Caution:

This material is prepared exclusively for WRS 501-

Water and Society, Autumn 2024 IIT Roorkee
students. This material is an Intellectual Property
of the class Instructor Dr. Idhaya Chandhiran,
([email protected]). This should not be shared
with anyone without the permission of Dr. Idhaya
Chandhiran.
1
DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

WRS – 501 Water and Society

Dr Idhaya Chandhiran Ilampooranan

Assistant Professor
Department of Water Resources Development and Management,
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee – 247667, INDIA
[email protected]

2
Detailed outline
Contact
S. No. Content
Hours
1. Historical perspective: Water, culture, and civilizations. Historical briefing of water 3
resources development and management practices in the past communities.

2. Socio-economic and cultural dimensions of water: Water as a fundamental right, 3

Water and cultural beliefs, Role of water in socio-economic development, Gender role
in water management.
3. Water demand and management: Water for drinking, food, industry, energy, 4
recreation, tourism, and employment.
4. Water supply and management: Water supply, sanitation, and hygiene challenges in 3
rural and urban areas. Spatiotemporal variation in different regions, coastal, hilly,
inland, arid, etc.
5. Water resource challenges: Water and urbanization, Water resources in changing 3
climate, Extreme weather events and disaster management.
6. Water and health: Water contamination and pollution, Sanitation, Water quality 3
standards, Water-borne diseases.
7. Sustainable water management: Sustainable development goals. Water and 6
sustainable development, Water conservation, Efficient water management
strategies,
8. Case studies: Recent examples of water shortages in major cities, 3
Transboundary/inter-state water sharing challenges, Community water
management.
28

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Suggested Books/References

∙ Bozorg-Haddad, Omid, ed. Economical, political, and social issues in water resources. Elsevier, 2021.

https://doi.org/10.1016/C2020-0-03830-2

∙ Hardin, G., 2018. The tragedy of the commons. In Classic Papers in Natural Resource Economics Revisited (pp.

145-156). Routledge. Available at https://ecoevo.wdfiles.com/local--files/start/Hardin1968.pdf

∙ Tvedt, Terje. Water and society: Changing perceptions of societal and historical development. Bloomsbury

Academic, 2021. Available at https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/58839

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Chapter: 8 Case Studies

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Recent examples of water shortages in major cities

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Water shortages in Chennai

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 How Chennai, one of the world's wettest major cities, ran out of water
• Chennai sits on a low plain on the southeast coast of India, intersected by three main rivers, all heavily polluted, that drain into the Bay of Bengal.
For centuries it has been a trading link connecting the near and far east and a gateway to South India.
• The cyclone-prone waters of the Bay of Bengal periodically surge into the city, forcing back the sewage-filled rivers to overflow into the streets.
Rainfall is uneven, with up to 90% falling during the northeast monsoon season in November and December. When rains fail, the city must rely on
huge desalination plants and water piped in from hundreds of kilometers away because most of its rivers and lakes are too polluted.

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(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/how-chennai-one-of-the-worlds-wettest-major-cities-ran-out-of-water/articleshow/80680182.cms?from=mdr ) 8
How Chennai, one of the world's wettest major cities, ran out of water
• While climate change and extreme weather have played a part, the main culprit for Chennai’s water woes is poor planning. As the city grew, vast

areas of the surrounding floodplain, along with its lakes and ponds, disappeared. Between 1893 and 2017, the area of Chennai’s water bodies

shrank from 12.6 square kilometers to about 3.2 square kilometers, according to researchers at Chennai’s Anna University. Most of that loss was in

the past few decades, including the construction of the city’s famous IT corridor in 2008 on about 230 square kilometers of marshland. The team

from Anna University projects that by 2030 around 60% of the city’s groundwater will be critically degraded.

• With fewer places to hold precipitation, flooding increased. In 2015, Chennai suffered its worst inundation in a century. The northeast monsoon

dumped as much as 494mm (19.4 inches) of rain on the city in a single day. More than 400 people in the state were killed and 1.8 million were

flooded out of their homes. In the IT corridor, water reached the second floor of some buildings.

• Four years later it was a shortage of water that made headlines. The city hit what it called Day Zero as all its main reservoirs ran dry, forcing the

government to truck in drinking water. People stood in lines for hours to fill containers, water tankers were hijacked, and violence erupted in some

neighborhoods.

• “Floods and water scarcity have the same roots: Urbanisation and construction in an area, mindless of the place’s natural limits,” said Nityanand

Jayaraman, a writer and environmental activist who lives in Chennai. “The two most powerful agents of change—politics and business—have

visions that are too short-sighted. Unless that changes, we are doomed.”
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT, I I T
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(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/how-chennai-one-of-the-worlds-wettest-major-cities-ran-out-of-water/articleshow/80680182.cms?from=mdr ) 9
How Chennai, one of the world's wettest major cities, ran out of water
• Tamil Nadu, the state of which Chennai is the capital, predicts in its climate change action plan that the average annual temperature will rise 3.1°C

by 2100 from 1970-2000 levels, while annual rainfall will fall by as much as 9%. Worse still, precipitation during the June-September southwest

monsoon, which typically brings the steady rain needed to grow crops and refill reservoirs, will reduce while the flood-prone cyclone season in the

winter will become more intense. That could mean worse floods and droughts.

• The northeast monsoon officially ends in December, but this winter the heavy rain continued well into January, with Tamil Nadu receiving more

than 10 times the normal rainfall for the month.

• “Such heavy rainfall was not normal when my parents and grandparents were young,” said Arun Krishnamurthy, founder of Chennai based non-

profit Environmentalist Foundation of India. “People here talk a lot about the weird weather, but they don’t link it to climate change.”

• Chennai is an extreme example of a problem that is increasingly disrupting cities around the world that are also grappling with rapid population

increases. Sao Paulo, Beijing, Cairo and Jakarta are among urban centers facing severe water scarcity. “It’s a global problem, not just Chennai,”

said Krishnamurthy. “We need to work together to ensure that we have a water-secure future.”

• The Tamil Nadu government says it’s addressing the problem. In 2003, it passed a law requiring all buildings to harvest rainwater. The rule helped

raise the water table, but the gains were soon eroded by a lack of maintenance, according to the Agriculture Ministry’s Central Ground Water

Board. Efforts to recharge groundwater have also struggled to offset the volume of water being extracted through boreholes.
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT, I I T
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(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/how-chennai-one-of-the-worlds-wettest-major-cities-ran-out-of-water/articleshow/80680182.cms?from=mdr ) 10
Caution:
This material is prepared exclusively for WRS 501-
Water and Society, Autumn 2024 IIT Roorkee
students. This material is an Intellectual Property
of the class Instructor Dr. Idhaya Chandhiran,
([email protected]). This should not be shared
with anyone without the permission of Dr. Idhaya
Chandhiran.
11
How Chennai, one of the world's wettest major cities, ran out of water

• “Floods, drought and sanitation are all interlinked,” said Sudheendra NK, director of Madras Terrace Architectural Works, which is involved in the

project. “When a critical mass of people take up all this then a significant difference will be noticed and we will no longer be in crisis.” He said it

would take at least 5 years for the project to have an impact.

• Meanwhile, Chennai continues to add a quarter of a million people a year, making it a race against time to curb the floods and water shortages.

• “My fear is these things will happen more often in the future,” said Krishnamurthy. “We didn’t learn the lesson from ‘Day Zero.’”

The Economic Times: Published on Feb 04, 2021,

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(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/how-chennai-one-of-the-worlds-wettest-major-cities-ran-out-of-water/articleshow/80680182.cms?from=mdr ) 12
Water shortages in Bengaluru

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Bengaluru facing shortage of 500 MLD water daily

• Chief Minister Siddaramaiah has said that Bengaluru is facing a shortage of 500 million litres
per day (MLD) water every day and the State government has taken various measures to
mitigate its impact. This is the first time that the water shortage the city is facing this summer
has been quantified.
What city needs
• “The city needs 2,600 MLD of water, of which 1,450 MLD is coming from the Cauvery and 650
MLD from the underground water table through borewells. There is a shortage of 500 MLD,” he
said.
• Apart from elaborating on several measures taken to mitigate and navigate through the crisis,
Mr. Siddaramaiah also announced that a technical advisory committee would be formed to
ensure that such a drinking water crisis doesn’t recur in the city.
• Mr. Siddaramaiah said that there was enough water in the Cauvery basin to provide for the
drinking water needs of the city till June-end, by when the monsoon would have begun. “There
is 11.02 tmcft of water in the KrishnaRajaSagara Dam (KRS) reservoir and 9.02 tmcft in the
Kabini reservoir,” he said. A woman and a child collect water from a tanker that
supplies potable water to the residents of Dwaraka Nagar,
Hosakerehalli, in Bengaluru
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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bengaluru-facing-shortage-of-500-mld-water-daily-admits-chief-minister-siddaramaiah/article67964439.ece) 14
Bengaluru facing shortage of 500 MLD water daily

Crisis in outer zones

The crisis is in the outer zones which are yet to be served by the Cauvery water, the Chief Minister said. “These areas will also get the Cauvery water

from this June after the Cauvery Stage V is commissioned,” he said.

At present, these areas are solely dependent on borewells and owing to drought many of them have gone dry, exacerbating the problem, he said. “Of

the 14,000 government borewells in the city, 6,900 have dried up. We are drilling new borewells in 313 places and rejuvenating 1,200 borewells. Funds

are not a problem. We have given enough funds for drinking water purposes,” he said.

Role of BBMP and BWSSB

• Mr. Siddaramaiah directed the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) and the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB)

officials to increase the number of control rooms and attend to complaints of water shortage immediately. “You will be held responsible if people

suffer from water shortage,” he told officials.

• He said the officials have been directed to commandeer any private tankers, including the Karnataka Milk Federation (KMF) tankers, to supply

water. “Presently, we are supplying after commandeering water from private borewells, including those at malls,” he said.

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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bengaluru-facing-shortage-of-500-mld-water-daily-admits-chief-minister-siddaramaiah/article67964439.ece) 15
Bengaluru facing shortage of 500 MLD water daily

14 lakes to be filled
• The Chief Minister said that treated water will be filled in dry lakes of the city on the lines of the K.C. Valley project. Treated water from K.C. Valley
in the city is being used to fill lakes and tanks in Kolar and Chickballapur districts.
• “We have identified 14 lakes in the city for the project. This will help revive and improve the underground water table levels around these lakes,” he
said.

(Source: THE HINDU, Published on March 18, 2024)

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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bengaluru-facing-shortage-of-500-mld-water-daily-admits-chief-minister-siddaramaiah/article67964439.ece) 16
Water shortages in Delhi

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 What is the row over Delhi’s water crisis?
The story so far:
• Amidst a heat wave in several parts of north India, the national capital has been struck with an
acute water shortage over the past couple of weeks sparking a battle in the Supreme Court with its
neighbouring States including Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. The Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)-led
Delhi government has alleged that Haryana is blocking water to Delhi and has asked them to
release it.
Why is there water shortage in Delhi?
• Delhi depends heavily on its neighbouring States of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab,
Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh to fulfil its drinking water needs. The capital’s raw water supply comes
from four sources with approximately 40% of it coming via Yamuna through Haryana. The raw water
is treated in Delhi’s Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) and sent across through its pipelines that
Residents use pipes to fill their containers
covers over 15,000 kilometres. with drinking water from a water tanker in
• The Delhi government has blamed the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) for blocking Delhi’s share of New Delhi on June 24, 2024. | Photo Credit:
water through the Munak Canal, which is one of the primary sources of water for the capital. The REUTERS
canal, which falls under the Haryana government, starts from Haryana and enters Delhi with raw
water. If there are any problems, the Delhi Government is responsible for notifying the issue and
financing the problem. Delhi’s Water Minister Atishi has claimed that Haryana is purposely blocking
water, in an already difficult situation due to the heat, which is resulting in the residents of Delhi
being forced to go waterless for days.
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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-is-the-row-over-delhis-water-crisis-explained/article68299997.ece) 18
What is the row over Delhi’s water crisis?

However, the Lieutenant Governor’s (L-G) office has maintained that Haryana and other neighbouring States are releasing adequate supplies of

water, and that the shortage is due to a leakage in the Munak Canal, and the lack of cleaning of pipelines and WTPs. Additionally, the L-G office has

claimed that the presence of privately run tankers which are finding illegal sources of water and selling them at high rates is adding to the issue.

What is happening in the Supreme Court (SC)?

• The Delhi government had moved the Supreme Court to seek a direction to Haryana to supply more water to the crisis-hit national capital on May

31. The AAP government in Delhi has told the top court that the water demand in the city has risen significantly due to heatwave conditions, and that

Haryana be directed to release extra water for a month.

• The Supreme Court on June 3 directed the Centre to hold an emergency meeting of its Upper Yamuna River Board (UYRB) with the States of Delhi,

Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh to address water scarcity in the national capital amid soaring temperatures. On June 6, the Congress-led Himachal

Pradesh government agreed to share water resources with the capital in the Supreme Court, promising to release 137 cusecs of water through the

Hathnikund barrage in Haryana into the Wazirabad barrage in Delhi. However, Haryana, through which the water must pass to reach Delhi, raised

objections. And later on, even the Himachal Pradesh government went back on its statements, stating that water was already flowing in the

Yamuna, and that it had made an incorrect statement of being able to spare Delhi 137 cusecs of water.
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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-is-the-row-over-delhis-water-crisis-explained/article68299997.ece) 19
What is the row over Delhi’s water crisis?
What has been the court’s response?

The SC has now bowed out of the row, stating that it does not want to interfere with the proceedings of the UYRB. The Bench headed by Justice P.K.

Mishra said it did not want to either violate or tinker with the MoU settled among the States by even passing an interim order. “The issue should be left to

be considered by the Upper Yamuna River Board, a body constituted with the agreement of parties in the MoU of May 12, 1994,” the Bench observed in

its order. The board was directed to hold a meeting with stakeholders and was asked to take a call on the matter. Delhi MLAs have since written to Jal

Shakti Minister C.R. Patil seeking help on humanitarian grounds. The main function of the UYRB is to regulate the allocation of available flows amongst

the beneficiary States.

What is next for Delhi?

• With an acute water shortage in Delhi, the powers in the capital need to focus beyond politics, be it the Centre or the State government, Rajendra

Singh, a water conservationist who is popularly referred to as the ‘Waterman of India’ said. He explained that Delhi must focus on three solutions to the

problem. “First, drinking water in the capital needs to be made its top priority; water for irrigation and other works needs to be redirected for drinking

water.”

• He further stated that “Delhi needs to thoroughly re-examine its water resources and work on the principles of ‘retreat, recycle and reuse’.” The capital

needs to look closely at its WTPs and build successful models to sustain its needs. The water flowing through Delhi needs to go into the cycle of reuse.
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT, I I T
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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-is-the-row-over-delhis-water-crisis-explained/article68299997.ece) 20
Caution:
This material is prepared exclusively for WRS 501-
Water and Society, Autumn 2024 IIT Roorkee
students. This material is an Intellectual Property
of the class Instructor Dr. Idhaya Chandhiran,
([email protected]). This should not be shared
with anyone without the permission of Dr. Idhaya
Chandhiran.
21
What is the row over Delhi’s water crisis?
• Additionally, instead of depending on other States, Delhi should investigate its harvesting methods. The spaces in Asola Bhatti mines can
be made into water harvesting structures, Mr. Singh suggested. Ground water resources used to be recharged in Delhi by the water in the
Aravalli belt, but that is not the case anymore which is leading to wastage. The Aravalli belt should be modelled into a water sanctuary and
the Yamuna flood plain banks into a water bank.

(THE HINDU, Published - June 26, 2024)

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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-is-the-row-over-delhis-water-crisis-explained/article68299997.ece) 22
Water shortages in Nashik

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3 talukas in Nashik district badly hit by water scarcity
• Nashik: Around 1 lakh people from Yeola, Chandwad, and Nandgaon talukas of Nashik district are relying on tankers for their drinking water supply

needs. Nandgaon has the most number tankers that is helping serve around 23,000 villagers. In Yeola, though the number of tankers are less as

compared to Nandgaon, the number of affected people is over 44,000. According to a senior official from the district collectorate, water scarcity is

being felt due to drying of wells and decreasing water levels in the Naga-Sakya dam. “The situation is impacting the farmers and their livelihood,” the

official said.

• “The number of tankers pressed into service in Nandgaon is 49 and it is helping in supplying drinking water to as many as 269 villages and hamlets,”

the official added.

• While explaining the reason behind number of tankers being on the higher side in Nandgaon taluka, the official said it is due to the scattered

settlement pattern of the villages. “Most of the villagers live in small hamlets consisting of only three to 10 houses and this makes it necessary to have

more tankers in service to ensure timely water supply,” the official said.

• “The situation in these villages is dire, with wells running dry and no access to water. Under normal circumstances, the administration acquires wells to

provide water for the villagers and tankers. However, this year, the water tables have dropped significantly, leaving the wells almost empty. The

primary source of water, the Naga-Sakya dam, is also witnessing a decrease in water levels. As a result, the tankers are now being supplied from the

Manikpunj dam, located 40 to 55 km away from the villages.

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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-is-the-row-over-delhis-water-crisis-explained/article68299997.ece) 24
3 talukas in Nashik district badly hit by water scarcity

• Yeola taluka is also facing a similar situation with a population of over 44,000 spread across 59 villages and hamlets relying on 35 tankers for their

drinking water needs.

• “The poor and unpredictable monsoon has led to reduced water percolation, affecting both the kharif and rabi crops. Farmers in Yeola taluka are

struggling and can only hope for no unseasonal showers to salvage their crops that have been nurtured by bringing water through paid tankers, and

secure the future of their families,” the official said.

• Meanwhile, Chandwad taluka is also experiencing acute shortage of water, with 32,000 people in 54 villages relying on a total of 22 tankers. “These

three talukas account for a total of 106 tankers out of the 170 tankers deployed in the entire Nashik district,” the official concluded.

TIMES OF INDIA: Published on Mar 9, 2024

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(Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-is-the-row-over-delhis-water-crisis-explained/article68299997.ece) 25
Transboundary/inter-state water sharing challenges

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Cauvery inter-state water dispute

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 Inter-state water sharing challenges

What is the Cauvery water dispute, why is Karnataka not giving water to Tamil Nadu?

Background: Coursing through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu before eventually merging into the Bay of Bengal, the Cauvery is a significant river in southern
India. The origin of the dispute traces back to the late 1800s, when agreements were reached between the princely state of Mysore (now part of Karnataka)
and the Madras Presidency (now Tamil Nadu).

Key problems: Primarily, the dispute pertains to the allocation of water resources during periods of water scarcity, the distribution of water during regular
years, and the establishment of reservoirs and dams along the river's course. Both states are vying for a greater portion of the river's water to cater to the
needs of their expanding populations and agricultural activities.

• Over time, the Cauvery dispute has witnessed a series of agreements, disagreements, and legal battles. The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT)
was formed in 1990 and was aimed at addressing water disputes involving Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and Puducherry.

• The CWDT took 17 years to arrive at a conclusive ruling in 2007, outlining the distribution of Cauvery water among the four riparian states. During
periods of water scarcity, water would be apportioned on a pro-rata basis.

• In February 2007, the CWDT issued its final award, detailing water allocations among the four states in the Cauvery basin based on an overall
availability of 740 TMC in a typical year. The ultimate decision, delineating the annual water allocation between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, has been
difficult to implement, with both states expressing discontent with the tribunal's judgement on various occasions.

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(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/how-to/explained-what-is-the-cauvery-water-dispute-why-is-karnataka-not-giving-water-to-tamil-nadu/articleshow/103954029.cms?from=mdr
 Inter-state water sharing challenges

In 2018, the Supreme Court declared the Cauvery River a national resource and upheld the water-sharing arrangements determined by the CWDT.
Additionally, the Central Government was directed to formalise the Cauvery Management Scheme.

Karnataka's take on this situation

• The most recent controversy emerged as Karnataka refused to adhere to previously agreed-upon water release quantities.

• Tamil Nadu demanded a release of 10,000 cusecs of water over a 15-day period, while Karnataka has proposed a lower water release of 8,000 cusecs
for the same 15-day span.

• Karnataka cites insufficient inflow due to decreased rainfall in the Cauvery catchment, which includes the origin point of Kodagu. The state government
said that from June to August, Kodagu saw a 44% rainfall deficit.

• To press its demand, Tamil Nadu petitioned the Supreme Court for help in guaranteeing that Karnataka releases 24,000 cubic feet per second (cusecs)
of water from its reservoir. In reply, Karnataka argued before the Supreme Court that Tamil Nadu has failed to recognise that 2023 is a "distressed water
year" rather than a "normal water year.“

• Karnataka's Deputy Chief Minister, DK Shivakumar, then requested a reconsideration of this decision due to water scarcity issues in the Cauvery basin
area since the start of this year's monsoon season. Consequently, the state has formally written to the Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA),
urging them to review the order to release 10,000 cusecs to Tamil Nadu.

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29)
(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/how-to/explained-what-is-the-cauvery-water-dispute-why-is-karnataka-not-giving-water-to-tamil-nadu/articleshow/103954029.cms?from=mdr
 Inter-state water sharing challenges

• The Cauvery Water Regulation Committee, based on the deliberations of a meeting held on Tuesday, recommended Karnataka to release 3000 cusecs
at Biligundlu starting from September 28th up to October 15th.
Political tug of war
• BJP leaders and former Karnataka Chief Ministers, HD Kumaraswamy and Basavaraj Bommai, have criticised the state government, accusing it of
prioritising politics over the people's welfare. The BJP alleges that the Congress government is releasing Cauvery water to support their ally DMK, a part
of the newly formed opposition block in India, in preparation for the upcoming Lok Sabha elections.
• Union Minister of State for Agriculture and Farmer Welfare, Shobha Karandlaje, expressed concern that releasing Cauvery water for political reasons
could lead to drinking water shortages for farmers in Mandya and Mysuru, as well as residents of Bengaluru.
• Former Chief Minister Kumaraswamy questioned the Karnataka government's stance on the issue, emphasising the critical water shortage faced by
farmers.

Bengaluru: Police personnel detain an activist protesting during a 'bandh'

called by farmers and Kannada organisations against the release of Cauvery
river water to Tamil Nadu from dams in Karnataka, in Bengaluru.

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(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/how-to/explained-what-is-the-cauvery-water-dispute-why-is-karnataka-not-giving-water-to-tamil-nadu/articleshow/103954029.cms?from=mdr
Caution:
This material is prepared exclusively for WRS 501-
Water and Society, Autumn 2024 IIT Roorkee
students. This material is an Intellectual Property
of the class Instructor Dr. Idhaya Chandhiran,
([email protected]). This should not be shared
with anyone without the permission of Dr. Idhaya
Chandhiran.
31
 Inter-state water sharing challenges

Ripples of tension

Protests spanning across multiple districts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu disrupted the usual flow of life. Bengaluru, in particular, bore the brunt as a city-
wide strike prompted police to clamp down on large gatherings. In a bid to maintain calm, multinational corporations such as Walmart and Google wisely
recommended remote work for their employees. Meanwhile, educational institutions remained closed, and the city's bustling public transport system came
to an abrupt standstill.

THE ECONOMIC TIMES: Published on Sep 26, 2023

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(Source: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/how-to/explained-what-is-the-cauvery-water-dispute-why-is-karnataka-not-giving-water-to-tamil-nadu/articleshow/103954029.cms?from=mdr
Mullaperiyar water dispute

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 Inter-state water sharing challenges

Why Tamil Nadu, Kerala are sparring again over Mullaperiyar dam?

• Tamil Nadu has moved the Supreme Court, claiming obstruction from Kerala in carrying out pre-monsoon strengthening of the old dam. The inter-state
legal battle over the Mullaperiyar dam has taken a fresh turn with Tamil Nadu moving the Supreme Court for issuing of directives to Kerala to pave the
way for completion of maintenance works by Tamil Nadu to strengthen the dam.

• Tamil Nadu’s petition alleged that the Kerala government was obstructing materials from being taken to the dam site for the pending work. According to
the petition, Kerala had questioned the safety of the Mullaperiyar dam but refused to allow Tamil Nadu to complete the repair works.

• The festering issue flared up again after Kerala allegedly denied permission for cutting of trees at the dam site and blocked vehicles carrying repair
materials through the Vallakadavu-Mullai road in Idukki district.

• The Mullaperiyar dam was constructed in 1895. Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been battling for its control for over 35 years now. The dam, which has a
height of 176 feet and length of 1,200 feet, was built on the Periyar river in Kerala but is operated and maintained by Tamil Nadu.

• The dam became a political issue in Kerala after farmers and environmental activists demanded its closure, citing the Machchhu dam-related flood
disaster in Gujarat in August 1979. More recently, during the flood havoc in Kerala in 2018, the Mullaperiyar dam had peaked its maximum storage
level.

• A senior Kerala forest official refuted Tamil Nadu’s claims in the Supreme Court, saying: “It’s not true that we have denied permission for cutting of trees
or blocked vehicles carrying materials to the dam site. For cutting trees in national park areas, permission is required from the National Green Tribunal.
Movement of commercial vehicles in wildlife areas is restricted under the law.” WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT, I I T
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(Source: https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/why-tamil-nadu-kerala-are-sparring-again-over-mullaperiyar-dam-2537170-2024-05-09 ) 34
 Inter-state water sharing challenges

Why Tamil Nadu, Kerala are sparring again over Mullaperiyar dam?

• With maintenance of the dam pending and the monsoon season approaching, panic is setting in. “We are expecting a heavy monsoon this year,
similar to the situation in 2018. Around 3.5 million people downstream are apprehensive about their fate,” Joice George, the Left Democratic Front
candidate for Idukki Lok Sabha seat, told INDIA TODAY. Joice had won the seat in 2014 as an Independent candidate by over 50,000 votes. One
of his campaign issues had been the Mullaperiyar dam.

• A senior Kerala government official expressed hope that a solution would be thrashed out in time. “Chief minister Pinarayi Vijayan has held
negotiations with his Tamil Nadu counterpart M.K. Stalin in the past. Both sides will find a solution to the Mullaperiyar issue through dialogue,” the
official said.

• But no official could explain the new development of Tamil Nadu moving the Supreme Court and alleging that Kerala was blocking attempts to
repair the dam before the monsoon season. “We are acting as per existing norms. How can we bypass the law even if Tamil Nadu is a friendly
state?” K. Krishnankutty, Kerala’s water resources minister, told INDIA TODAY.

• Monsoon is scheduled to hit the southern coast in the first week of June and maintenance work in the dam will need to be completed before that. In
November 2021, Tamil Nadu had admitted in its affidavit in the Supreme Court that seepage at the dam was increasing to 200,000 litres per day
after the water level touched 139.85 feet. Another heavy monsoon and rise in the water levels in the dam could mean a tragedy in the waiting for
people living downstream.
INDIA TODAY : Published On: May 9, 2024
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(Source: https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/why-tamil-nadu-kerala-are-sparring-again-over-mullaperiyar-dam-2537170-2024-05-09 ) 35
 Transboundary water sharing challenges
Transboundary Waters

• Transboundary waters are the aquifers and lake, and river basins shared by two or more countries. In an era of increasing water stress, mismanaged

transboundary water supplies have the potential to cause social unrest and spark conflict.

• To deal with climate change and the demands of a growing population, we need a supranational, integrated approach to transboundary water resource

management, balancing the needs of people and the environment

• Transboundary cooperation is lacking in most countries. Most countries do not have all of their transboundary basin areas covered by operational arrangements.

• Actions in one country have consequences in another. Overexploitation and pollution of lakes, rivers, and aquifers can jeopardize ecosystem services across

borders. A unilateral move by one country to build a dam could drastically reduce a river’s flow downstream in another country.

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(Source: https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/transboundary-waters ) 36
 Transboundary water sharing challenges
Facts and Figures

• Only 43 out of 153 counties sharing transboundary waters have operational arrangements covering 90% or more of their shared rivers, lakes and aquifers. (UN-

Water, 2024)

• Only one SDG region is on track to have all its transboundary rivers, lakes and aquifers covered by cooperation arrangements by 2030. (UN-Water, 2023)

• Transboundary waters account for 60% of the world’s freshwater flows and 153 countries have territory within at least one of the 286 transboundary river and lake

basins and 592 transboundary aquifer systems. (UN-Water, 2021)

• At least 20 countries lack any arrangements for sharing transboundary waters. (UN-Water, 2024)

• Only eight countries have improved their cooperation with neighbouring governments on transboundary water resources between 2020 and 2023. (UN-Water,

2024)

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 Transboundary water sharing challenges

Indicator 6.5.2 “Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water cooperation”

The indicator 6.5.2 at a glance

• Indicator 6.5.2 tracks the percentage of transboundary basin area within a country that has an operational arrangement for water cooperation.

• An arrangement for water cooperation is a bilateral or multilateral treaty, convention, agreement or other formal arrangement between riparian countries that
provides a framework for cooperation.

• For the arrangement to be considered operational, the following criteria need to be fulfilled:
• Existence of a joint body.
• Regular, formal communication between riparian countries (at least once a year).
• Joint or coordinated management plans or objectives.
• Regular exchange of data and information (at least once a year).

• Data are commonly compiled by relevant national line ministries and institutions (e.g. for Water, Environment, Natural Resources, Hydrology, Geology).

Why monitor transboundary cooperation?

Monitoring of transboundary cooperation provides
impetus for countries to assess the current status of
cooperation with neighbouring countries and set
targets for improved coordination.

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(Source: https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/transboundary-waters ) 38
 Transboundary water sharing challenges
Brahmaputra basin

Originating from the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Brahmaputra river flows through India and ends in Bangladesh, covering a distance of 2840 Kilometers. 66 million people depend on the
Brahmaputra River for their livelihood, with the highest concentration in floodplains. Many experts have suggested that a change in the river’s discharge will negatively impact dependent basin
communities. Immerzeel (2010) and Gain and Wada (2014) expect an increase in intensity and frequency of seasonal water scarcity due to the hydrological impact of climate change and
increasing population and development pressures. These predictions emphasize the potential benefit from improved cooperation between riparian states. The river flows through a historically
contested geography between the three riparian states (see Figure 1). The contestation is mostly related to border disputes and security issues, making the river securitized. Securitization is a
process in which a riparian declares a particular issue related to the river to be an ‘existential threat’ to a state (McDonald, 2008). Due to the securitization of the Brahmaputra River in India,
hydrological data sharing is limited between the countries. Here, no discharge and sediment size data are shared. Inadequate data sharing mechanisms in the Brahmaputra river does not
promote basin level research to understand the geomorphology and other relevant insights on flooding and erosion issues (Ray et al., 2015).

Figure 1: Map of the Brahmaputra basin

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(Source: Sumit Vij., 2020) 39
 Transboundary water sharing challenges
Brahmaputra River: Importance to India and China

• In order to better understand the Brahmaputra River water issue amid New Delhi and Beijing, it is important to look at the social, economic, political, and

environmental significance of the Brahmaputra River. Despite constituting about 17 percent of the world's population, India possesses merely a 4 percent of the its

water resources. India is also severely water-stressed, and many urban areas face water shortages during the summer. The Brahmaputra, which is a major river in

the region, serves as a vital water resource, providing water for irrigation, which helps agriculture flourish. The river also has immense hydropower potential, which

can be harnessed by building dams in the region to enhance the supply of electricity in the region and contribute to energy security. The fishery resources of the

river provide livelihood to communities living along the river. It is crucial for trade facilitated by inland navigation as well. Recently, the Inland Waterways Authority of

India planned to operate the IndoBangladesh Protocol Route on a scheduled sailing between NW1 and NW2, which expands inland water transportation in

Northeast India. Furthermore, the river and its nearby ecosystem have immense ecological importance as they support a wide variety of flora and fauna. The river

basin also consists of wetlands, which is important for maintaining ecological balance of the region.

• The river holds significance for China too, for several reasons. Despite being home to nearly 20 percent of the world's population, China has only 7 percent of the

world's water resources, and its existing resources are increasingly polluted due to rapid industrialisation. China has been engaged in constructing dams on the river

and thereby using them for generating hydropower. Additionally, the northern regions of the country are water-scarce, compared to the South. In order to address

this imbalance as well, the Brahmaputra River is significant for China.

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(Source: Purushothaman et al., 2024) 40
Caution:
This material is prepared exclusively for WRS 501-
Water and Society, Autumn 2024 IIT Roorkee
students. This material is an Intellectual Property
of the class Instructor Dr. Idhaya Chandhiran,
([email protected]). This should not be shared
with anyone without the permission of Dr. Idhaya
Chandhiran.
41
 Transboundary water sharing challenges

The three Major Reasons

1. First and most vital problem is sharing of the water resources

The sharing of river resources is most complex and far reaching consequences issues between the three riparian states and related to that, how to augment the flow of the

depleted river. One example is the proposed construction of an ambitious multipurpose hydroelectric dam of 3,000 MW by China in Tibet across the river Tsang-Po and the

diversion of irrigation water to the Gobi region. Diversion of river water in such a huge quantity has a negative impact on the downstream interest. This project will adversely

affect India’s proposed river linking project, which highly depends on the average discharge of the river from upstream basin. Moreover, both Indian and Chinese project will

jeopardize Bangladesh’s right to use the resources as per international law as a riparian state. Thus it is really a big challenge to find an amicable solution between the riparian

countries to share the resources on the principle of equitable and reasonable utilization (Article 5 & 6 ) and Non-discrimination (Article 32 ).

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(Source: Debi Prasad Bhattarai, 2009) 42
 Transboundary water sharing challenges

2. Second problem is the sharing of basic data and information

Every year thousands of life and properties were damaged due to flash floods of the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries mainly in the Indian states of Assam, Meghalaya and West

Bengal and in Bangladesh. This is due to intense rainfall in the upper reaches of the basin, steep topography, fragile land, deforestation and urbanization. Large fresh agricultural

areas and natural forests are inundated every year.

- Saving of life and properties against the flood can be made only possible by making an effective and efficient flood forecasting and warning mechanisms (Protective and

preventive measures). Presently, there is very limited arrangement for hydro meteorological, and land use related data sharing between these three countries. Sharing of such

data can assist in flood forecasting and warning which ultimately provides ample time and opportunity to safeguard life and properties.

3. Third outstanding problem is the protection and preservation of Ecosystem

During the monsoon, soil erosion is severe in the hills and uplands of the catchments area and the river carries a substantial amount of sediments,, which will impact on fish migrations

and changing the composition of riparian ecosystems.

- Common waterway modifications - such as the construction of dams and irrigation channels, inter-basin connections and water transfers - can impact on the hydrology of

freshwater systems, disconnect rivers from floodplains and wetlands, and decrease water velocity in riverine systems. This, in turn, can affect the seasonal flow and sediment

transport of rivers downstream, impacting on fish migrations and changing the composition of riparian ecosystems. Bangladesh, being in the downstream and delta portion of

such a huge watershed, has been most vulnerable to the water quality and quantity that flows from upstream
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(Source: Debi Prasad Bhattarai, 2009) 43
 Transboundary water sharing challenges
Existing Legal Provisions for data Sharing

• The Brahmaputra River holds significant importance for security and diplomacy between India and China. Recognising this, both nations have entered into bilateral agreements to

collaborate on various river-related issues. These efforts provide insights into the attempts made by both countries to address challenges and also identify potential future actions.

• The initial step was the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) in 2002, focused on providing hydrological information on the Brahmaputra River. Under this MoU,

China agreed to share hydrological data, including water levels, discharge, and rainfall, with India. In 2006, India and China agreed to establish an expert-level mechanism aimed

at facilitating dialogue, discussion and cooperation on hydrological data during flood seasons, emergency management, and other trans-border river issues. Additionally, both

countries signed a separate MoU in 2013 to enhance cooperation on trans-border rivers. .

• Subsequently, in 2018, another MoU was signed which specifically focuses on China providing hydrological information to India about the Brahmaputra River during the flood

season, from May 15 to October 15 each year. Moreover, China committed to supplying hydrological data if the water level exceeds the mutually agreed level during the non-flood

season. Although there have been several attempts by both nations to address issues covering river water sharing and related issues, there have not been any substantial bilateral

agreements or a vision plan to navigate the future of Brahmaputra River water sharing. While China has participated in cooperative mechanisms, its actions suggest that the

country is inclined to provide only limited water data in return for broader diplomatic advantages. Appropriate dialogue and discussion on bilateral and multilateral platforms are the

best way to ensure transparency and build confidence about intentions and future plans. But in the absence of these conditions and in the context of China’s dam construction

activities on the Brahmaputra, India’s concern about China’s actions has grown.

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(Source: Purushothaman et al., 2024) 44
 Transboundary water sharing challenges

Why the issues appear only in Bilateral levels?

• Conflicting interest: The consumptive use of river water to irrigate Chinese mainland by constructing multipurpose dam across the river Tsang-po pose hindrance

to India’s river linking project. Similarly both these mega schemes will create severe water scarcity in the downstream Bangladesh.

• Lack of trust and good neighbourness: India and Pakistan engaged in major wars three times since their independence (from 1947, Bangladesh was part of

Pakistan till 1971). China and India also fought a war in 1962 regarding the borders of Arunachal Pradesh through which the river Brahmaputra flows. Thus they did

not leave much scope to come closer and talk in regional forum for water sharing.

• Different political set-up: India being the worlds largest democratic country and relatively politically stable could pressure more to downstream Bangladesh which

is less politically stable and struggling hard to meet the food for its overpopulated people. Similarly, communist set up China, being an upstream riparian and newly

emerging super power can work in its own way to implement the river project.

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(Source: Debi Prasad Bhattarai, 2009) 45
 Transboundary water sharing challenges

Prospects for Cooperation

• The agreements between India and China exist only at a bilateral level, and neither India nor China have shown any interest in sharing data with their other

neighbours.

• The 2003 UN Water Development Report highlighted that the 'water crisis is primarily a governance crisis', resulting in social, economic, and political barriers across

societies. To address these challenges in the future, India should engage in a more robust cooperative effort with China concerning the Brahmaputra River.

• There does not exist a consolidated agreement among concerned parties on guiding principles and legalities of the sharing of water, as well as a viable dispute

settlement mechanism to overcome differences and disputes.

• It is clear that a sustained and transparent dialogue is the way forward, and both nations could strive to identify common interests and vantage points and start to

build cooperation from there. Along with hydrological data sharing, both nations could also take the initiative to collaborate on the development of hydrological tools,

disaster management, pollution control, etc.

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(Source: Purushothaman et al., 2024) 46
 Transboundary water sharing challenges

The way forward

• Governments must cooperate on transboundary water resources management

• Transboundary ecosystem services must be protected.

• Economic integration across borders is vital: Heavily water-dependent sectors – agriculture, industry, energy and water supply and sanitation – need to cooperate on a

supranational level.

• A ‘source-to-sea’ approach in transboundary water cooperation must be strengthened: Parties to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

Water Convention, a legal framework for transboundary water cooperation worldwide, must develop and protect the linkages between terrestrial, freshwater and marine

environments.

• Data gaps must be addressed: Governments in many countries urgently need to improve their systems for monitoring transboundary waters, especially groundwater, and

sharing information with other governments as part of cooperation arrangements.

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(Source: https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/transboundary-waters ) 47
Community Water Management

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 Community water management

• Community water management is a new form of co-operation between support agencies in the water sector and communities. It involves a common search to
identify problems with the local water supply system, and the possibilities for, and constraints on, management by communities, as well as possible solutions that
may be tested. Some fundamental principles of community water management are that:

– communities own the process of change;

– facilitators and local researchers participate in the community's projects, not the other way around;

– increased management capacities are the basis for improved water systems; and that

– each community develops its own specific management systems.

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(Source: PLA Notes (1999), Issue 35, pp.21–28, IIED London) 49
Community water management

Participatory Irrigation Management

The PIM refers to the formation of groups of water users/farmers in a formal body for the purpose of managing parts or whole of the irrigation system.
The bodies are often called Water Users 'Association (WUA) but may also go by other names such as irrigation cooperatives or partnerships.

The primary objective of PIM is typically to achieve better availability and utilization of the water through a participatory process that gives farmers a
significant role in the management decisions of water in their hydraulic units (Salman 1997).

Therefore, PIM or the users participation in the management of irrigation systems in India seeks to address the following objectives:

1. Improve efficiency of irrigation systems

2. Ensure sustainability of irrigation systems

3. Improve performance of irrigation agriculture

4. Reduce pressures on government finances

5. Permit farmers to play a greater role, which is a major shift away from conventional government policy.

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50
Caution:
This material is prepared exclusively for WRS 501-
Water and Society, Autumn 2024 IIT Roorkee
students. This material is an Intellectual Property
of the class Instructor Dr. Idhaya Chandhiran,
([email protected]). This should not be shared
with anyone without the permission of Dr. Idhaya
Chandhiran.
51
 Community water management

Participatory Irrigation Management

Table 1. State-wise Participatory Irrigation Management Acts in India

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(Source: Sangle, 2016) 52
 Community water management

PIM in Waghad Irrigation Project, India

• Waghad Irrigation project is located in tribal area of Nashik district of Maharashtra, India. The Waghad Dam is under Upper Godavari Project in

Dindori tehsil across the river Kolwan, which is a tributary of river Kadwa.

• Three WUAs were formed at the tail end in 1990 in response to the wishes of a local civil society called Samaj Parivartan Kendra (Center for social

transformation) in collaboration with the State Irrigation Department. Irrigation management was transferred to these WUAs. They were receiving their

quota of water, discipline was established among the beneficiaries, and water use efficiency was improved and thus started to irrigate more and more

area. The active participation of WUAs in irrigation management resulted in assured irrigation in tail reach and irrigated area rose to five times in a

span of 3-5 years. Enthused with the success of these 3 WUAs, farmers from the entire command gradually formed 24 WUAs.

• As a step forward, in the year 2003, all the WUAs joined their forces to take over the operation and management of the entire irrigation scheme by

forming an apex organization called Waghad Project Level Water Users Association (WPLWUA). This is unique case in which complete control of the

project is handed over to the federation formed by the 24 WUAs in 2005 and set up a milestone.

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(Source: Sangle, 2016) 53
 Community water management

PIM in Waghad Irrigation Project, India

• Economic and equitable distribution of water have improved, and crop productivity has increased significantly after handing over the irrigation scheme
to the WPLWUA. Previously job in agricultural field for Local labours was available for average 2 months in a year, the irrigation facility and crop
diversification is providing jobs to the local agricultural workers for round the year.

• Beneficiary farmers are taking double, multiple and varied crops according to their own preferences, otherwise in elsewhere cropping pattern is
imposed by the project's authority.

• The water use rights and cropping freedom to WUAs have resulted into transforming Waghad irrigation scheme from eight-monthly to Perennial
scheme and traditional cropping pattern to high value and productive cropping pattern. The extensive use of drip irrigation and conjunctive use of
water has made it possible to use water quota efficiently and productively. The water quantum and canal rotations are planned in such way that water
is made available for irrigation use round the year. Water is distributed on volumetric basis rather than area basis from tail to head. Each and every
water users associations are keeping their up-to-date records and publishing their annual reports every year.

• Farmers have become confident and have started new initiatives and ideas, materials and crops. WPLWUA has registered Waghad Agricultural
Producer Company (WAPCO) in September 2009 to market and process agricultural produce of farmers.

• This project has got several state and national awards for efficient and participative management, operation and maintenance of irrigation systems in
India.

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(Source: Sangle, 2016) 54
 Community water management

Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT)

• The term ‘irrigation management transfer’ means the relocation of responsibility and authority for irrigation management from government agencies to
non-governmental organizations, such as water users’ associations. It may include all or partial transfer of management functions. It may include full
or only partial authority. It may be implemented at sub-system levels, such as distributary canal commands, or for entire irrigation systems or tubewell
commands. Other terms, such as turnover, take-over, devolution, privatization or disengagement, are sometimes used synonymously with transfer.

• The term ‘participatory irrigation management’ normally refers to the involvement of water users in irrigation management, along with the government.
It is not the same as IMT - which is about replacing government, not just working with it. After transfer, the new service may or may not be provided
directly by a farmer organization. The service provider may be a financially autonomous utility, semi-municipal water district, mutual company or other
local entity. But it will normally be governed, at least in part, by the farmers, who are the primary users of the service.

• IMT is further distinguished from decentralization, which normally refers to the movement of decision-making authority to regional or local levels from
a central authority - but still within the same government organization. IMT is the transfer of responsibility for irrigation management from one
organization to another.

(Source: Douglas L. Vermillion, Juan A. Sagardoy. Transfer of Irrigation Management Services. Guidelines.
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 58, 2004.)

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 Community water management

Case study - 1: Delwara: rejuvenation of a community water pond

• In India, traditionally, community water resources like ponds and wells are the key sources of water in any settlement - rural or urban. They not only

fulfil the daily water needs of drinking, bathing and cleaning but also act as natural rechargers of the water table, leading to water availability for the

region

• Delwara is a small peri urban township in a semi arid hilly region of Rajasthan. It is a small medieval town with a population of about 7000 people. It is

densely built with houses lining both sides of narrow streets. The town is located near a small lake, the Palera, which is the main water source for the

town and is also the primary water provider as the surface water source and as well as for recharging of hand pumps and wells.

• In 2004, when the project was initiated, the town had suffered 3 years of drought conditions during summer months when all the water sources dried

up.

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT, I I T

(Source: Poricha et al., 2011) ROORKEE
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Community water management

Case study - 1: Delwara: rejuvenation of a community water pond

• Palera, the main pond had been dried in summer for a couple of years because of insufficient rainfall and because of the dilapidated condition of the pond feeders,

the wells and aquifers of the settlement. The entire community’s health, social and economic condition was suffering because of this inadequacy. Fifty percent of

the households did not have access to sanitation and the same number had to travel long distances to fetch drinking water, leaving the women and young children

with hardly any time for any other work.

• The citizens of Delwara collectively worked towards planning and executing a project for the desilting of the pond and for the repair and maintenance of the feeder

channels.

• It has also recharged the neighbouring water sources in the village and the pond maintenance activities which are community driven are repeated every couple of

years since 2006.

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 Community water management
Case study - 1: Delwara: rejuvenation of a community water pond

• Some of the identified impacts have been

• No more droughts since then.

• Soil available from the desilting is not sold commercially but used to fill the school playground and other low-lying areas benefiting the community.

• Today the pond and the surrounding area are the largest open public space of Delwara and the pride of the residents.

• Recognition of the importance of the pond maintenance process by the local official governance body – the panchayat. This has resulted in more work done in this
field enhancing the water security of the town through public and private partnerships.

• It has also led to planning and execution of other water supply projects for different parts of the town through partnerships of Government and people
organizations.

Figure 1: Community participation in progress in a community water tank.

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(Source: Poricha et al., 2011) 58
References

• Poricha, B., & Dasgupta, B. (2011). Equity and access: community based water management in urban poor communities: an Indian case study. WIT

Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 153, 275-285 .

• Naz, F., & Subramanian, S. V. (2010). Water management across space and time in India (No. 61). ZEF working paper series.

• Sangle, S. (2016). Role of water Users’ Association in management, Operation and Maintenance of irrigation systems in India. In 2nd World Irrigation Forum,
November 6-8, 2016, Chiang Mai, Thailand.

• Bhattarai, D. P. (2009). An analysis of transboundary water resources: a case study of River Brahmaputra. Journal of the Institute of Engineering, 7(1), 135-
141.

• Purushothaman, D., & Kalam, T. (2024). 2. India's Water Security: The Case of Brahmaputra-Opportunities and Challenges. Transboundary Water Security in
South Asia: Strategies for Cooperation and Competition, 18.

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 T H A N K Y O U………

जल संसाधन विकास एिं प्रबंधन विभाग

भारतीय प्रौद्योगगकी संस्थान, रुड़की- उत्तराखंड (भारत)
Department of Water Resource Development & Management, IIT Roorkee, Uttarakhand (INDIA)
Tel: +91-1332-285251, 285951
Fax: +91-1332-271073, 273560
WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT, I I T
Email: [email protected]
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60
Caution:
This material is prepared exclusively for WRS 501-
Water and Society, Autumn 2024 IIT Roorkee
students. This material is an Intellectual Property
of the class Instructor Dr. Idhaya Chandhiran,
([email protected]). This should not be shared
with anyone without the permission of Dr. Idhaya
Chandhiran.
61