PHYSICS

LABORATORY
MANUAL

ESC101H1F

Academic Session
2007 – 2008
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Health and Safety in the Laboratory .........................................................................................2
General Information
I. Introduction ...................................................................................................................3
II. Getting Started .............................................................................................................4
III. Structure of the Laboratory ........................................................................................4
IV. Requirements ..............................................................................................................5
V. Marking Scheme ...........................................................................................................6
i.) Experiment Mark ..............................................................................................6
ii.) In-Lab Mark .....................................................................................................7
iii.) Formal Reports ...............................................................................................7
iv.) ERRTST ........................................................................................................10
v.) Grading Standards ..........................................................................................12
VI. Recording Your Experiment .....................................................................................13
i.) Your Lab Notebook Record ............................................................................13
ii.) Format ............................................................................................................13
iii.) Printing in the Lab .........................................................................................14
iv.) The Truth ......................................................................................................14
v.) The Whole Truth ............................................................................................14
vi.) Nothing But the Truth ...................................................................................14
vii.) Strategies for Taking and Recording Data ...................................................15
VII. What to Expect From Your Demonstrator ..............................................................16
Required Experiments Guide Sheets
Fall Term Classical Mechanics:
Preliminary Exercise.............................................................................................17
Experiment I - The Acceleration Due to Gravity ................................................20
Additional Measurements on Experiment I .........................................................22
Experiment II - Newton’s Third Law ..................................................................24
Experiment III – Dynamics of Rotational Motion...............................................27
Experiment IV - Simple Harmonic Motion ........................................................32
Free Choice Experiments .........................................................................................................34
Data Fitting Techniques
I. Graphical Analysis .......................................................................................................35
II. Using Hand Drawn Graphs to Fit a Straight Line .......................................................35
III. Using the Faraday Computer to Fit Graphs .............................................................37
i.) Entering Your Data Into Faraday ...................................................................37
ii.) Accessing the Faraday Fitter from the Web ..................................................38
iii.) Fitting a Curve (Line) to Your Data Using the Faraday Fitter......................38
iv.) Other Useful Features of the Faraday Analysis Programmes .......................40
v.) Fitting with Faraday – An Exercise.................................................................41
vi.) The Chi-Squared (χ2) Test..............................................................................42
vii.) Confidence Levels..........................................................................................43

TABLE OF CONTENTS
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HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
1. LEAD OBJECTS
Lead can be absorbed into your body through your skin or your mouth, and can produce brain
damage. In order to minimize your exposure to lead in the laboratory you should wear gloves when
handling lead objects (gloves are available at the Resource Centre in room 126), and wash your
hands after completion of the experiment; do not handle any food while working with lead.
However, by far the main hazard of lead shielding is its intrinsic weight. Hence, in order to prevent
foot or hand injuries, be careful when moving heavy lead objects around.

2. MERCURY SPILLS
Mercury vapour, when inhaled, can be harmful, as it accumulates in the brain. In order to minimize
your exposure to the vapour in the laboratory, in the event of a mercury spill you should have one
laboratory partner remain near the spill to prevent the spread of the mercury and immediately
notify the technicians at the Resource Centre (in room 126) who will clean up the spilled mercury.

3. IONIZING RADIATION
In order to minimize your exposure to ionizing radiation in the laboratory you should: Place
radioactive sources you are using as far from yourself and others as is reasonably achievable and
consistent with doing the experiment; Minimize the time that the radioactive source is near you
and others; Return all radioactive sources to the Resource Centre as soon as you finish using them.
Total radiation dose is proportional to the source intensity, the time you are exposed and a distance
factor which for gamma-rays drops off as the inverse square of the distance, and for alpha-ray and
beta-rays, even faster.

4. ELECTRICITY
The lab equipment is set up so that exposed wires carry low harmless voltages. However, if you
suspect that any terminals carry dangerously high voltages (over 60 volts), check to ascertain their
safety, and be careful not to touch these terminals. When handling potentially hazardous electrical
equipment, work with one hand in your pocket or behind your back, and stand on an insulated
surface so as to not provide the electricity a path to pass through your body. In the event of any
accident in the laboratory, notify a lab demonstrator or a lab technician immediately.

5. STROBOSCOPES
A small fraction of the population is susceptible to epileptic seizures if they view a "strobe" light
that is flashing at 10-20 Hz. Students with a history of epilepsy should refrain from using a
stroboscope at those frequencies.

6. MAGNETS
The new high field magnets pose a danger to pacemakers and other electrical devices. If you
suspect that you may be vulnerable in this area, make sure that you talk to the laboratory
coordinator before signing out any of these magnets. Also, credit cards or other cards with
magnetic stripes, can be rendered unreadable by a too close approach to these very high field
magnets.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
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GENERAL INFORMATION
I. INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the first year physics laboratory. We hope that you will have an enjoyable and rich
learning experience in this laboratory. First, a statement about the lab’s philosophy. The study of
Experimental Physics differs from that of theoretical physics in several ways. The immensely
complex physical reality that surrounds us is often described in terms of ideal models of a
simplified universe. The experiments in this laboratory will enable you to grapple with many of the
complicated and infuriating aspects of the real world and begin to discern the connection between
the constructs, which you are developing in your theoretical studies, and the rich and varied
environment, which they attempt imperfectly to describe. The main goal of the lab is to give you
an appreciation of the power of experimental science in the development of our knowledge about
the physical world. The lab is designed to help you develop skills to:

• design and appreciate the design of intelligent experiments

• solve any practical problems
• keep complete records
• manipulate equipment and measuring instruments with grace
• distinguish between the essential and the non-essential
• analyse data efficiently and accurately
• display data in tabular and graphical form
• estimate the uncertainties in experimental results
• ask the right questions and design further experiments to answer them.

The Lab is NOT designed to:

• only illustrate lecture material. While we have designed the lab to allow you to pursue
some of the topics being covered in first year lectures, this is not a demonstration lab.
While your understanding of many physics ideas will be greatly enhanced by seeing their
manifestation in the real world, the lab section is mainly interested in giving you the
opportunity to learn the experimental techniques, which make this connection possible.
• train you to follow instructions. Some undergraduate labs provide step-by-step directions
for performing standard experiments. While this may be appropriate in some sciences,
Physics has no finite set of rules by which experiments are designed and done. Within a
fairly well defined context, you will be expected to create your own direction and find your
own path of exploration. In short, we are often more interested in your being able to
develop the skills to make a physical measurement of significance than in the result itself
and more interested in the method of approach rather than getting the “right” answer.

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II. GETTING STARTED

Check the laboratory web page for the starting date for your laboratory.

The laboratory web site is reached from:

http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/upscale/Courses.html

Follow the links to the ESC101H1F.

When you come to your first session of the lab you will need to bring:
• the Physics Laboratory Manual (ESC101H1F) and the Physics Laboratory Notebook, in
which you will record all your experimental work. The Manual and Notebook are available as
a shrink-wrapped package in the University Textbook store.
• an electronic calculator: bring along the instruction manual for your calculator until you are
confident you can use it properly for the statistical calculations.
• a good clear plastic ruler of at least 30 centimetres in length . You do not need a lab coat!

Your demonstrator or the lab coordinator will submit you with a handout to use UPSCALE:
Undergraduate Physics Students’ Computing and Learning Environment. The handout contains
your personal Login and Password to access Faraday, which is a computer where you create your
personal folder with data and other information. Print the login and password on the front page
of the Notebook or keep it in a safe but easily accessible place. You will need same personal
identification to take an ERRTST and will not be allowed to use another login and password.

III. STRUCTURE OF THE LABORATORY

Each section is divided into lab groups (with numbers like 3PM, 4PT, 5CM etc.) each containing
about 12 students per group. Each group has a “demonstrator” who provides supervision,
guidance, organization and assistance throughout the year. Although each demonstrator has a
specific group responsibility, all of them are available, along with the lab coordinator, to answer
questions from any student in the lab. You will meet your demonstrator on your first lab day.

Generally, you will work with a lab partner who must be in the same lab section and group.

Important!! Learn the name, office number and telephone extension of your demonstrator, and
remember what he or she looks like. Print your demonstrator's name and your
lab section and group number on the front of your lab notebook.

Your LABORATORY NOTEBOOK will serve as an ongoing record of your work in the lab.
Lab notebooks should be used for ALL data, ALL “rough work”, and an account (perhaps in note
form) of what you are actually doing, written as you actually do it (as opposed to recollections
made after the fact). Detailed essays on your procedure are not required.

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IV. REQUIREMENTS

You will attend six lab sessions in the Fall Term. You are required to attend all lab sessions. If you
miss a lab for any reason such as illness, you must make up the lab at another time agreed upon
with your demonstrator. You will receive a mark of zero for each lab that you miss and do not
make up.

You are required to finish 6 “weights” of experiments. The “one weight” experiments are designed
so that their data-taking stage can be completed within one three-hour period. However, this will
be true only if you have spent some time beforehand in preparation and fully understand the
purpose and method of approach of the experiment you are about to perform. We also expect that
you may have to do some of the final analysis outside the lab hours. The “two weight” experiments
take twice as long and count as two “one weight” experiments with the same mark. Make sure you
read the guide sheets beforehand, understand the physics being studied, and answer all Preparatory
Questions.

At some point before Christmas you must demonstrate to your demonstrator that you have used the
Faraday fitter to fit a curve to some data that you have taken in the laboratory. See “Using the
Faraday Computer to Fit Graphs” on page 55.

Required Experiments in Classical Mechanics

These four experiments will enable you to investigate some of the theoretical ideas you are
studying in lectures. The instruments you will use are connected via an interface to a PC, with
which you will record and analyse your data. Each experiment counts for one weight.

Free Choice Experiments

For the last two lab periods you will choose from a list of mechanics experiments at

http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/ESC101Lab/Experiments.htm

All free choice experiments must be booked ahead of time using the on-line booking program.

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V. MARKING SCHEME
Your final lab mark has the following components which are explained below.

Experiment Mark (notebook, analysis) 45%

In-Lab Mark (day-to-day work in the lab) 25%
Formal Report (one scientific report per term) 20%
ERRTST (computer test on errors) 10%

You will find your current marks on STORM, a database running by the Department of Physics.
To access your marks on STORM go to the course web site and find the link:

http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/ESC101Lab/GetMarks.htm

STORM shows how each mark was calculated. For example, the In-Lab Mark is given out of 30
points. The ERRTST mark is generated by Faraday computer immediately after you finish your
test. However, the mark will appear on STORM after the due date for the ERRTST.

i.) Experiment Mark

When you have completed an experiment, approach your demonstrator to have him or her attest
that it is indeed complete. Your demonstrator will then sit down with you and your partner (if you
have one), to discuss the experiment.

The marking session in the lab will allow your demonstrator to point out strengths and weaknesses
of your performance and your analysis of the experiment and is intended to be as much a learning
experience as it is a marking exercise.

Your demonstrator may mark the experiment outside of laboratory time based on an evaluation of
your notebook and your understanding of the experiment just completed. Demonstrators will often
discuss the marked laboratory notebook with the student in the next laboratory session.

Some of your experiments - to be decided on by your demonstrator during the year - may be
marked by other demonstrators. This will allow for some standardization of marks between
demonstrators and give you the opportunity to get some different feedback on your work.

Criteria for the Experiment Mark

This mark will be mainly based on the work you have recorded in your notebook. During the
marking of your notebook, your demonstrator will be looking at your performance in the following
categories:
• adequate and careful pre-experiment preparation (for the Classical Mechanics experiments for
example, this will be evidenced by correct answers to the Preparatory Questions; in others you
may be asked to show evidence of having mastered background material etc.)
• good statement of experimental procedures
• good overall organization
• clarity of description
• appropriately wide range of data displayed as it was taken, in well-labelled tables
• graphs and diagrams used appropriately
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• graphs titled, with both axes correctly labelled
• units used throughout
• data self-consistent with all errors indicated
• correct and intelligent use of error analysis
• calculations clearly indicated
• an overall impression of careful and accurate work, well understood
• "reasonable" measurements, errors, results and conclusions
• indications of limitations of the experimental method, with comments on possible extensions

ii.) In-lab Mark

During each lab session, your demonstrator will be making notes on how you perform in the lab on
an ongoing basis. The In-Lab Mark will be based on this ongoing observation. Your demonstrator
will assign you an In-Lab Mark at the end of the semester.

Criteria for the In-Lab Mark

While the criteria for arriving at the In-Lab Mark will overlap to a great extent with those for the
Experiment Mark, the In-Lab Mark is meant to provide a more general overview of your work,
with particular focus on your experimental ability. It will allow your demonstrator to reward those
students whose notebook skills may be poorer than their experimental ability and creativity. In
arriving at this mark, your demonstrator will take into account: the way you approach and organize
your experimentation, your efficiency in planning and setting up the experiment, your ease of
learning to use the equipment and your care in taking data. Also considered will be your ability to
estimate errors (rather than calculating each one exactly), your ability to distinguish the essential
from the inessential, the way you work with your partner (if you have one!) and your willingness
to try something, to make a mistake, and to learn from it.

iii.) Formal Reports

Any worthwhile scientific experiment must be communicated to a larger audience in the form of a
paper in a scientific journal or an internal report. In order to give you the opportunity to learn the
required skills for this essential activity, you will be asked to write one Formal Report per
semester. Since these will be based on the record of your experiment in your laboratory notebook,
this exercise will also encourage you to ensure that your record is complete and comprehensible
long after you may have performed the experiment. Your demonstrator will assign the experiments
you will use for the formal reports.

The formal lab report is meant to be written in the style of a scientific journal article. This means it
should be a brief, but concise summary of one of the experiments you have already completed,
using the information you have recorded in your lab notebook.

The reports should be no more than 800 words, (3 pages of double spaced type) and 2 pages of
graphs and/or diagrams. Please make sure the graphs and diagrams have concise figure captions
explaining what they are about! Important: Please include your name, your demonstrator's name,
and your lab section and group number on your report!

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Criteria for Marking the Formal Report
The formal lab report will be primarily evaluated on writing style and on the organization and
presentation of the material. Good English structure, spelling and grammar are expected, and
graphs and diagrams should be clearly labelled.

Suggestions For Writing a Good Formal Report

In a formal report, the single most important thing is to write from the point of view of the reader.
In the case of the scientific formal report you can safely assume that scientific journal readers are
somewhat knowledgeable about science; perhaps for your own report you can assume that your
readers will be first year physics students who have not done the particular experiment you are
reporting. The reader of your report should understand from your report what you have done, why
you have done it, and what you have concluded. The reader is not interested in going through the
details of how you multiplied, divided, etc., and is unlikely to have any interest in long tables of
numbers. You will have to use your judgment to determine what to include and what to exclude.
For example, most common measuring apparatuses do not have to be described. However, any
ingenious or novel method or tool in your experiment should be explained in sufficient detail that
the reader could understand what you did.
We recommend the following general structure, though it will be modified depending on the
particular experiment:
1. Title: This should be short, but precise, and convey the point of the report. It could be either a
statement or a question. For example, a title such as "Voltage-current relationship of a
transistor" is good, as is "Does the transistor obey Ohm's Law?" But simply "The transistor" is
too vague and is not a good title.
2. Abstract: The abstract summarizes, in a couple of sentences, the content of the report. It
provides a brief (5-10 lines) outline of what the report is about; it should include a statement
of what it is you measured and its value (Warning! -- students often make abstracts too long -
- note that an abstract is not an introduction.)
3. Introduction: The role of this section is to state why the work reported is useful, where it fits in
the bigger picture of the field (or of science in general), and to discuss briefly the theoretical
hypotheses which are to be tested (e.g. for the Absolute Zero experiment, state the meaning of
absolute zero and how it is to be measured, mention the equation PV=nRT and discuss its
verification, and under what circumstances you expect it to be valid).
4. Experimental Method: Describe the apparatus and procedure used in the experiment.
Remember that a picture (or simple diagram) is often worth a thousand words! Enough details
should be provided for the reader to have a clear idea of what was done. But be careful to not
swamp the reader with insignificant or useless facts.
5. Results and Discussion: In this section, you present and interpret the data you have obtained. If
at all possible, avoid tables of data. Graphs are usually a much clearer way to present data (make
sure axes are labeled, and error bars are shown!). Do not show the details of error calculations.
The derivation of any formulae you use is not required, but should be referenced. Explain how
your data corroborates (or does not corroborate) the hypotheses being tested, and compare,
where possible, with other work. Also, estimate the magnitude of systematic errors which you
feel might influence your results (e.g. In the Absolute Zero experiment, how big is the
temperature correction? Does this alter your results significantly?).
6. Conclusion: In a few lines, sum up the results of your experiment. Do your data agree (within
experimental error) with theory? If not, can you explain why? Remember that the conclusion is
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a summary; do not say anything in the conclusion that you have not already discussed more
fully earlier in the text.
7. References: In this section of the report list all of the documents that you refer to in your report.
We recommend numbering the references sequentially in the text, in their order of appearance,
and listing them in the same order in the references section. Please use the same reference
format as is used by the Canadian Journal of Physics.

The Canadian Journal of Physics reference format is:

JOURNAL: Author(s), Journal Title. Volume (year) page number
BOOK: Author(s). Book Title. Publisher, city of publication, year of publication, page (or
range of pages).
Reference examples:
1. F. Azenberg-Selove, Nucl. Phys. A392 (1983) 1
2. G. Zukav. The Dancing Wu Li Masters. Bantam, New York, 1979, p.23.

The following is a copy of a paper published in the February 2000 issue of the Physics Teacher
which will show you the layout and appearance of a short scientific paper.

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iv.) ERRTST
The analysis of experimental error is one of the most important things that you will learn in the
first year laboratory. A complete introduction to error analysis is given on the web site:
http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/ErrorAnalysis/
You are expected to master all the material on this web site. To test your understanding of errors
you are required to take a computerized test on error analysis. You may take this test at any time
that you can gain access to a terminal to Faraday -- with the exception of those times during which
PHY138 and PHY110 labs are in session in MP 125-126. Note that ERRTST is not available by
remote-modem-login. We recommend terminals in MP 257, which is never locked.

If you wish credit for your mark on ERRTST, you must complete the assignment by the due date.
Please see the laboratory web page for the deadlines. After that date, you are free to try the
exercise on the computer, but it will not be credited to your mark. The test consists of four
questions to be done in 45 minutes.

Beware !! Once you have started a test on the computer, you cannot leave that test until it is
completed, i.e. once ERRTST is started, a mark will always be assigned.

You are permitted a maximum of four attempts at the test. After the first attempt at the test you
will be asked if you wish the test to count in your mark. If you type "no" then the first attempt will
be ignored. This gives you a chance to become accustomed to the test. If you type “yes then the
first attempt will count. You are then allowed three more attempts if you wish. Each attempt at the
test is averaged with your previously accumulated mark to produce a new mark.

Note that this exercise is designed to be done as an individual effort by you. The assumptions on
which ERRTST is designed are similar to other open-book tests you will encounter in university --
you are permitted to use any notes or printed material as aids in the test but you are expected to
work on your own. There is normally little supervision of the test, but anyone who is found
consulting others during a test will be penalized.

There are ten topics of error analysis that can be examined, and the computer program chooses
four of the ten at random yielding 84 different combinations of topics for examination. For each
topic, a number of versions exist, each relating that topic to a measurement for an existing
experiment in the laboratory. The program chooses a version at random. The program randomly
generates numerical data within realistic ranges. For example, for the topic Calculating the
standard deviation, the number of repeated measurements is chosen randomly to be between 4 and
8. One version randomly generates values of the time for a metal hoop to undergo 20 oscillations;
the second version generates values for the thickness of a metal hoop as measured by a
micrometer; the third version generates values for the width of a metal hoop as measured by a
vernier calliper.

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The topics and number of versions are:
Topic Number of Versions
Calculating the standard deviation 3
Calculating the standard error of the mean 3
Choosing between the standard deviation and the reading error 3
Accuracy does not increase with repeated measurements 2
Propagation of errors for addition and subtraction 3
Propagation of errors for multiplication and division 2
Propagation of errors for powers 2
Propagation of errors for addition and multiplication 2
Propagation of errors for multiplication and powers 2
Rejection of measurements 3

Example Question 1
Using a vernier calliper, you have repeated measurements of the width w of a metal hoop 4 times.

You estimate that your reading error in reading the vernier is plus or minus 0.002 centimetres.

You calculate that the standard deviation of your sample of measurements is 0.001 centimetres.

What is the error in centimetres in each individual measurement of the width w (no units please)?

The correct answer to this question is 0.002 centimetres. If you enter that answer, the program will
congratulate you and go on to the next question. If you give a wrong answer the program will state:

No. The correct answer is numerically: 0.002

This question involved the topic:

"Choosing between std. dev. and reading error"

If you wish to take some notes on this question before continuing, I have stopped the clock.

Press RETURN to restart the clock and continue...

Finally, the questions are such that the correct answer should have only one significant figure.
The program will silently accept two significant figures, but then deducts 5% for each additional
insignificant digit.

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Example Question 2

You are measuring the wavelength L of a particular line in the spectra experiment using the
equation:

L = [ m/(y - b) ] + L0.

You are given that L0 = 284.8 ± 0.5 nm (nanometres).

The results of your calibration of your spectrometer give the slope as m = 4606 ± 30 nm·units and
the intercept as b = 3.82 ± 0.02 units. 'units' is the units of the scale of the spectrometer.

For the particular line you are measuring, the scale on the spectrometer reads y = 15.43 units and
you estimate your reading error of this scale to be ± 0.02 units.

What is the error, in nm (nanometres) in your measurement of the wavelength L?

The working out of the answer is left up to you! (A suggestion - work it out in your head first.)

v.) Grading Standards

Your work will be marked in accordance with the grading standards laid out in the Faculty of
Arts and Science calendar:

Percentage Letter Grade Point Grade Details

Grade Value Definitions
90-100 A+ 4.3 Excellent Strong evidence of original thinking; good organization, capacity to
85-89 A 4.0 analyze and synthesize; superior grasp of subject matter with sound critical
80-84 A- 3.7 evaluations; evidence of extensive knowledge base.
77-79 B+ 3.3 Good Evidence of grasp of subject matter, some evidence of critical capacity and
73-76 B 3.0 analytic ability; reasonable understanding of relevant issues; evidence of
70-72 B- 2.7 familiarity with the literature.
67-69 C+ 2.3 Adequate Student who is profiting from his/her university experience; understanding
63-66 C 2.0 of the subject matter; ability to develop solutions to simple problems in the
60-62 C- 1.7 material.
57-59 D+ 1.3 Marginal Some evidence of familiarity with subject matter and some evidence that
53-56 D 1.0 critical and analytic skills have been developed.
50-52 D- 0.7
35-49 E 0.3 Inadequate Evidence of familiarity with only some subject matter; presence of some
critical and analytic skills.
0-34 F 0 Wholly Little evidence of even superficial understanding of subject matter;
Inadequate weakness in critical and analytic skills; with limited or irrelevant use of
literature.

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VI. RECORDING YOUR EXPERIMENT

i.) Your Lab Notebook Record
Everything you do in the lab should be recorded in your lab notebook while you are doing the
experiment. It should contain everything that you do, all your rough calculations or preliminary
measurements, full details of any error calculations, any comments, records of successes or
failures, etc. There is no point in copying information that is already in the guide sheets. Nor is
there any point in writing a detailed essay on your procedure; note form is quite sufficient, as long
as it is complete and comprehensible to your demonstrator. Because the lab book is a complete
record, taken as the experiment is being done, it will not necessarily be overly neat.

Note! Penalties will be imposed for the use of loose paper for data taking or calculations.
All your work should be entered and appear in your lab notebook.

Enter the title of the experiments you do in the List of Experiments, along with starting and
completion dates. If you use graph paper (obtainable from the Resource Centre) or have computer
drawn graphs, stick them in neatly beside your description of your experiment.

It is good practice to keep the record of the experiment on facing pages, and any rough work,
doodles or scribbles on the back pages (labelled “Rough Work”).

Please note: apart from graphs and computer output, no other information should be stuck into
your lab notebook. Information should be recorded as you are doing it, to ensure its accuracy.

ii.) Format
Many students find it convenient to organize their work under section headings, such as Title,
Introduction, Purpose, Theory, Apparatus, Procedure, Results, Conclusions, etc.; however such
organization is most effective if it is modified as required for each experiment.

Most workers doing research in experimental science find that a diary format works best, i.e. write
down what was done immediately after it was done in the order that it was done; this is the form
that we recommend in this lab.

Diary format means that each set of data will have a date and time on it, and the record is written
in the order in which a procedure, calculation or inspiration actually occurred. You should not
leave blank pages to be filled in later.

Many scientific documents are written in the past tense and the passive voice: i.e. "The
temperature was recorded before and after the performance of the experiment." Although this may
be appropriate for a formal report, the present tense, active voice is often used in the recording of
an experiment. Note form is probably even better!

You should also NOT spend much time "tidying up" your notebook, or "rewriting history"; your
time is too valuable, and vitiates the function of the notebook.

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iii.) Printing in the lab
The first four compulsory experiments you perform in MP 222 and use DataStudio software
(p.17), which permits you to organize data in tables and graphs. To print out the data, you should
first log on to Faraday with your login and password and then use a default printer HP4050N in the
same room (MP 222) for free. The lab demonstrator will expect from you only the graphs that are
used or referred to in your calculations and/or in the text of the write-up. Too many graphs may
sometimes decrease your mark, as they show that you have not perfectly understood the objective
of the experiment.

Your lab book record should contain the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth.
iv.) The Truth
Record the actual values measured and the actual ways in which the instruments responded even
though those values and responses are not what your preconceived ideas or the theory would have
led you to expect. Often in experimental science it has been the anomalous results and unexpected
phenomena that have later proved to be of the most value. It is important that at this early stage in
your scientific career you develop the habits of objectively and of truthfully recording your
observations and measurements.

v.) The Whole Truth

Your lab book record should be complete. This means that, five years later, anyone should be able
to read your notebook and know exactly what was done, when it was done (date and time) and how
it was done (what equipment and techniques were used, the details of any calculations).
In addition you should include, where appropriate, what you thought about the individual
measurements; "poor data,” “sticky meter,” etc. Your description of the equipment should include
the manufacturer, model number and the serial number of every piece (so that you can return to the
very same equipment later if necessary). You should record everything.

If you made an error or decided to change your way of obtaining data, be certain that you leave
your original data and record intact. When you make a mistake, do not erase or efface it. Simply
draw a single line through the mistake. Then if you later discover it was not really a mistake you
will still be able to read what you have written. Also, never tear pages out of the book. If you have
additional graphs, etc., staple or tape them into the book, labelled and numbered.

vi.) Nothing But the Truth

Plagiarism (that is, representing other people's work as your own) and invention (that is, reporting
imaginary data) are serious academic offences.

Plagiarism or invention can result in disciplinary measures such as setting your final lab mark to
zero. Disciplinary measures are referred to the Dean of your faculty and they may remain on your
record. Repeat offences can lead to expulsion from the University. Laboratory work done without
your Demonstrator's knowledge will not be marked. If you do copy part of some other work in
your lab book, you must cite that work, quoting author, title, date, etc. (Copying work with proper
citations is not plagiarism.)

GENERAL INFORMATION
 - 15 -

A relevant question when two lab partners working together write up their work is: "how
independent can each person's write-up be?" Our guidelines are: (i) We expect and hope that you
will fully discuss the problems and interpretations of the experiment together (by doing so you
learn from each other), and (ii) we fully expect that, having had this discussion, you will write up
your experiments in your books, totally independently of each other. That way you actively learn
the skills of writing and analyzing experiments. Marks will be deducted from write-ups which
are obviously direct copies of a partner’s.

vii.) Strategies for Taking and Recording Data

When you take data, you gain both speed and accuracy if you approach the process systematically.
A methodology appropriate to many experiments is as follows:

• Identify the variables you are measuring and the calculations you have to do on these
variables and make a table in your notebook with the appropriate columns.
• Identify the range of values of these variables by considering what you want to measure, and
by doing a preliminary run of the experiment which can tell you how your apparatus behaves
and what numbers you can expect your apparatus to give you.
• Set up a graph in your notebook which you plot quickly as you do your experiment to tell you
how your experimental results are progressing, and what gaps still exist in your data. The axes
of this graph can be scaled according to the information obtained above.
• Obtain your data (with error estimates) entering these in a table and at the same time doing
the appropriate calculations on each data point. (Complex calculations are often most easily
done on a calculator or using the massage feature of Faraday). Plot each point on a graph as
you accumulate each data point, indicating on the plot your error estimates.
• Check your results for consistency and completeness. Once you have accumulated a set of
data points on your graph you can determine what questionable or inconsistent points need
checking or re-measuring. You can also decide which regions of the data are not sufficiently
investigated so that you can measure appropriate additional points.
• Interpret your results.

GENERAL INFORMATION
 - 16 -

VII. WHAT TO EXPECT FROM YOUR DEMONSTRATOR

Your demonstrator should be the first port of call for all your questions about the lab. He or she
has had several hours of training and a lot of on-the-job experience. You should look on your
demonstrator as a supporter in all aspects of your learning in the lab. If, for any reason, you do not
feel that your demonstrator is doing his or her best for you, please talk to the lab coordinator.
Any comments you make will be held in complete confidence and we will make all possible
efforts to ensure that your concerns are addressed. Here are some of the basics that you can expect
of your demonstrator.

i.) Time Keeping. You can expect that your demonstrator puts in a full three hours. He or she
should be in the lab a few minutes early at each session. As far as the demonstrator is concerned,
the lab starts ON THE HOUR. You may be a few minutes late because of a class, but you should
never have to wait for your demonstrator past the hour. You can also expect that your demonstrator
is in the lab for the full three hours - with an occasional five minute break. Of course he or she may
be busy with other students and you may have to turn to another demonstrator or the lab
coordinator for assistance. Be proactive!

ii.) Marking. Once you have finished an experiment, you can expect your demonstrator to sit
down with you to discuss it, or, if time is short, to mark your laboratory notebook outside
laboratory hours and discuss the experiment with you later. Although each demonstrator has a
slightly different emphasis in their marking, you can expect that their marking includes a fair
number of useful comments, explaining where and how you could improve your work, and,
occasionally praising your efforts. You can also expect that your Formal Reports are returned,
properly marked, within the time allotted.

iii.) Questions. Although you can expect to be treated with courtesy, and your questions to be
taken seriously, you cannot expect your demonstrator to be able immediately to answer every
single one of your questions. Indeed, even if they know the answer, they have the right to expect
that you will attempt to work it out for yourself, and may spend some time helping you to do that.
Possibly they may not be completely familiar with the details of the experiment (there are over 40
in this lab), and will need some time to work with you to find the answer. However, you can
expect that an answer to your question will be finally found; if your demonstrator cannot answer
your question, it is their responsibility to find someone who can.

iv.) Availability. Your demonstrator has been paid for a fixed number of hours, and has other
duties, so you cannot expect him or her to be available to you at all times. However, you can
expect your demonstrator to let you make an appointment if necessary outside lab hours. Make
sure you have an e-mail address and room and phone numbers - that’s your responsibility!

v.) Replacements. From time to time it may be necessary for your demonstrator to be absent on a
day of the lab. It is his or her responsibility to find a replacement, and to explain to the replacement
any important information about you and the group. However, you can expect that this will happen
only very rarely.

GENERAL INFORMATION
 -17-
DATASTUDIO - PRELIMINARY EXERCISE
This exercise will allow you to familiarize yourself with the equipment and analysis tools.
It is recommended to practice in managing data with Excel before starting the DataStudio.
• Plug the Motion Detector into the interface, with the yellow lead in data channel 1 and the
black lead in data channel 2.
• On the switch on the top of the Motion Detector choose the “wide beam” (“far”, or long range)
option.
• Double click on the DataStudio icon to start the program. In the File menu, select Open
Activity. Open the file match_position.ds in the Training folder. A set of instructions in the
Follow the Leader Graphing window appears. Follow these.
• Use the pull-down Data menu above the graph to display or remove different runs. Make sure
that each member of your group gets a chance to test their ability to follow the position-time
graph. The counter on the last graph gives a measure of how well you have managed to follow
the graph with your own motion.
• In the File menu, select Open Activity. Open the file match_velocity.ds and attempt to match
the velocity-time profile. A score under 10 is quite good.

Hints On The Use Of The DataStudio Software

Data Creation
• To create data, in the File menu, select New Activity. In the Experiment Setup window, click
on one of the inputs circled in yellow on the 750 interface and then chose the appropriate
sensor. The sensor icon will appear in the Experiment Setup window. If, by mistake, you create
an extra sensor, you can delete it by clicking on the sensor and pressing delete.
• One can change the Sample Rate for a Motion Sensor from its default value of 10 per second;
however, increasing the sample rate produces a corresponding limit in the upper range (Max.
Distance) of the Motion Detector. The lower limit (Min. Distance) is always fixed at 15 cm.
One can also determine how to display the information gathered by the Motion Sensor - the
defaults are Position, Velocity and Acceleration.
• To change start and stop options for a Motion Sensor, click on Sampling Options in the
Experiment Setup window. In the Sampling Options window one can choose Delayed Start so
that there is a short delay between pressing the Start button and taking data. The Automatic
Stop feature is also convenient.
• To prepare a graph to display your data, double click on the Graph icon in the Displays
window at the left of the screen or drag it into the active area of the screen and press Start. The
data will appear on the graph as it is taken. Similarly, to see the data in tabular form, double
click or drag the Table icon into the active area. As each set of different data is taken, the
numbered Run is listed in the Data list on the left. To display a particular set of data, just drag
the Run icon onto the graph (or table).

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE
 -18-
• To enter data by hand and then graph and perform a fit to this data, use the following steps.
1. From the Experiment pull-down menu, choose New Empty Data Table.
2. The pencil icon on the toolbar will be already depressed to allow “editable” data.
3. Type your data in the x- and y-columns.
4. Release the pencil icon (this indicates an end to data entry).
5. Drag the Editable Data icon in the Data window onto the Graph in the Display Window.
6. Perform the fits using the pull-down Fit menu in the Graph window toolbar.
7. Note that by double clicking on the Editable Data icon in the Data window you can
change the name of the data set and the names of the variables.

Data and Format Manipulation

• To change the Data Properties (e.g. the measurement name, colour in a graph or number of
decimal places in a table of data) double click on the appropriate Run.
• To make the data fit the display area click the Scale To Fit button located at the extreme left
hand corner of the tool bar on the graph. Also, you can drag the cursor over a portion of the
graph (which will then be highlighted in yellow) and the highlighted area will fill the display
area when you click the Scale To Fit button. Click the graph background to deselect the
highlighted area.
• To obtain the exact coordinates of any point on the graph, use the Smart Tool.
• To align the X axes for two data sets having different variables but which are displayed on the
same graph (e.g. position and velocity), click on the padlock icon.
• To delete a specific run click on the run in the Data list on the left and use the delete key on
the keyboard. During an experiment you may want to perform several trial runs and not save
the data. Instead of using the Start button to start data collection, pull down the Experiment
menu and click on Monitor Data to start collection. This will allow you to take preliminary
runs that will be automatically deleted until you are ready for final data taking. Alternately the
Experiment menu allows you to delete ALL or just the last data run.
• To delete selected points from your data. Select (highlight) the data to be deleted on the graph.
Drag the appropriate data in the Data list on the left onto the Table icon in the Display list and
a table will appear with the data to be deleted highlighted. Click on the pencil icon → Ok →
Yes. This creates an editable copy of your data (the original data is maintained unaltered).
Right Click → Delete Rows. Double click on the appropriate graph in the Displays list to see
the changes.
• To export data for use by EXCEL or for fitting curves using the Faraday fitter, use the Export
Data option in the pull-down File menu. (See also: Using The Faraday Computer To Fit
Graphs in the Data Fitting Techniques section of the Laboratory Manual.)
• The use of DataStudio Acceleration data (which is calculated data) is not recommended for
your analyses. Since it is calculated from successive differences, the acceleration values have a
large spread (drag the Acceleration data on to your graph if you don’t believe us!). Rather, use
the Velocity values calculated by DataStudio, and extract the acceleration as required by fitting
the data to a straight line.
• If you need more help in using the DataStudio software, first try the Help feature; if that fails,
ask your demonstrator!

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE
 -19-
Saving Files

On the computer in the laboratory you may only save your files in a folder called My Documents.
This folder automatically appears when you click on File and then Save Activity. Save your work
here periodically to avoid accidental loss of data. This storage should only be considered as
temporary since the contents of the folder My Documents may be changed by other students during
subsequent lab periods.

You may save selected data permanently on the Physics undergraduate computer Faraday. Click
on File → Save Activity as, click the Up One Level button in the Save As window. Double click on
Faraday. Choose the appropriate folder in your account and save your file.

You must log off Faraday at the end of the laboratory session. If you do not, the next user may
change your files. To log off Faraday from the PC, on the Taskbar, click on Start → Log Off
→ Log Off.

Printing Graphs

To print graphs you must be logged on to Faraday. If you did not log on to Faraday at the
beginning of the laboratory session, double click on the Faraday icon on the desktop to bring up
the “Connect to Faraday” window. Once you are logged on to Faraday, click on File → Print.
Output is on the printer in the corner of the laboratory.

If you log on to Faraday you must log off at the end of the laboratory session (see above).

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE
 - 20 -

CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Experiments concentrate on Classical Mechanics, a topic you will be studying in the lectures. The
experiments are designed to introduce you to some of the important techniques of experimentation
and data analysis. All use the PASCO system of data acquisition, with Experiment I also using the
air track. Before you start the experiment you have been assigned, your demonstrator will ask you
to provide answers to the preparatory questions that will aid you in your experimentation.

The experiments are described in the following sections:

I. The Acceleration Due to Gravity (air track)

Additional Measurements on Experiment I

II. Newton’s Third Law

III. Dynamics of Rotational Motion
IV. Simple Harmonic Motion

Experiment I. The Acceleration Due to Gravity

Preparatory Questions
1. An object is launched up a frictionless plane inclined at an angle of θ to the horizontal.
Make predictions about:
a) the graphs of position, velocity and acceleration versus time (sketch these).
b) the acceleration of the cart just after it is launched.
c) the acceleration of the cart at its highest point.
d) the speed of the cart when it returns to the point of launch.
2. Use your calculator to calculate the % difference between θ, sinθ and tanθ for θ = 0.05
radians. What does this tell you?

Have your demonstrator initial these predictions before you start taking data.

The Experiment

First, you must level the air track in two directions. Start by checking that the two stops are fixed
to the central portion of the track, about 1 m or so apart. The across-track leveling (at right angles
to its length) is not critical, so it is sufficient to use the supplied spirit level and the two leveling
screws at one end. Once you have leveled in this direction, both of the leveling screws must be
given the same number of turns in all further adjustments.

THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

 - 21 -

Leveling the air track along its length is much more critical. Switch on the air blower, and place a
cart on the track. Use the leveling screws to reduce the movement of the cart. If the track is level,
the cart should stay in place over an extended period. Occasionally you may find that a track is
bent in some way; at these places the cart will tend to move to a local minimum; remember that it
is an “average” level between the two stops that you require.

Now design and perform an experiment to check your predictions. Describe carefully what you do,
and explain any discrepancies between your predictions and the observations. Take at least 5
readings at different values of inclination of the air track. Then use your data to calculate a value of
the acceleration due to gravity, g. Quote an estimate of your experimental uncertainty.

Notes & Hints

• Use spacing blocks placed under the single leg of the air track to incline the air track.
• Always use MODERATE velocities (i.e. the carts should just make a slight click when they
bounce off the stops).
• Note carefully your observations in your notebook; include a sketch, details of the Motion
Detector Trigger rate, approximate values of the velocity you used, etc.
• Place the Motion Detector about 15 to 20 cm from one metal stop (the detector doesn’t take
any data at less than 15 cm.).
• Set the beam setting (use the button on the Motion Detector) to narrow.
• In order to get good results, the Motion Detector must be carefully aligned to point exactly
along the air track. If the data is not smooth, i.e. there are spikes in the data, then you have an
alignment problem. (Hint: observe your reflection in its front face.) The Delay Start and
Automatic Stop in the Sampling Options are particularly useful in this experiment (see the
Hints section of the Preliminary Exercise).
• Display your measurements of position and velocity on a graph, and use the value of the slope
from the velocity graph and its error to extract g. Read the instructions in the Hints section of
the Preliminary Exercise for drawing a graph of your calculated data and fitting it on the
computer. Of course graphs can always be drawn by hand on graph paper.
• You will need to calculate an error in a quotient (e.g. x/y). Use the appropriate method
indicated on the inside cover of your notebook.

Questions. Your report should include quick answers to the following questions.
1. If “friction” were important, how would it affect a velocity-time graph?
2. Would the effect be the same as the cart moved up the track as when it is moving down?
3. Is the effect of “friction” even observable in your experiment?
4. Does your value of g agree with the accepted value for this latitude? If not, why not?
5. If the effect of friction is rather small, what effect is responsible for slowing down the cart?

THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

 - 22 -

Additional Measurements on Experiment I

You could greatly increase your chance of obtaining a truly excellent mark for Experiment I if you
have the time to investigate one or more of the following associated measurements.

1) More Accurate Method of Leveling the Air Track

This method also has the pedagogical advantage of testing your understanding of velocity-time
graphs and the role of frictional resistance. Before you start, make sure that you understand the
answers to the following questions.
A cart is allowed to move back and forth along an air track, bouncing off metal “stops” at
each end of its trajectory. For each of the following three cases, sketch the position-time
graph and the velocity-time graph that you would expect to observe for the first two back
and forth motions (you may assume Newton’s First Law!).
a) The air track is completely level and all friction and air resistance can be ignored.
b) The air track is completely level; friction and air resistance are small but
nonnegligible.
c) The air track is not completely level; friction and air resistance are small but
nonnegligible.

Allow a cart to make several traversals back and forth between the two stops, using the Motion
Detector to measure the speed of the cart.

On the Velocity graph, select portions of your data where the cart is moving away from the Motion
Detector. Use the Fit button to choose a Linear fit and note the values of slope (m) and intercept
(b) along with their measured errors (Standard Deviation). Then repeat the procedure for a portion
of the graph where the cart is moving towards the Motion Detector. In your notebook, write down
criteria for the values of m and/or b that would satisfy you that the air track is as level as you can
make it using this equipment.

It is likely that these criteria will not be met on your first trial. By considering the directions of the
gravitational and frictional forces, determine whether the end of the air track near the motion
sensor should be raised or lowered and repeat your measurements until your criteria are met.
(When adjusting the track, remember to give BOTH leveling screws the same number of turns to
preserve the across-track leveling.) When you have obtained a level track, print out the final graphs
for pasting into your notebook.

Hint: In order to give a good answer, you should also be able to answer the following question Are
the two numbers, 5.1 ± 0.1 and 5.4 ± 0.2 , equal? If so, why; if not, why not?

ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS ON EXPERIMENT I

 - 23 -

2) Measurement of Friction

Even on the air track, some residual “friction” or air drag always exists. Using your data from
measurements in part 1) above, you should find it easy to measure the “frictional” acceleration
(actually a deceleration) of the cart. Compare its value to g.

3) Resolution of the Motion Detector

An important piece of information is the precision with which the Motion Sensor measures
Position. This can be estimated several ways, but the following is a method that will also teach you
some of the features of the software. (It is assumed in the following that the uncertainty in the time
measurement is sufficiently small that it can be ignored - the manufacturer quotes an uncertainty of
0.0001 seconds = 0.1 ms, so this is a good approximation).
• Use the Position data that you obtained to check the level of the air track. Choose a range over
which the Position-Time graph gives a good straight line by highlighting it with the cursor. Use
the Fit pull down menu to give a Linear Fit to this data. Notice that a data set for the Linear Fit
which is the line of best fit now appears in the Data Summary column on the left.
• Click on the Calculate button on the main toolbar. In the Calculator window, define a variable,
let’s say R (for residuals), as R = x - l where you will want l to be the corresponding position
from a line of best fit and click on Accept. The calculator function will ask you to define x and
l.
• To define x, click on the appropriate Run in the Data Summary column and drag it over the
words in the Calculator window “Please define variable x” where a dashed box will appear.
Release the mouse button. Answer yes when asked if you wish to perform calculations on a
single run.
• Similarly, define l by dragging the corresponding Linear Fit Run over the words “Please define
variable l” in the Calculator window.
• Note that even though residuals are defined for most of the graph they have real meaning only
for the portion that you selected above; for this portion the residuals should be small. Create a
graph of R, select the appropriate portion of the R graph and use the Σ pull-down menu to
display the mean and standard deviation of the residuals. The Standard Deviation is a measure
of the spread and is thus a quantitative measure of the uncertainty in Position.
• Print and paste the resulting graph.

How would you expect the plot of residuals to look? Is this expectation fulfilled? If not, can you
give an explanation?

Make sure that you quote a value for the precision of the Position measurements, and discuss the
above questions with your demonstrator.

ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS ON EXPERIMENT I

 - 24 -

Experiment II. Newton’s Third Law

Preparatory Questions

1. A large truck collides head-on with a small compact car.

Which of the following statements is true during the
collision, if any?

a) The force exerted by the truck on the car is greater than the force exerted by the car on the truck.
b) The force exerted by the car on the truck is greater than the force exerted by the truck on the car.
c) The force exerted by the truck on the car is the same as the force exerted by the car on the truck.
d) If the car is going fast enough, the force it exerts on the truck will be greater than the force the
truck exerts on the car.
e) The forces exerted are a complicated function of the masses and speeds of the two vehicles, so
general statements are not always valid.

2. Much to everyone’s surprise, the truck is damaged more

than the car, so the car driver agrees to push the truck to
the n garage. While the car, still pushing the truck, is
speeding up to get up to cruising speed, which of the
following statement true during the “collision”, if
any?

a) The amount of force of the car pushing against the truck is equal to that of the truck pushing
back against the car.
b) The amount of force of the car pushing against the truck is less than that of the truck pushing
back against the car.
c) The amount of force of the car pushing against the truck is greater than that of the truck
pushing against the car.
d) The car’s engine is running so it applies a force as it pushes against the truck but the truck’s
engine is not running so it can’t push back against the car; the truck is pushed forward simply
because it is in the way of the car.
e) Neither the car nor the truck exert any force on the other, the truck is pushed forward simply
because it is in the way of the car.

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

 - 25 -

The Experiment
Use the force sensors and the toy trucks provided to confirm (or disprove!) your answers to the
Preparatory Questions. Make several runs, with different loadings of the trucks. Remember that for
an isolated system you will not be touching the trucks during the collisions. Make sure that you
describe clearly your procedures.

Notes:
• If this is your first experiment you should read the Hints On The Use Of The DataStudio
Software in the PRELIMNARY EXERCISE.
• To connect the sensors, click Setup and in the Experiment Setup window click on Add Sensor
and in the Choose Sensor window double click on the force sensor icon. A force sensor will
appear connected to channel A of the 750 Interface. Similarly connect another force sensor to
channel B. Now connect the real force sensors to the Analog Channels A and B of the real 750
Interface.
• Before taking readings, press the TARE button on the top of the Force Sensors in order to zero
the reading.
• It is up to you to set an optimal sample rate; too slow and you will not collect enough
information; too fast and processing problems may arise. To set the Sample Rate, click on
either of the Force Sensors in the Experiment Setup window and adjust the Sample Rate.
• At high sample rates data may be recorded faster than the computer can process it if there are
graphs visible. Remove graphs and displays to rectify this (or reduce the sample rate).
• When calculations are performed on data taken at high sample rates the computer response
time may be slow. To speed things up, do one or more of the following.
1) Limit the total number of data points by taking data only for 5 seconds or less per run
using the manual Start and Stop.
2) Limit the total number of data points by setting the Delay Start and Automatic Stop options
so that triggering occurs when the force is larger or smaller than a predetermined value
(Setup → Experiment Setup → Sampling Options → Delayed Start → click on Data
Measurement). A trial run will tell you the approximate “predetermined value” to use. This
procedure drastically reduces the file size if you wish to save your data.

Analysis
Quote values of the forces involved, and the mean of the difference between them. Use the
calculator icon on the graph tool bar to create a formula for the difference D between the two
forces. The prompts will ask you to define any variables in this formula. The variables will be
Data Measurements which are Force, ChA/B. If a graph of D is not visible, drag the run number
for D in the Data window onto the Graph icon in the Displays window. Zoom in on the portion of
the graph where the two trucks are colliding. Using the Σ pull-down menu on the graph toolbar,
you can obtain various statistics for any data you select; you will need Mean, Standard Deviation
and total number of data points (Count).

You will observe that D is not exactly zero for all points. Why not? Does this mean a deviation
from Newton’s 3rd Law occurs at the non-zero points?

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

 - 26 -

To answer this question, and to quote a quantitative limit on how well you have confirmed the
Third Law, proceed as follows:
• Create a histogram by dragging the run number for D in the Data window onto the
Histogram icon in the Displays window. Note that by selecting a portion of the D graph, the
associated histogram will display information for that section only.
• Use the Histogram Settings pull down menu to adjust the histogram and give the best
display. Note the shape of this distribution. Does it appear to be approximately Gaussian (i.e.
Normal)? If it were assumed that this distribution is a Gaussian Distribution, what percentage
of points would you expect to lie outside three standard deviations from the mean? Is this
expectation confirmed for your data?

Finally, if it appears from your data that the Mean value of D is not zero, (Question: what do you
mean by ‘zero’? Give an experimental answer!), it is worth checking if this is simply a matter of
inaccurate calibration or a more systematic effect. Take a few more measurements and discuss
your conclusions, with numbers.

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

 - 27 -

Experiment III. Dynamics of Rotational Motion

To study the dynamics of rotational motion you can choose one of two available experiments:
Moment of Inertia or Conservation of Angular Momentum.

Moment of Inertia
Introduction
The property of a body by which it resists acceleration is called the inertial mass m. The rotational
analogue to inertial mass is the moment of inertia I. It is the property of a body by which the body
v v
resists angular acceleration. Newton’s second law of motion for linear motion F = ma has a
v v v v
rotational analogue, which is τ = Iα , where τ is the torque and α is the angular acceleration.

In this experiment you will determine the moments of inertia of different objects by applying
varying torques to a body and measuring the corresponding angular accelerations.

In this experiment, data is taken using rotational motion sensors. The rotational motion sensors
are interfaced to a computer and the data is analyzed using the DataStudio software.

Theory and Preparatory Questions.

If a torque is applied to a body, which is constrained to rotate about a fixed point, then the body
v v
will undergo and angular acceleration given by τ = Iα , where I is the moment of inertia about the
axis through the fixed point.

1
For rotation about the axis of cylindrical symmetry the moment of inertia of a disk is I disk = MR 2
2
and the moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder of finite thickness is I hollowcylinder =
1
2
( )
M R12 + R22 ,
where R1 and R2 are the inside and outside radii of the hollow cylinder.
In the diagram (Fig.1) direction down is positive.
1. For the mass m, hanging
over the pulley, write the
second Newton’s law.
2. As the sensor helps to
measure the angular
acceleration of the disk,
substitute acceleration a by
a variable containing the
angular acceleration α.
3. For a drum, apply another
equation for the torque,
involving applied force
(which one?) and the arm
of the force
Fig.1
DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION. MOMENT OF INERTIA
 - 28 -
4. Combine all the above equations to express the torque on the drum via shown variables and
α. Why we can operate with scalar values for this problem?

Now, you have two different formulae that contain both torque and angular momentum.

The Experiment
Mount the aluminum disk onto the rotary motion
sensor above the three step pulley with the square hole
in the disk fitting over the square post of the three step
pulley. Attach the rotary motion sensor to the support
rod of the stand so that it is quite solid.
Place a bubble level on the aluminum disk and level the
stand so that the bubble stays in the centre as you rotate
the disk. This means that the axis of rotation is vertical.
Attach the vertical pulley to the rotary motion sensor
with the plastic thumbscrew facing down. Do not over
tighten since the parts are made of plastic and are
quite fragile.

Masses are to be hung from a thread attached to the horizontal

three-step pulley and this will provide the accelerating torque.
Temporarily remove the aluminum disk, select the middle step
of the three-step pulley and measure the radius of the drum. At
this time, you should measure the mass and radius of the
aluminum disk.

Attach a thread to the drum of the horizontal pulley by passing

the thread through the hole in the pulley and tying a knot. Pass
the thread over the vertical pulley and adjust the lateral
position of the pulley for the particular drum radius that you have chosen.

Adjust the height of the vertical pulley using the thumbscrew at the side so that the thread passing
over the top of the pulley is horizontal as in the diagram. Make sure that the thread is long enough
so that the masses can reach the floor while the sensor is still accelerating but not too much longer.

How will making the string too long affect your experiment?

Reattach the aluminum disk.

In DataStudio, create an experiment with a rotary motion sensor.

Click on Setup.

Double click on the rotary motion sensor and select a Sample Rate of 20 Hz from the General
category, Angular Velocity (rad/s) from the Measurement category and 360 Division/Rotation from
the Rotary Motion Sensor category to start. You may investigate other settings later.
DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION. MOMENT OF INERTIA
 - 29 -

Take some preliminary data to observe how the apparatus responds as the masses fall. After the
masses reach the floor, stop the rotation to prevent the thread from becoming entangled in the
pulley. Treat the apparatus with care.

Angular Velocity may be used to set a condition for a delayed start.

Moment of Inertia of a Disk

Using the small (approximately 8 gram) masses, measure the angular acceleration for five different
masses. Calculate the torque for each run and plot torque versus angular acceleration. The slope of
the graph will be the moment of inertia of the system.

Calculate the moment of inertia of the aluminum disk and compare it to the experimentally
determined moment of inertia of the system. Is the calculated moment of inertia larger, smaller,
or the same as the experimental value? Is this what you would expect? Why or why not?

Moment of Inertia of a Hollow Cylinder (or Ring)

Mount the hollow cylinder on top of the disk with the protruding posts sticking into the disk to
keep it in place. As above, measure the angular acceleration for five different masses, (use the
larger set of masses). Calculate the torque for each run and plot torque versus angular acceleration.
The slope of the graph will be the moment of inertia of the system which is the hollow cylinder
plus the system for which the moment of inertia was previously determined. By subtracting,
determine the moment of inertial of the hollow cylinder.

Measure the mass and dimensions of the hollow cylinder and calculate its moment of inertia.
Compare your results to those obtained experimentally.

It should be noted that when you are plotting torque versus angular acceleration you are not
plotting two independent variables because the angular acceleration was used in the calculation of
the torque. However, they are almost independent since in calculating the torque, is small αr
compared to g.

DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION. MOMENT OF INERTIA

 - 30 -

Conservation of Angular Momentum

Introduction
One of the fundamental conservation laws of physics is the law of conservation of angular
momentum, which states that the total angular momentum of a system is constant in both
magnitude and direction if the resultant external torque acting on the system is zero. In this
experiment, you will not try to “prove” the law of conservation of momentum but rather you will
be asked to accept this law and then investigate various experimental situations to see how well
your predictions for the model of an actual piece of apparatus agree with experimental
measurements.

By dropping a series of rings and cylinders onto a rotating disc you will be able to compare
angular momenta before and after the “collisions”.

In this experiment, data is taken using rotational motion sensors. The rotational motion sensors are
interfaced to a computer and the data is analyzed using the DataStudio software.

Theory v
For rigid bodies that possess axialv symmetry, the angular momentum L and the angular velocity
v v
ω are parallel and we can write L = Iω , where I is the moment of inertia of the body about the
v
axis of rotation. If L stands for the total angular momentum, then vthis equation applies only to
bodies that have symmetry about the rotational axis. However, if L stands for the vector
component of the angular momentum along the rotational axis, then this equation holds for any
rigid body, symmetrical or not, that is rotating about a fixed axis. If the axis of symmetry and the
axis of rotation are one and the same then one need not worry about this distinction.

For rotation about the axis of cylindrical symmetry, the moment of inertia of a disk is
1
I disk = MR 2 and the moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder of finite thickness is
2
(
1
)
I hollowcylinder = M R12 + R22 , where R1 and R2 are the inside and outside radii of the hollow cylinder.
2

For rotation about an axis parallel to, but not through, the axis of cylindrical symmetry, the
Parallel Axis Theorem states that the moment of inertial is given by I = IC.M.+ MD2, where D is the
distance from the axis through the centre of mass to the axis of rotation.

The Experiment
You will need to measure the masses and radii of the various disks and hollow cylinders. If the
aluminum disk is attached to the rotary motion sensor you can remove it using the hex key
provided. Note that the aluminum and brass hollow cylinders have about the same physical
dimensions but different masses while the brass disc and hollow cylinder have about the same
mass but different shape.

Mount the aluminum disk on the rotary motion sensor and attach the rotary motion sensor to
the support rod near the base of the stand so that it is quite solid.
DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION. CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
 - 31 -

You will be dropping objects onto the rotating

disk. In order to keep the objects centered on
the disk you should arrange the apparatus to that
you can look down on the apparatus from
above. Note that the pulley between the disk
and the rotary motion sensor in the diagram at
the right has been removed since it isn’t needed.

Place a bubble level on the aluminum disk and

level the stand so that the bubble stays in the
centre as you rotate the disk. This means that
the axis of rotation is vertical.

In DataStudio, create an experiment with a

rotary motion sensor. Click on Setup.

Double click on the rotary motion sensor and select a Sample Rate from the General category,
Angular Velocity (rad/s) from the Measurement category and 360 Division/Rotation from the
Rotary Motion Sensor category to start. You may investigate other settings later.

WHEN YOU DROP OBJECTS ONTO THE ROTATING DISC DO NOT DROP THEM
FROM A LARGE DISTANCE. THIS WILL DAMAGE THE SENSOR AND GIVE
ERRONEOUS RESULTS. In fact, the closer you are to the disk when you drop the object, the
better is the chance that it will be centered on the disk

Investigate the law of conservation of angular momentum by dropping a symmetrical object onto
the rotating disk and measuring the angular velocities immediately before and after the “collision”.
Use a little double sided tape to prevent the dropped object from sliding when it “collides” with the
aluminum disk. Using the circular lines on the disc as a guide, drop the objects onto the disc with
their centre of rotation as close to the centre of rotation of the disk as possible. Practice several
time until you become good at it.

After you have dropped one object, perform the calculations to determine how well your
experimental results agree with conservation of angular momentum.

Measure the distance D for use in the parallel axis theorem. How much is the moment of inertia
changed by using the parallel axis theorem?

Do the calculations immediately. Do not just take data and bring it home for analysis.

Repeat the steps above for the other symmetrical objects.

For one of your “collisions” estimate the frictional torque on the rotating disk which changes the
angular momentum. How much does it contribute to a change in angular momentum during the
time of the collision? Is the frictional torque the same before and after the “collision”?
DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION. CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
 - 32 -
Experiment IV. Simple Harmonic Motion

Preparatory Questions
You will study Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) in lectures later in the year. This will give you an
experimental, rather than a theoretical, introduction to the subject. Don’t worry too much at this
stage about the formulae. The emphasis here is on a qualitative understanding of the phenomenon.
Read the Theory section below, and answer the preparatory questions listed there as you go along.
You may also find it useful to read the section in your textbook that deals with
Simple Harmonic Motion.

Theory
Simple Harmonic Motion is the most fundamental of oscillatory motions. It occurs when an object,
displaced from its position of equilibrium, is acted on by a force directed back to this position and
proportional to the displacement. An example of SHM is the oscillation of a mass on the end of a
spring where the force on the mass obeys Hooke’s Law. In mathematical terms, this is described
by the differential equation:

, where is a constant..................................................(1)
The solution to this equation is x = A sin(ωt + φ) where A and φ are also constants.....................(2)

1. Confirm by differentiation that x = A sin(ωt + φ) is indeed a solution to the fundamental

equation of SHM.
2. φ is called the phase of the oscillation. What is the physical meaning of φ?
3. If the frequency of oscillation of the spring is f oscillations per second, what is the relationship
between f
and ω? (Hint: set φ =0 ⎞ and consider the form of equation (2)).
4. When a spring (loaded or free) is extended from its equilibrium position by a distance x as the
result of hanging a weight of mass m on it, it exerts a force = kx that tends to reduce x, where k
is called the spring constant. Write down the relationship between k, m and ω2.

To apply this theory to the experimental situation,

consider a spring hanging from a support as shown.
On the end of the spring is attached a mass m. Let
the distance from the floor to the position of the
mass be when the mass is at rest (in equilibrium).
Then suppose that the spring is extended to reach a
distance x from the floor. When the mass is
released, SHM will ensue. In this case, starting
time at a convenient instant, the equation governing
the motion can be written as:

x = x0 + A sin(ωt + φ) ,................................................................................................................(3)

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

 - 33 -
The Experiment
The main purpose of the experiment is to verify the relation (3) above.

Suspend the spring from a stand, and position the Motion Detector under the oscillating mass.
Remember that the Motion Detector will not detect motion at less than 15 cm. Short pieces of
string between the spring and the stand and the spring and the mass will prevent swinging and
twisting of the oscillating mass. Run DataStudio using a mass in the mid-range available and small
values for the amplitude. Obtain data for 20 or so cycles of oscillation of the spring.

Study the resulting Position, Velocity, Acceleration graphs and make qualitative comments about
them. What are the relative phases of these graphs? Why do they have the form they have?

Use Zoom Select to expand a few cycles of the Position graph and use the Smart Tool to obtain
estimates of x0, A and the period. Calculate φ using equation (3) and the value of x at t = 0. Pay
attention to the sign of φ. A positive value of φ is equivalent to moving the origin of the axes to the
right at t = 0. Make estimates of the errors in the quantities that you have measured.

Click on Curve Fit on the main toolbar (not Fit on the graph toolbar) to draw a curve of the form
of Equation (3). Click New → Sine Fit → Manual. Click on Input and choose the appropriate data
set. Note that DataStudio writes equation (3) in an unconventional form but it is equivalent to
equation (3). Enter estimates of x0, A, the period and C (which is derived from φ) into the
appropriate boxes and click Accept. Drag the appropriate Fit Run onto the graph of your data. You
can change the colour of the Fit Run by double clicking on the Fit Run in the Data Summary
window. Adjust the coefficients (and click Accept) until the fitted curve matches your data.

Does the curve which fits the data over the few cycles that you have selected fit the data many
cycles away from your selected region? If not, why not?

Try the Sine Fit using Automatic. Do your measurements agree with DataStudio’s calculations?

Now take measurements of Position versus time with several different masses, to obtain values of
frequency, f. Determine the value of f by (a) using the Smart Tool and measuring the time for
several oscillations or (b) counting the number of complete oscillations in a given time period or
(c) alternatively, using a very quick method, the Fast Fourier Transform function (FFT) listed on
the Displays window. We suggest that even if you use (a) or (b) that you try (c) to experience
Fourier Transforms with the caveat that the FFT gives a small range of frequencies with better
resolution as the number of points increases. We suggest that (trigger rate) x (number of seconds
observed) ≥ 1024. Drag the Position icon in the Data window onto the FFT icon in the Displays
window. You will have to expand the scale on the x-axis to display the result clearly; once this
is done you can read the frequency directly off the graph using the Smart Tool.

Display your data graphically either manually or using the DataStudio software as explained in
Hints section of the Preliminary Exercise. Investigate the relation between f and the mass of the
oscillating object to extract the value of the spring constant, k. Check this value by recording the
force when the spring is extended from zero by a measured amount.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
 - 34 -
LIST OF “FREE CHOICE” EXPERIMENTS
The numbers in square brackets following the summaries, e.g., [1 wt], [2 wt], etc. indicate the
number of weights credited to the experiment. A one-weight experiment requires one lab session
(3 hours) to complete; a two-weight experiment requires two lab sessions (6 hours).

The guide sheets for these experiments can be viewed and downloaded by clicking on the
appropriate experiment in the “free choice” experiment list on the course web site.

Mechanics and Mechanical Systems

• Free Fall: Measurement of g by determining the distance a body falls in a measured time. [1
wt]

• The Gyroscope: A study of this fascinating instrument, in which angular momentum, torque,
precession, nutation, etc., can be measured. [1-2 wt]

• The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat: Joule's classic experiment. [1 wt]

• Conservation of Momentum and Energy: The air track is used to investigate elastic and
inelastic collisions with the motion sensor. [1 wt]

• Oscillations of a Sphere on a Concave Surface: Measurement of the radius of curvature of a

concave surface using a simple harmonic motion system. [1 wt]

• The Torsion Pendulum: Measurement of the torsional constant of a wire and the moment of
inertia of various solids. [1 wt]

• Wilberforce Pendulum: A fascinating study of mechanical resonance between two types of

simple harmonic motion. [1-2 wt]

Atomic and Nuclear Physics

• Scattering: A model of a two-dimensional scattering process. The experiment simulates the

scattering of a beam of particles from a fixed target. [1-2 wt]

Fundamental Constants

• The Cavendish Experiment: The classic experiment to measure the Universal Gravitational
Constant. [2 wt]

• The Speed of Light: A modification of Fizeau’s classic experiment this is a straightforward but
challenging experiment. Great care is needed to set up the apparatus correctly. A careful
experimenter can get ±5% results. [2 wt]

FREE CHOICE EXPERIMENTS

 −35−

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

I. GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

"A picture is worth a thousand words" is particularly true in the analysis of laboratory data. In
many experiments it is very useful to check on the experiment by making a rough graph of the data
points as they are being taken. Carefully drawn and analysed graphs are often the best way to
extract the values of the unknowns and to confirm or deny the theoretical hypothesis being tested.
Finally graphs are important in presenting results clearly and pleasingly in a report.

Straight line graphs have a special significance. They are the easiest to draw by hand. In addition,
their interpretation is often simplest, since all straight lines plotted on an x-y graph have the form
y = mx + b
(1)
where m is the slope of the line and b is the intercept on the y-axis. Usually x and y depend only on
the known or measured quantities while m and b contain the unknowns which you are trying to
find.

Though a plot of your data points in their raw form will not generally lie on a straight line, you will
find that data can usually be made to fit a straight line. If there are two and only two unknowns in
your experiment, it is often advantageous to put the theoretical relationship into the form of
equation (1). Often x, y, m, b turn out to be quite complicated expressions (see the Example
below).

In graphs which are intended to do more than simply indicate a trend in the data, you will need to
indicate the uncertainty in each point. This is done by drawing "error bars" which are lines
corresponding to the size of the error on either side of the data point - vertically for errors in y
values and horizontally for errors in x values (see Figures 1 and 2 below).

II. USING HAND DRAWN GRAPHS TO FIT A STRAIGHT LINE

When you are attempting to fit a straight line to some data points by hand drawing, choose a line
which encompasses a majority of points and passes as close to all of them as possible, taking into
account the errors (indicated by "error bars") which indicate the uncertainty in the position of the
points. This "best" line is a graphical estimate of the "average" of the data. By seeing how far on
either side of this "best" line you can draw other acceptable lines, you will be able to form a
common sense estimate of the errors in the slope and intercept of this line (see Figures 1 and 2).
Note that all points need not lie on the line and a scatter of points about a theoretical curve is to be
expected in the real world. However, deliberately ignoring a few points (without a good reason)
because they spoil a "perfect" fit to the other points is very bad science. See the section on
Rejection of Measurements on the error analysis web site
http:// www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/ErrorAnalysis/

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

 - 36 -

Tips:
• Use a sharp pencil or fine pen to draw your graphs.
• Plot the points in pen and the smooth curve in pencil so that you may easily redraw your fitted
curve.
• Spread the data nicely across the available area by choosing the scales appropriately on the two
axes. Your graph may or may not include the origin at (0,0).
• Avoid the use of an unnatural subdivision of intervals; use multiples of 2, 5, or 10 whenever
possible (not 3!!).

Example

A "compound" pendulum swings with period T, which is related to its unknown radius of gyration
k, and a measured length L by the equation

(2)
where g is the gravitational acceleration. The parameters g and k are to be determined. Note that
(2) is not in the form of (1) A plot of T versus L is not a straight line (Figure 1). However, if (2) is
squared and then multiplied through by L, it becomes

(3)
which is in the form of (1). A plot of T2L versus L2 is a straight line (Figure 2). There are several
other ways of putting (2) into the general form of (1). Can you see what these are?

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

 - 37 -

III. USING THE FARADAY COMPUTER TO FIT GRAPHS

CAUTION: Although the computer provides a very powerful method of fitting and analyzing your
data, it will not evaluate your experiment, tell you about the appropriateness of your means of
fitting data nor generally provide judgement on how well the performance of your experiment is
going. It is up to you to check carefully how the line visually fits the displayed data and to ensure
that it makes sense. If your choice of errors is poor or non-existent, the computer's calculated error
in the slope and intercept will be equally flawed. The thinking part of the experiment is still
your responsibility [see the notes on the χ2 of the fit in section vi.) below]!

For many cases when you need to fit data to a function (linear, quadratic, etc.) the fitter in
DataStudio is fine. However this fitter does not correctly include the effect of errors. To handle
errors correctly you may want to use the far more sophisticated fitter on the main lab computer,
Faraday, which is accessible locally or from the Web.

The following tips will save you huge amounts of time.

• Your variable names should be letters or short names in lower case; e.g. s, t, vc, time etc.
(Mathematica functions start with an upper case letter).
• Always enter your raw data, just as you have taken it since the computer will do any
calculations on it that you need [see section iv.), Other Useful Features, below].
• As long as the errors on your data are either constants (e.g. 0.005, 0.3, etc.) or functions of the
variables (e.g. 0.005/t2, 2s/t, etc.) you do NOT need to enter them since you can enter them at
the time of setting up the graph. If errors are not constants or functions of the variables, you
will need to define a variable name for your errors and enter the numerical value for each
point.

i.) Entering Your Data into Faraday

a) Entering Your Data Manually Directly Into Faraday
Log on to Faraday by clicking on the X-Terminal On Faraday icon on the desktop or by
using the terminals in MP257, MP125 or MP126. Follow the menu to find the item create
and enter your data following the instructions (data goes in columns). Then you can go
directly to the fitter (use the fit menu item). This option also lets you edit and massage your
data directly [see iv.), Other Useful Features, below].

b) Entering Your Data From DataStudio

1) Data Was Taken Using Sensors and DataStudio
If your data in DataStudio was acquired using the sensors, double click on the Table icon in
the Displays list or drag the icon onto a free area on the screen. If the data that you want
does not appear in the table, click on the Data menu on the toolbar to select the run you
want, or drag the appropriate icon from the Data list at the left of the screen onto the table.
If you want to edit the data at this stage, [though you should wait since you will have to
edit it anyway in Notepad before it goes to Faraday – see 2) directly below for details], you
can do so in DataStudio by clicking on the pencil icon on the Table toolbar.

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

 - 38 -

2) Data Is To Be First Entered Manually Into DataStudio

If you wish to enter data manually into DataStudio, double click on the Table icon or drag
the icon onto a free area on the screen. Click on the pencil icon on the toolbar. The title of
the Table will change to Editable Data; the first row will be highlighted and you can type in
your data. The Table toolbar has useful items to delete unwanted rows or insert new rows
etc.

Once your data is in DataStudio, you need to save the data in a file for use by Faraday's
fitter. Use the Export Data option in the pull-down File menu. You will be asked to choose
the data you want to export. The data you highlight will be exported in text ( .txt ) form.
Save the file on your local computer. When data files have been created from
DataStudio it is necessary to delete the first two lines of the file - the title of the table and
the names of the variables given by DataStudio - since Faraday expects only numerical
data in this file. This is easiest done by going to the desktop and opening the appropriate
file in Notepad. Delete the first two lines and re-save. You can leave the files on your local
computer or drag them into your Faraday directory (named x****).

c) Entering Your Data From Excel

As in 2) above, suppose you want to fit data that was not taken directly in DataStudio. In
this option you can enter your data into Excel. The file must contain only numbers (no
heading) with each variable in its own column, e.g. x, ∆x, y, ∆y. Save it as a .txt file (tab or
space delimited) on the local computer you are using or in your directory on Faraday. If
you want to name the variables (optional but desirable), create another .txt file with the
variables in the same order as the data file, their names in the first row. Without a variables
file, Faraday will simply call the variables var1, var2, etc. Save this file in .txt format.

ii.) Accessing the Faraday Fitter From the Web

Follow the links from the Department of Physics home page → Undergraduate →
UPSCALE → Data → Linear Fit. You will be asked for your login name and password.
Click on the appropriate link to find the file with your data (use the Browse button to be
sure of the file address) and also the file with your variable names (optional) and then click
on Submit upload. The Fit Setup window will then appear.

iii.) Fitting a Curve (Line) To Your Data Using the Faraday fitter
The Fit Setup window contains a list of the variable names you have defined; alternatively
it will provide the names var1 and var2. As far as the computer is concerned, the dependent
variable will appear on the y-axis and the independent variable on the x-axis. These
assignments don’t necessarily have anything to do with which variable was dependent or
independent in your actual experiment. Make your own choice depending on how you want
your final graph to look. You should also specify errors in the variables. If you want to plot
the variables and errors just as they were defined, choose the appropriate "buttons". If you
want to enter expressions for the variables or the errors (or a constant value for an error)
then just type in the expression or constant in the appropriate box.

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

 - 39 -

By default the Faraday fitter fits to a polynomial in the independent variable. The independent
variable may be any of the variables you have entered or any legitimate Mathematica expression
involving these variables. To use the fitter to fit to other linear models such as Fourier Series or
Bessel Functions etc. see Advanced Options in the Fitter.

To all data, the computer fits a general polynomial which has the form:

y = A(0) + A(1)x + A(2)x2 + A(3)x3 + ...

You need to specify which of the terms in the polynomial are relevant to the fit of your data. This
is done by inserting the required powers (separated by commas or spaces) in the box provided or
by checking the appropriate boxes in the set of checkboxes

in order to choose one or more of the coefficients

A(0) A(1) A(2) A(3) A(4) A(5) A(6) A(7) A(8) A(9)

Often you will be specifying 0 and 1, which is a fit to the straight line y = A(0) + A(1)x with A(1) =
slope and A(0) = intercept on the y axis.

The Faraday fitter provides an “objective” procedure for giving a best fit of a straight line or a
specified polynomial to your data, along with correctly calculated error estimates on that fit. It uses
a programme called Mathematica. Basically, the computer calculates the square of the distance
between your data points and the curve it is trying to find; it then adjusts the constants of the
polynomial representing the curve until the sum of these squares is a minimum. It gives you the
values of the constants so found, along with their errors (one standard deviation). In addition it
draws a graph which shows your data points and the fitted curve. If the errors in your data points
are large enough to be visible on the graph, the computer also draws two lines, which correspond
to "maximum" and "minimum" lines appearing in a hand-drawn graph (see section II. Using Hand
Drawn Graphs above); however the computer's lines are ± one standard deviation from the fitted
line.

Notes on calculations using Mathematica

Some of the grammar you may need when you calculate

mathematical expressions involving your variables is listed in the
table opposite.

N.B. Use "(" and ")" as parenthesis in your expressions; "[" and
"]" are reserved for the arguments of Mathematica functions.
Angles are measured in radians.

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

 - 40 -

iv.) Other Useful Features of the Faraday Analysis Programmes

If you are accessing the data analysis programmes directly on Faraday (and not just the fitter from
a web browser), the following features are available.

1) When you use a menu item, you need usually type in only enough letters to uniquely identify
the word; most of the time only the first letter is sufficient.

2) Once you have used create to enter your data, you can always look at it by choosing the menu
item show which is available on the data and the analyze menus (the latter also gives you the
option to print the data file).

3) There are several ways, in which you can change your data after you have created it. You
should almost never have to type in the full set of data again, since these programmes will
make almost all the corrections you want.

a) edit This is the simplest of these programmes, and should be used only for simple fixes. You
can move around your data file, deleting, changing and adding data. To exit edit, click on
File (top left corner of the screen) to pull down the menu there. Choose the Quit option;
you will then be prompted to Save before exiting. CAUTION! Occasionally you will get a
message which reads Wrong columns or non-numbers found ; this often means that you
have left the cursor sitting on a new line instead of exactly at the end of your data. Move
the cursor to the end of the file and use the Backspace button to delete any extra spaces or
line returns till the cursor is sitting immediately after the last digit of your last data point.
Then try exiting again.

b) massage You will find this programme in the analyze menu. Clicking on massage will lead
you to another menu with several options. The two most useful are now discussed.

i) recalc This option presents you with the opportunity to add variables to your data
set which are either constants or functions of the ones you have already defined. For
example, you may have one variable in cm and another in mm and you wish to add them.
One must be changed so that they are in the same units. You may also use recalc to
calculate a very complicated expression from the raw data, which you have entered in the
file. You are asked how many new variables you want to define, their names, and how the
computer is to calculate them from the data already in your file. NOTE! You are first asked
if you want to keep the original data - it is usually a good idea to answer yes to this
question.

ii) addvar You may decide that you want to add the values of a variable which you had
forgotten to enter the first time. This option will ask you how many variables you want to
add, and their names. It will present you, a line at a time, with the data that is already in
your file. You just have to type in the new values. The programme will exit automatically
when you reach the last line.

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

 - 41 -

v.) Fitting With Faraday – An Exercise

Radioactive Decay. If, at time t = 0, there are N(0) atoms in a sample of radioactive material, after time t
has elapsed there will only be N(t) atoms left, where N(t) = N(0) e-t/τ , where τ is called the mean life of the
radioactive material. Radioactive samples are often prepared in a particle accelerator. The number of decays
from a given sample were measured as a function of time, and the following data were obtained.

You have to test the relationship between N(t) and t using the fit utility on the lab computer, Faraday.
Enter your data as described above and then back it up.

Fitting the Data.

a) The fit program fits to a polynomial:
y = A(0) + A(1)x + A(2)x2 + ….. (1)

You have to rearrange the relation N(t) = N(0) e-t/ô (2)

into one that Faraday can handle.

Taking (natural) logarithms of both sides gives: ln[N(t)] = ln[N(0)] - (1/τ)t (3)

This is now in the form of equation (1). Note that since you want ln[N(t)] to be plotted on the y-
axis, it is called the “dependent” variable by the fit program. Type the natural logarithm into the box
after “Fitting” in the Fit Setup window. Use the table above to see how to write a natural logarithm.

b) Errors. You will need to insert the errors in the experimental data. You can insert the error in t
directly into the appropriate “with error” box in the Fit Setup window. Use ∆t = 1/30 for all of the
readings.

The error in ln[N(t)] needs more thought. Since ∆{ln[N(t)]} = ∆N(t)/N(t), and since ∆N(t) =
we obtain ∆(ln[N(t)]} = Use the table above to see how to write a square root.

c) Finally, click on the fit button, and examine the fit.

Results:
a) Check that your value of chisquared is satisfactory for the number of degrees of freedom of your fit.
b) Once you are satisfied with your fit print it out. You may “Change the plot options” before printing or
you may label the axes manually.
c) Calculate the value of N(0) and τ and their errors. Quote these values, with errors, to the correct number
of significant places.
DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES
 - 42-

vi.) The Chi-Squared (χ2) test

Along with the fitted parameters, A(0), A(1), A(2) etc. (let us call the number of these parameters
m) a value called Chi-Squared is printed under your graph (the Greek symbol is χ, pronounced like
"cry", without the "r"). This is a statistical quantity which tells you something about the quality of
your fit. (You will come across the quantity χ2 in procedures in which averages are derived from
data or in which curves are fitted to data, curve fitting being just another form of averaging.) For
the case of the curve fitting described above, the value is calculated by taking the sum of the
squares of the deviation of each of the n data points from the fitted curve and dividing by the
square of the error ( = standard deviation) in each point;

The size of this quantity depends on how well the curve fits the data, taking into account the fact
that if the errors are large, a greater degree of deviation is expected. Its value will obviously
depend also on the number of terms in the sum, equal to the number of data points. For a good fit,
we might expect that, on average, each point might deviate from the fitted curve by approximately
the value of the stated error, i.e. the sum in the equation above would, on average, have a value
approximately equal to the number of data points, or approximately the number of degrees of
freedom, if the number of extracted parameters is small.

If we have overestimated the errors, χ2 would be too low. If even some of the points deviate from
the fitted curve by more than we expect from the size of the errors, χ2 will be too high. In fact, if
we define the degrees of freedom, v, as v = n - m, it can be shown that, on average, the "expected
value" of χ2 is equal to v. If your value of ÷2 deviates greatly from v, you should suspect the
goodness of your fit to the data.

This qualitative understanding can be made quantitative; χ2 has a statistical distribution which is
well-known. The calculated values in the Chi-Square Distribution table on the next page give the
probability that, in a random process, a given value of χ2 would be smaller than the value that you
actually obtained. If this probability is very large (i.e., hardly anyone would get a larger value than
you) we conclude that the hypothesis is probably incorrect. As you might guess, a too-small value
of χ2 should also be questioned. Why?

NOTE

You should use the information on this page and the next to understand the Chi-squared
probability quoted by the Faraday fitter. However, even thought the information is the same, the
Chi-squared probability quoted by the Faraday fitter is the probability that in a random process the
value of χ2 would be LARGER (not smaller) than the value you actually obtained. Just subtract
this value from one to use the numbers given here.

DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES

 - 43 -
PERCENTILE VALUES FOR THE CHI-SQUARED DISTRIBUTION WITH v DEGREES OF FREEDOM

vii.) Confidence Levels

Suppose that the result of a measurement of some quantity x yields a result of . We have
already seen that this means that there is a 68% chance that the mean of x lies between the values
and and a 95% chance that it lies between the values and . We
could also say for example:
"with 99% confidence, the mean of has a value lying between and ".
2
In the same way, the χ test can give an idea of our confidence in a given result. If the value of the
probability obtained from the χ2 table is greater than 0.95 (95% confidence level), then in only 5%
of the random samples from the population in question would the value of χ2 be greater than the
one actually found and we say that our hypothesis (that the fit is a good one) is rejected at the 5%
significance level and we should then consider our particular hypothesis regarding the data as
suspect. Values at the 1% level of probability are said to be highly significant. Note that the χ2 test
is a negative test and only tells us if our hypothesis regarding the data distribution is incorrect.

Examples:
Suppose a fit gives a χ2 of 4.2 for 6 degrees of freedom; from the table we see that this value
corresponds to a probability somewhere between 0.25 and 0.5, which would be a quite acceptable
fit. If, on the other hand, the χ2 was 17.3, we should reject the validity of the fit at the 1%
confidence level. In this case we might start by checking that we had not made a mistake in
measuring one or more of our data points and by ensuring that our estimate of error was
sufficiently large. If, on the other hand, a value for χ2 for this fit was 0.71, we would be concerned
that the fit was "too good", and suspect that we had over-estimated the errors. Once the data has
been satisfactorily completed, a value of χ2 giving a probability outside the 5% to 95% limits may
indicate that the theoretical hypothesis concerning the data is suspect.
DATA FITTING TECHNIQUES