expected outcome and explanatory
variables (if any);
 How data quality is ensured;
 Operational definition; and
 Presentation of the data analysis methods. 27
2. Sampling Basics
2.1 What is a Sample?
 A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose
properties are studied to gain information about the
whole (Webster, 1985).
 When dealing with people, it can be defined as a set of
respondents (people) selected from a larger population
for the purpose of a survey.
 A population is a group of individual persons, objects, or
items from which samples are taken for measurement; for
example, a population of contractors or consultants ,
books or students.

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2. Sampling Basics
2.2 Sampling
 Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a
suitable sample, or a representative part of a population
for the purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population.
 Sampling is the process of selecting a number of study
units from a defined study population.
 Often research focuses on a large population that, for
practical reasons, it is only possible to include some of its
members in the investigation; hence, the researcher have
to draw a sample from the total population.

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Common Sampling Terminologies
 assume an example where our main aim is to
find out the average age of the class. Let us
assume that you adopt the sampling method –
that is, you select a few students to achieve
these aims. In this process there are a number
of aspects:
 The class from which you select your sample
are called the population or study population,
and are usually denoted by the letter N.
 The small group of students from whom you
collect the required information to estimate the
average age of the class is called the sample.
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 Common Sampling Terminologies
 The number of students from whom you obtain the
required information is called the sample size and is
usually denoted by the letter n.
 The way you select students is called the sampling
design or sampling strategy.
 Your findings based on the information obtained from
your respondents (sample) are called sample statistics.
Your sample statistics become the basis of estimating the
prevalence of the above characteristics in the study
population.
 From sample statistics we make an estimate of the
answers to our research questions in the study population.
The estimates arrived at from sample statistics are called
population parameters or the population mean.
31
 Common Sampling Terminologies
 assume an example where our main aim is to find
out the average age of the class. Let us assume that
you adopt the sampling method – that is, you select
a few students to achieve these aims. In this process
there are a number of aspects:
 The class from which you select your sample are
called the population or study population, and are
usually denoted by the letter N.
 The small group of students from whom you
collect the required information to estimate the
average age of the class is called the sample.
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2. Sampling Basics
2.2 Sampling
 In such cases you must consider the following questions:
 What is the study population you are interested in from
which we want to draw a sample?
 How many subjects do you need in your sample?
 How will these subjects be selected?
 The study population has to be clearly defined.
Otherwise it is difficult to do the sampling.
 The way you define your study population and your
study unit depends on the problem you want to
investigate and on the objectives of the study.

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2. Sampling Basics
2.3 Purpose of Sampling
 The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of
validity:- the extent to which the interpretations of the results
of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to
which results may be generalized to other situations with
other people or situation.
 Internal Validity: Internal validity is the extent to which the
researcher is able to make the claim that no other variables
except the one he is studying caused the result.
 External Validity: External validity is the extent to which
results of a study can be generalized to the world at large.
 Sampling is critical to external validity:- the extent to which
findings of a study can be generalized to people or situations
other than those observed in the study.
 To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some
defined population requires that the sample has been drawn
from that population according to one of several probability
sampling plans.
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2. Sampling Basics
2.3 Purpose of Sampling
 Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that
of internal validity:- the extent to which the outcomes of a
study result from the variables that were manipulated,
measured, or selected rather than from other variables not
systematically treated.
 Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be
constructed. Perhaps the key word in sampling is
representative.
 If researchers want to draw conclusions which are valid for
the whole study population, which requires a quantitative
study design, they should take care to draw a sample in
such a way that it is representative of that population.
 A representative sample has all the important
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
37
2. Sampling Basics
2.3 Purpose of Sampling
 To draw conclusions about populations from samples,
we must use inferential statistics which enables us to
determine a population`s characteristics by directly
observing only a portion (or sample) of the population.
 We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration
(a census) of the population for many reasons. Some of
these reasons are;
 Economy;
 Timeliness;
 The large size of many populations;
 Inaccessibility of some of the population;
 Destructiveness of the observation; and
 Accuracy.

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3. Bias and Error in Sampling

 A sample is expected to mirror the population from

which it comes, however, there is no guarantee that any
sample will be precisely representative of the population
from which it comes.
 Chance may dictate that a disproportionate number of
untypical observations will be made like for the case of
testing fuses, the sample of fuses may consist of more or
less faulty fuses than the real population proportion of
faulty cases.
 In practice, it is rarely known when a sample is
unrepresentative and should be discarded.

39
3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.1 Sampling Error
 What can make a sample unrepresentative of its
population? One of the most frequent causes is sampling
error.
 Sampling error comprises the differences between the
sample and the population that are due solely to the
particular units that happen to have been selected.
 For example, suppose that a sample of 100 people are
measured and are all found to be taller than three
meters. It is very clear even without any statistical prove
that this would be a highly unrepresentative sample
leading to invalid conclusions.
 This is a very unlikely occurrence because naturally such
rare cases are widely distributed among the population.
But it can occur. Luckily, this is a very obvious error and
can be detected very easily.
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3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.2 Causes of Sampling Error
 There are two basic causes of sampling error i.e. chance
and bias.
3.2.1 Chance
 The error that occurs just because of bad luck. This may
result in untypical choices.
 Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always
a possibility that an abnormally large number of them
will be chosen, For example, in a recent study in which
someone was looking at the number of trees, he selected a
sample of households randomly but strange enough, the
two households in the whole population, which had the
highest number of trees were both selected making the
sample average higher than it should be.
 The main protection against this kind of error is to use a
large enough sample.
41
3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.2 Causes of Sampling Error
3.2.2 Bias
 Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the selection of
units that have particular characteristics and it is
usually the result of a poor sampling plan.
 The most notable is the bias of non response when for
some reason some units have no chance of appearing in
the sample.
 For example if you would like to know the average
income of some community and you decide to use the
telephone numbers to select a sample of the total
population in a locality where only the rich and middle
class households have telephone lines. You will end up
with high average income which will lead to the wrong
policy decisions.
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3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.3 Non-sampling (Measurement) Error
 The other main cause of unrepresentative samples is non
sampling error.
 This type of error can occur whether a census or a sample
is being used.
 A non sampling error is an error that results solely from
the manner in which the observations are made.
 The simplest example of non sampling error is inaccurate
measurements due to malfunctioning instruments or
poor procedures.

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3. Bias and Error in Sampling

3.3 Non-sampling (Measurement) Error

a) Errors stemming from non-response: errors
caused by the fact that households are not
investigated due to absence from home or refusal
to participate.
b) Response errors: errors due to misunderstanding
the question, unwillingness or inability to answer
correctly or incorrect presentation of questions.

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3. Bias and Error in Sampling
3.3 Non-sampling (Measurement) Error
c) Errors in processing: errors that occur at
the stage of processing the material, such
as errors in coding and in the data entry
process of the questionnaires. Some of
these errors are corrected by means of
checks that the material undergoes.

45
4. Selecting the Sample
 The preceding section has covered the most common
problems associated with statistical studies.
 The desirability of a sampling procedure depends on both its
vulnerability to error and its cost. However, economy and
reliability are competing ends, because, to reduce error often
requires an increased expenditure of resources.
 Of the two types of statistical errors, only sampling error can
be controlled by exercising care in determining the method
for choosing the sample.
 The previous section has shown that sampling error may be
due to either bias or chance. The chance component
(sometimes called random error) exists no matter how
carefully the selection procedures are implemented, and the
only way to minimize chance sampling errors is to select a
sufficiently large sample.
 Sampling bias on the other hand may be minimized by the
wise choice of a sampling procedure.
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5. Types of Samples
A. Probability Sampling B. Non-Probability
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic 1. Quota

3. Stratified Random 2. Convenience

4. Cluster 3. Purposive

5. Multi Stage 4. Snow ball

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 5.Types of Samples
A. Probability sampling
◦ The sample is a proportion (a certain
percent) of the population and such sample
is selected from the population by means of
some systematic way in which every
element of the population has a chance of
being included in the sample.
◦ Randomization is a feature of the
selection process rather than an assumption
about the structure of the population.
◦ More complex, time consuming and more
costly

48
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
 This may be the most important type of sample. A random
sample allows a known probability that each elementary
unit will be chosen. For this reason, it is sometimes
referred to as a probability sample. This is the type of
sampling that is used in lotteries and raffles.
 For example, if you want to select 10 players randomly
from a population of 100, you can write their names, fold
them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this case,
every name had any equal chance of being picked.
 Random samples can be further classified as follows:
 Simple random sample;
 Systematic random sample;
 Stratified random sample;
 Cluster sample; and
 Multistage sample. 49
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.1 Simple Random Samples
 A simple random sample is obtained by choosing
elementary units in such a way that each unit in the
population has an equal chance of being selected. A
simple random sample is free from sampling bias.
 This can be achieved by applying a table of random
numbers or a computer generated random numbers to a
numbered sampling frame.
 Another approach involves drawing numbers from a
container. The product of this technique is a sample
determined entirely by chance.
 It should be noted, however, that chance is “lumpy”,
meaning that random selection does not always produce a
sample that is representative of the population.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.2 Systematic Random Samples
 A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one
unit on a random basis and choosing additional
elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the
desired number of units is obtained.
 The systematic random sampling technique begins with
selecting one element at random in the sampling frame as
the starting point; however, from this point onward, the
rest of the sample is selected systematically by applying a
predetermined interval.
 For example, in this sampling technique, after the initial
element is selected at random, every “kth” element will be
selected (kth refers to the size of the interval i.e. the ratio
of the population to sample size) and becomes eligible for
inclusion in the study.
51
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.2 Systematic Random Samples
 Instead of using a least of random numbers, data
collection can be simplified by selecting say every 10th
or 100th unit after the first unit has been chosen
randomly. such a procedure is called systematic random
sampling.
 For example, there are 100 students in your class. You
want a sample of 20 from these 100 and you have their
names listed on a piece of paper may be in an
alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic
random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you will get an
interval of 5.
 If there is a cyclic repetition in the sampling frame,
systematic sampling is not recommended.
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Systematic Random Samples

53
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.3 Stratified Random Samples
 Stratified random sampling begins with the identification
of some variable, which may be related indirectly to the
research question and could act as a confounder (such as
geography, age, income, education, or gender).
 This variable is then used to divide the sampling frame
into mutually exclusive strata or subgroups. Once the
sampling frame is arranged by strata, the sample is
selected from each stratum using simple random
sampling or systematic sampling techniques.
 It is important that the sample selected within each
stratum reflects proportionately the population
proportions; thus, you can employ proportionate
stratified sampling.
54
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.3 Stratified Random Samples
 A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting
a separate simple random sample from each population
stratum. A population can be divided into different groups
may be based on some characteristic or variable like
income or education. Like any body with ten years of
education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B
and between 20 and 30 group C.
 These groups are referred to as strata. You can then
randomly select from each stratum a given number of
units which may be based on proportion like if group A
has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you
may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up
with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group
C.
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5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.4 Cluster Samples
 It may be difficult or impossible to take a simple random
sample of the units of the study population at random,
because a complete sampling frame does not exist.
 Logistical difficulties may also discourage random
sampling techniques (e.g., interviewing people who are
scattered over a large area may be too time-consuming).
 However, when a list of groupings of study units is
available (e.g., villages or schools) or can be easily
compiled, a number of these groupings can be randomly
selected. Then all study units in the selected clusters will
be included in the study.

56
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.4 Cluster Samples
 A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from
the population on the basis of simple random sampling.
The sample comprises a census of each random cluster
selected. For example, a cluster may be some thing like a
village or a school, a state.
 For example you want 20 schools to select for a certain
study. You can use simple or systematic random sampling
to select the schools, then every school selected becomes
a cluster.
 If your interest is to interview teachers on their opinion
of some new program which has been introduced, then
all the teachers in a cluster must be interviewed.

57
5. Types of Samples
5.3 Random samples
5.3.5 Multistage Samples
 Multistage cluster sampling is used when an appropriate
sampling frame does not exist or cannot be obtained.
 Multistage cluster sampling uses a collection of
preexisting units or clusters to “stand in” for a sampling
frame.
 The first stage in the process is selecting a sample of
clusters at random from the list of all known clusters. The
second stage consists of selecting a random sample from
each cluster.
 Because of this multistage process, the likelihood of
sampling bias increases. This creates a lack of sampling
precision known as a design effect. It is recommended to
consider the design effect during sample size
determination.
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6. Sample Size
 Having decided how to select the sample, you have to
determine the sample size. The research proposal should
provide information and justification about sample size.
 It is not necessarily true that the bigger the sample, the
better the study. Beyond a certain point, an increase in
sample size will not improve the study. In fact, it may do
the opposite; if the quality of the measurement or data
collection is adversely affected by the large size of the
study.
 After a certain sample size, in general, it is much better to
increase the accuracy and richness of data collection
(for example by improving the training of interviewers,
by pre-testing of the data collection tools or by calibrating
measurement devices) than to increase sample size.
 Also, it is better to make extra effort to get a
representative sample rather than to get a very large
sample. 59
6. Sample Size

 Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have

to define your study population. For example, all grade 1
contractor in Ethiopia. Then determine your sampling
frame which could be a list of all grade 1 contractors as
recorded in the County. You can then struggle with the
sample size.
 Sample size depends on:
 Nature of the analysis to be performed;
 Desired precision of the estimates one wishes to
achieve;
 Kind and number of comparisons that will be made;
 Number of variables that have to be examined
simultaneously; and
 How heterogeneous a universe is sampled.
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6. Sample Size
 More technical considerations suggest that the required
sample size is a function of:
 Precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve;
 Variability or variance, one expects to find in the
population; and
 Statistical level of confidence one wishes to use.
 The level of precision needed for the estimates will
impact the sample size.
 Generally, the actual sample size of a study is a
compromise between the level of precision to be
achieved, the research budget and any other operational
constraints, such as time.

61
6. Sample Size
 In order to achieve a certain level of precision, the sample
size will depend, among other things, on the following
factors:
 The variability of the characteristics being observed;
 The population size; and
 The sampling and estimation methods.
A. Variability of the characteristics being observed
 If every person in a population had the same salary, then
a sample of one person would be all you would need to
estimate the average salary of the population. If the
salaries are very different, then you would need a bigger
sample in order to produce a reliable estimate.

62
6. Sample Size
B. Population size
 To a certain extent, the bigger the population, the bigger
the sample needed. But once you reach a certain level, an
increase in population no longer affects the sample size.
 For instance, the necessary sample size to achieve a certain
level of precision will be about the same for a population of
one million as for a population twice that size.
C. Sampling and estimation methods
 Not all sampling and estimation methods have the same
level of efficiency. You will need a bigger sample if your
method is not the most efficient.
 But because of operational constraints and the
unavailability of an adequate frame, you cannot always use
the most efficient technique.

63
THANK YOU!

64
 Research Methods
And
Technical Report Writing
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
4.2 Measurement Techniques
Measurement Techniques
1. Measurement basics
2. Common response formats

6
6
1.1 Measurement
 Measurement is the
process of assigning 7 8 3
numbers or labels to
objects, persons, states,
or events in accordance
with specific rules to
represent quantities or Third Second First
qualities of attributes. place place place

8.2 9.1 9.6

15.2 14.1 13.4

6
7
1.2 Levels of Measurement
 There are four distinct measurement scales:
 Nominal scale: measures categories;
 Ordinal scale: Categories + rank and order;
 Interval scale: Equal distance between any two
consecutive measures; and
 Ratio scale: Intervals + meaningful zeros.

6
8
1.Nominal Lowest Level
Scale

2. Ordinal
Scale

3. Interval
Scale
Highest Level
4. Ratio
Scale
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1.2 Levels of Measurement
1.2.1 Nominal Scales
 Nominal scales focus on only requiring a respondent to
provide some type of description as the raw response.

Example:
1. Please indicate your organization/company type.
__ Contractor __Client __ Consultant__ Financeir
2. Please indicate your position in the organization/company.
__Project Manager __ Site Engineer__ Office Engineer
Catholic = 1
3. Gender is a nominal scale Protestant= 2
Jewish =3
Male = 1
Muslim =4
Female = 2 Other =5 7
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 1.2 Levels of Measurement
1.2.2 Ordinal Scales
 Ordinal scales allow the respondent to express “relative
magnitude” between the raw responses to a question.
 A measure of order or rank
 Used to arrange data into series
 Provides no information regarding magnitude
Example:
 What is your opinion on domestic contractor‟s performance in
road construction projects?
__ Very good
__ Good
__ Fair
__ Poor 7
1
1.2 Levels of Measurement
1.2.3 Interval Scales
 Interval scales demonstrate the absolute differences
between each scale point.
 Interval data are always numeric

Example:
 How likely do you recommend the Design Build delivery
method in Ethiopian construction industry?

Unfavorable Favorable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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1.2 Levels of Measurement
1.2.4 Ratio Scales
 Ratio scales allow for the identification of absolute
differences between each scale point, and absolute
comparisons between raw responses.

Example:
 Please circle the number of Years your company has been
working as grade 1 contractor.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (if more than 7 please specify)

7
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 There are various response formats employed for
measurement purposes as follows:
 Likert Scale;
 Semantic Differential Scale;
 Behavioral Intention Scale;
 Comparative Scales; and
 Non-comparative Scales.

7
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2.1 Likert Scale
 A likert scale is an ordinal scale format that asks respondents to
indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a series of
mental or behavioral belief statements about a given object.

7
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76
2.2 Semantic Differential Scale
 A semantic differential scale is unique bipolar ordinal scale format
that captures a person’s attitudes and/or feelings about a given
object.
 In their simplest form, each of the bipolar scales that make up a
semantic differential consists of an antonym pair, which are usually
two adjectives (e.g., bad - good; unpleasant - pleasant)
 a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar
labels that have semantic meaning

77
78
2.3 Behavioral Intention Scale
 A behavioral intention scale is a special type of rating
scale designed to capture the likelihood that people will
demonstrate some type of predictable behavior intent
toward purchasing an object or service in a future time
frame. Example: shopping intention scale.

7
9
2.4 Comparative Rating Scale
 Comparative Rating Scales is a format that requires a
judgment comparing one object, person, or concept
against another on the scale

80
2.5 Non-comparative Rating Scale
 Non comparative Rating Scales: format that requires a
judgment without reference to another object, person, or
concept.
2.6 Graphic Rating Scale

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 Unique rating scale configuration

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THANK YOU!

83
 Research Methods
And
Technical Report Writing
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
4.3 Data Collection
Data Collection
1. Collecting Data
2. Selecting data collection methods
3. Mixing source and methods
4. Data collection instruments

8
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 Collecting data involves:
 Sources - where you will get the information; and
 Methods - how you will collect/gather the information.
1.1 Source of Information
 From where or from whom will you get the information?
 Existing information: records, reports, program
documents, logs, journals.
 People: participants, parents, volunteers, teachers.
 Pictorial records and observations: video or photos,
observations of events etc.

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1.2 Methods of Data Collection
 Common methods include:
 Survey;
 Case Study;
 Interview;
 Observation;
 Group assessment;
 Expert or peer reviews;
 Tests;
 Photograph, videotape, slides;
 Diaries, journals, logs; and
 Document review and analysis.

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1.2 Methods of Data Collection
 Methods are often thought of as quantitative or
qualitative.
Table 1: quantitative vs. Qualitative methods
No. Quantitative methods Qualitative methods

1 Surveys, questionnaires Focus groups

2 Tests Unstructured interviews

3 Existing databases Unstructured observation

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8
1.2 Methods of Data Collection
 Quantitative and Qualitative information.
"Not everything that counts can be counted."

5 (Quantity) Happy (Quality) Kids

8
9
1.2 Methods of Data Collection
 Quantitative data collection methods produce numbers While
qualitative data collection methods produce words.
 Each quantitative and qualitative data collection methods has
its strengths and weaknesses.
 Quantitative methods are more structured and allow for
aggregation and generalization where as Qualitative methods
are more open and provide for depth and richness.

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1.3 Which Methods shall be used?

 There is no simple answer.

 There is no ONE best method.

 It all depends on purpose of evaluation,

respondents and available resources.

9
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 When choosing data collection methods, consider the
following points
A. The purpose of your evaluation
 Will the method allow you to gather information that can
be analyzed and presented in a way that will be credible
and useful to you and others?
B. The respondents
 What is the most appropriate method, considering how
the respondents can best be reached, how they might
best respond, literacy, cultural considerations, etc.?
 What kind of data your stakeholders will find most
credible and useful.

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C. Resources available
 Time, money, and staff to design, implement, and analyze
the information.
 What can you afford? Type of information you need.
Numbers, percents, comparisons, stories, examples, etc.
 Advantages and disadvantages of each method.

93
 Often, it is better to use more than one data collection
method.

Why would this be so?

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4
 When we use several methods we say we are
„triangulating‟. Triangulation is important in evaluation
because we want accurate and trustworthy information.
 Triangulation means the use of multiple sources and
methods to gain a better understanding.
 Each source and each method has inherent biases so using
more than one source and/or method provides a more
accurate picture.
 How might you mix sources of information in your
evaluation?
 How might you mix data collection methods to
evaluate your program?

95
A. Mix sources of information
 For example, you might collect information from client,
contractors, consultants and financeirs.
B. Mix data collection methods
 For example, you might survey participants AND
interview a sample of participants. You might conduct
focus group interviews with professionals service
participants AND observe the projects site.
 Thinking back on the above points, what different type of
information might you get from the different sources and
methods?
 Using multiple sources and/or methods means more time
and resources.
 The choice of data collection method ultimately depends
upon the resources you have available.

96
 We use the term “instrument” to mean the tool on which
the data is actually recorded:
 Questionnaire,
 Interview,
 Document analysis,
 Focus group,
 Observation,
 Experiment, and
 Mathematical modeling.
 If you have selected a survey as your method, you
automatically know that you will need a questionnaire.
But, if you choose a method such as focus group or
interview or observation, think about what you will use
for recording the information.
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4.1 Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents
write answers to questions posed by the researcher on a
question form.
 A number of respondents are asked identical questions,
in order to gain information that can be analyzed,
patterns found and comparisons made.
4.1.1 Closed-ended Questionnaires
 The commonest type of questionnaire involves closed
choice or fixed questions where the respondent is
required to answer by choosing an option from a number
of given answers, usually by ticking a box or circling an
answer.
 These types of questionnaires only gather
straightforward, uncomplicated information, and only
simple questions can be asked.

98
4.1 Questionnaire
4.1.2 Open-ended Questionnaires
 The open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the
respondent to formulate and record their answers in
their own words.
 These are more qualitative and can produce detailed
answers to complex problems.
 Open-ended questions give a greater insight and
understanding of the topic researched but may be
difficult to classify and quantify and must be carefully
interpreted.
 Fixed choice questions are easy to classify and quantify,
require less time, effort and ingenuity to answer but do
not allow the respondents to qualify, develop or clarify
their answers.

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4.1 Questionnaire
 Advantage of a questionnaire:
 Quick;
 Cheap and efficient;
 Can reach a large number of people; and
 Consistent format means there is little scope for bias
introduced by different researchers.

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4.1 Questionnaire
 Disadvantages of a questionnaire:
 Limited answers only can be given;
 Lack of qualitative depth results in superficiality;
 No way of probing for more information in superficial
responses;
 Not always accurate:- not possible to verify what
appears to be an inaccurate answer and little check on
honesty of responses. Questions may mean different
things to different people;
 Predetermined boxes may not be appropriate.
 Low response rate; and
 Construction difficult:- instructions must be clear and
unambiguous and questions carefully worded.

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4.2 Interviews
 Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of
study are humans.
 Interviews are a type of survey where questions are
delivered in a face-to-face encounter by an interviewer.
 The interview is like a conversation and has the purpose
of obtaining information relevant to a particular
research topic. It is initiated by the researcher and is
focused on specific content.
 As with questionnaires interviews can be approached
from either a quantitative or qualitative angle and there
are many variations on the general method.

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4.2 Interviews
4.2.1 Quantitative Interviews
 Purely quantitative interviews are rather like a closed
ended questionnaire that the interviewer fills in for the
respondent.
 These are highly structured, formal interviews which are
determined in advance and have fixed responses.
4.2.2 Qualitative Interviews
 At the other end of the scale, the unstructured, purely
qualitative interview is rather like an informal
conversation.
 Here questions are asked in the natural course of
interaction and arise from the particular context.

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4.2 Interviews
4.2.3 Semi-structured Interviews
 A large number of interviews will fall somewhere in
between these two extremes and are known as semi-
structured interviews.
 These have specific questions already predetermined that
are asked to the respondent in a particular order, or topics
and issues to be covered in the course of the interview.
 There are advantages and disadvantages associated with
each type of method. Structured interviews maximize
reliability and are easier to classify and quantify. By
contrast unstructured interviews can give a greater
insight and more in-depth understanding of the topic
researched, but need more expertise to control and more
time for analysis.
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4.2 Interviews
 Advantages of interviews:
 High response rate.
 Can collect complex information.
 High degree of researcher control achieved.
 Can be made more responsive to early results.
 Relaxed environment.
 Disadvantage of interviews:
 Limited sample only.
 Can be difficult to analyze (especially in-depth interviews).
 May be a hostile reaction.
 Whole process is time consuming.
 Recording techniques may cause problems.
 There is room for interviewer bias:- this should be
acknowledged.
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5
4.3 Document Analysis
 This refers to the process of using any kind of document,
films, television programs and photographs as well as
written sources, such as books, papers and letters, for
analysis in relation to a particular research question.
 It can be used as the singular method of research or as a
supplementary form of inquiry.
 Document analysis, also referred to as content analysis,
differs from the majority of research methods in two
major ways.
 It is an indirect form of research: it is something that has
been produced, so the investigator is not generating original
data.
 It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method: this refers
to the fact that the document will not be affected in any way
by your research; it cannot react as a human can.

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4.3 Document Analysis
 In general, documents have been written from the
perspective of those from official sources but a different
perspective can be gained from using personal accounts
and oral testaments such as letters, diaries, and
autobiographies.
 Reliability and validity are central concerns in document
analysis.
 Documents generally exist for some purpose and the
knowledge of this purpose is important in understanding
and interpreting the results of the analysis.

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4.3 Document Analysis
 Advantages of document analysis:
 The data never alters and can be subject to re-
analysis;
 Events can be compared over time and cultures;
 Gives an expert understanding;
 Computers can aid analysis and lead to complete
reliability in applying the rules you set down for
coding the text;
 Unobtrusive; and
 Cheap.

10
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4.3 Document Analysis
 Disadvantages of document analysis:
 Subject to bias and subjectivity:- impossible to allow
for biases introduced by the fact that the document
studied has been written for a particular purpose and is
the author's own particular account; events may be
sensationalized, subject to political bias etc.;
 Evidence may be out of date;
 May not be accurately recorded;
 Documents available may be limited; and
 Can be laborious and time consuming.

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4.4 Focus Group
 The focus group is a type of interview that involves
carefully selected individuals who usually do not know
each other.
 They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the
researcher.
 These individuals are selected as they hold particular
characteristics which the researcher believes are
necessary to the topic of focus.
 A group discussion is held in a permissive environment
in order to extract opinions and share ideas and
perceptions through group interaction. It is not necessary
to reach a consensus.

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4.4 Focus Group
 Focus groups are extremely useful in providing
qualitative data which gives an insight into attitudes and
perceptions difficult to obtain using other procedures.
 The researcher acts as a moderator and listener posing
predetermined open ended questions which the
respondents answer in any way they choose.

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4.5 Observation
 Observation refers to the process of observing and
recording events or situations.
 The technique is particularly useful for discovering how
individuals or groups of people or animals (and in some
instances inanimate objects) behave, act or react.
4.5.1 Participant Observation
 Participant observation is usually limited to studies of
human subjects.
 The researcher becomes part of the group studied and
participates in their daily life and activities: observing
their everyday situations and their behavior in these
situations.
 Conversation is used in order to discover the subjects'
own interpretations of events.

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4.5 Observation
4.5.2 Non-participant Observation
 In non-participant observation the researchers simply
observe the activities without taking part themselves.
 Whilst this has the advantage of preventing the
researcher from unduly influencing or becoming
involved in activities they may not wish to take part in
(for example dangerous or criminal actions), they are less
likely to understand fully the meanings behind behavior
in the group studied.
 Beside the study of human subjects, non-participant
observation can also be used to study animal behavior.
 The observation and recording of natural phenomenon
can also be considered observation study.

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4.5 Observation
 Advantages of observation:
 Requires little training or familiarization;
 Can understand meanings behind actions;
 Behavior can be observed in its natural environment,
the subject is undisturbed;
 Can study different groups; and
 Flexibility:- researcher may come across conditions
and events previously not comprehended.

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4.5 Observation
 Disadvantages of observation:
 Time consuming;
 Problems with recording data;
 Can only study a small group;
 Cannot make generalizations:- no way of judging
whether the group is typical;
 If covert is it ethical? and
 Moral, legal and injury risks associated with this
method.

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5
4.6 Experiment
 This method involves setting up an experiment in order
to test a particular theory or hypothesis.
 In its simplest terms experimentation is concerned with
seeing what changes occur if something new is tried out
and with the effects of these changes on something else
(Robson, 1978).
 It is a method particularly associated with the physical
and life sciences although the approach is also used in
social sciences such as psychology, health care and
education.
 There are two different types of experiment, the
laboratory experiment and the field experiment.

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4.6 Experiment
 Experimental Research is often used where:
 There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect),
 There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause
will always lead to the same effect), and
 The magnitude of the correlation is great.
 General tips for carrying out experiments:
 Careful preparation is essential and experienced
researchers should be consulted before
experimentation begins.
 Project design, sample selection and measurement of
dependent variables are crucial to the success of the
research.
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4.6 Experiment
 Advantages of experiment:
 Ideas can be tested in a controlled way;
 Ideal for investigating causal relationships;
 Can generalize effects; and
 Scientifically validated findings give greater value to
research.

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4.6 Experiment
 Disadvantages of experiment :
 Where human subjects are involved it is generally viewed
as unethical;
 Results may be different in the real world to those
discovered in a controlled environment;
 The influence of all variables can never be eliminated;
many different circumstances potentially function as
variables that can affect the outcome;
 Restricted range;
 Large amount of preparation is required; and
 Humans may respond to expectations of the experiment
not to the experiment itself.

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4.7 Mathematical Modeling
 Mathematical modeling can be used to analyze relationships
between different variables and to predict possible outcomes,
or causal effects.
 Experiments can be designed from models of systems, which
aim to define links between variables and outcomes.
 Advantages of mathematical modeling:
 Can extend powers of deductive reasoning;
 Attempts to be objective:- maths is 'neutral„; and
 Is an aid to causal explanation and can therefore help
calculate the effects of actions.

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4.7 Mathematical Modeling
 Disadvantages of mathematical modeling:
 Does not explain why variables are linked to particular
outcomes:- can not explain why particular variables are
important;
 Model produced is limited to one situation and therefore
may not apply to others; and
 Inability to distinguish causal from accidental relations.
 Could be built on preconceptions.

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THANK YOU!

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