UNIT-3

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Transportation engineering or transport engineering is the application of technology
and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods
transport.
The planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to elements of urban planning, and
involve technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger
travel usually involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring the estimation of trip
generation (number of purposeful trips), trip distribution (destination choice, where the traveler is
going), mode choice (mode that is being taken), and route assignment (the streets or routes that are
being used). More sophisticated forecasting can include other aspects of traveler decisions,
including auto ownership, trip chaining (the decision to link individual trips together in a tour) and
the choice of residential or business location (known as land use forecasting). Passenger trips are
the focus of transportation engineering because they often represent the peak of demand on any
transportation system.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE IN

NATIONS DEVELOPMENT
1. Economic growth:
Transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, ports, and airports is a vital component of
a nation’s economic growth. It facilitates the movement of goods and people, enabling trade and
commerce which in turn stimulates economic development.
2. Accessibility:
A well-developed transportation system enhances accessibility to various regions within a country.
This accessibility promotes business activities, tourism and resource utilization in remote (or)
under developed areas.
3. Job Creation:
Transportation projects such as road construction, public transit systems and airports create job
opportunities. This employment in turn bolsters the nation’s labor force and reduces
unemployment rates.
 4. Trade & Export:
Efficient transportation networks are crucial for export driven economies. They enable the
movement of products to international markets, contributing to foreign exchanges earnings and
economic stability.
5. Regional Integration:
Transportation on infrastructure can connect regions and facilitate cooperation between
neighboring nations. This can be lead to regional economic integration and improved diplomatic
relationships.
6. Social Mobility:
Reliable transportation systems improve access to education healthcare and other essential services
ensuring that people can access the opportunities and services they need for personal &
professional development.
7. Urban Development:
Effective urban transportation systems reduce traffic congestion, pollution and commuting times
leading to more sustainable and livable cities thus, in turn attracts business and residents promoting
urban development.
8. Natural resources utilization:
Transportation plays a crucial role in the efficient movement of natural resources such as minerals
and agricultural products from production areas to processing or export facilities.
9. Disaster Response:
Transportation is essential for rapid disaster response, including the timely delivery of relief
supplies and the evacuation of affected population during natural disasters (or) emergencies.
10. Innovation & Technology:
Advancements in transportation technology such as electric vehicles, high speed rail and
autonomous vehicles can drive innovation, reduce environmental impact and improve efficiency.
11. Foreign investment :
A well-developed transportations infrastructure can attract foreign investments and multi- National
Corporation which can lead to job creation & economic growth.
In summary, transportation is a cornerstone of a nations developments impacting its economy
infrastructure, social wellbeing and global competences investments in transportation systems are
critical for achieving sustained growth and prosperity.
TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
PAVEMENT
In engineering terms, a pavement means a man-made surface on natural ground that people,
vehicles or animals can cross. Any ground surface prepared for transport count as a pavement.

There are two types of pavements based on design considerations i.e. flexible pavement and rigid
pavement. Difference between flexible and rigid pavements is based on the manner in which the
loads are distributed to the subgrade. Before we differentiate between flexible pavements and rigid
pavements, it is better to first know about them. Details of these two are presented below:

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous
material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate quality in
layers over the subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without
asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements.
The design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any magnitude, the
intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards from the surface by virtue of
spreading over an increasingly larger area, by carrying it deep enough into the ground through
successive layers of granular material.

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials used, the materials
with high degree of strength is used at or near the surface. Thus the strength of subgrade primarily
influences the thickness of the flexible pavement.

GENERAL CROSS-SECTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

A typical cross-section of a flexible pavement consists of the following layers:

1. SURFACE COURSE:

o The surface course is the topmost layer of the flexible pavement and is generally the layer
of the best quality as it has to withstand maximum stress and wear and tear.
o It is primarily designed to resist the imposed loads, prevent water ingress to the underlying
layers, and ensure a skid-resistant riding surface.
o It is generally made with bitumen bonded with aggregates graded 25 mm – 0.75 mm (filler).
o Its thickness varies between 25 to 50 mm.

2. BINDER COURSE:
 o The binder course is the intermediate layer between the surface course and the base course
and duly transmits the wheel load from the surface to the base course.
o It is a bitumen-bound aggregate (nominal size) layer.
o This course is also called a levelling course.
o Its thickness ranges from 50 mm to 100 mm.

3. BASE COURSE:

o Mainly, hard crushed aggregates are used in the construction of this layer.
o The base course is the backbone of flexible pavement.
o Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.

4. SUB-BASE COURSE:

o The sub-base course is the layer beneath the base course that provides additional structural
support and boosts sub-surface drainage.
o It is usually an optional layer and may not be constructed if the base course comprises
superior-quality materials.
o Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.

5. SUB-GRADE:

The sub-grade is the lowermost layer of the flexible pavement and usually consists of a compacted
layer of natural soil. Its primary function is to bear all the imposed stresses from the upper layers.

TYPES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavements may be classified into the following categories:

1. FULL-DEPTH ASPHALT PAVEMENT:

The type of flexible pavement that consists of a directly placed bituminous layer over the sub-
grade layer is known as full-depth asphalt pavement. Such flexible pavement is usually preferred
in areas where local construction materials are unavailable, and there is low traffic.

2. CONVENTIONAL LAYERED FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:

The type of flexible pavement consists of multiple layers, with the upper layers of superior quality
and the lower layers of relatively inferior quality materials. This is because the upper layers must
withstand maximum stresses due to direct contact with the wheel load, while the lower layers must
resist the lower intensity of pressures.

3. CONTAINED ROCK ASPHALT MAT:

It is commonly abbreviated as CRAM. It is the type of flexible pavement constructed by placing a
layer of aggregate between two asphalt layers. The aggregate used may be dense or open-graded.

ADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

The advantages of flexible pavement can be listed as follows:

o The initial construction cost is low.

o It doesn’t require joints.
o There is no effect of temperature variation on stress variation.
o Repair works can be carried out quickly.
o The thickness can be increased easily as per the need.
o No glare due to sunlight.
o It is more comfortable for travel.

DISADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

The disadvantages of flexible pavements can be listed as follows:

o The life span is decreased with repeated prolonged use.

o Maintenance cost is relatively higher.
o It is susceptible to heat, oils, greases, and chemicals.
o Poor night visibility due to the use of asphalt.

RIGID PAVEMENTS

Rigid pavements are cable to transfer wheel load to a wider area as it has good flexural strength.
In rigid pavement there are not many layers of materials as in the case of flexible pavement.
In rigid pavements, the vehicular traffic load is transferred through slab action, and the road
behaves like an elastic plate resting on a viscous medium. It is constructed by using lain cement
concrete.

TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENT

Rigid pavements are made of concrete and are designed to distribute loads over a wide area,
providing a durable and long-lasting surface for roads, airports, and other heavy-duty applications.
There are three common types of rigid pavement:

JOINTED PLAIN CONCRETE PAVEMENT (JPCP)

JPCP is the most commonly used type of rigid pavement. It consists of long slabs of concrete with
transverse and longitudinal joints. Transverse joints are typically spaced at regular intervals to
control cracking caused by the natural expansion and contraction of the concrete due to
temperature changes. Longitudinal joints are placed at the edges of the pavement and provide
lateral support to the slabs. JPCP is cost-effective and relatively easy to construct.

JOINTED REINFORCED CONCRETE PAVEMENT (JRCP)

JRCP is similar to JPCP but includes steel reinforcement within the concrete slabs. The
reinforcement helps to control cracking and improve the overall strength of the pavement. It is
often used in areas where heavy truck traffic or high wheel loads are anticipated.

CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE PAVEMENT (CRCP)

CRCP is a type of rigid pavement that does not contain any transverse joints. Instead, it has
continuous steel reinforcement throughout the entire pavement section. The absence of transverse
joints eliminates the need for joint maintenance and reduces the potential for faulting and pumping.
CRCP is commonly used for highways and roads with heavy traffic loads.

Advantages of Rigid Pavement

Rigid pavements offer several advantages that make them a preferred choice for various
applications. Here are some key advantages of rigid pavement:

o Durability: Rigid pavements, made of concrete, are highly durable and have a long service
life. They can withstand heavy traffic loads, resist weathering, and maintain their structural
integrity over time.
o Load Distribution: Rigid pavements distribute applied loads over a wide area, minimizing
stress on the underlying subgrade. The rigid nature of the concrete slabs allows for efficient
load transfer, preventing excessive surface deformations and ensuring a smooth and stable
riding surface for vehicles.
o Strength: Rigid pavements exhibit high compressive strength, making them capable of
carrying heavy loads without significant deformation or structural failure. The strength of
the concrete used in rigid pavements can be tailored to meet specific design requirements
based on anticipated traffic loads.
o Reflective Cracking Resistance: Rigid pavements have good resistance to reflective
cracking, which refers to cracks that propagate from the underlying layers to the pavement
surface
o Low Maintenance: The absence of rutting and reduced vulnerability to surface distresses
contribute to lower maintenance costs and less frequent maintenance interventions over the
pavement's lifespan.
o Skid Resistance: Rigid pavements offer good skid resistance, providing traction for
vehicles and enhancing road safety, especially under wet or slippery conditions.
 o Stiffness: Rigid pavements have high stiffness, resulting in minimal deflections under
traffic loads. This stiffness helps reduce rolling resistance, which can improve fuel
efficiency for vehicles.
o Recycling Potential: Rigid pavements have good potential for recycling and reusing
concrete material at the end of their service life. The demolished concrete can be crushed
and used as aggregate in new concrete or for other construction applications, reducing
waste and promoting sustainability.

DISADVANTAGES OF RIGID PAVEMENT

While rigid pavements offer numerous advantages, they also have some potential disadvantages.
Considering these factors is important when deciding on the appropriate pavement type for a
specific project. Here are some disadvantages of rigid pavement:

o High Initial Cost: Rigid pavements generally have a higher initial construction cost
compared to flexible pavements. The cost of materials, such as concrete and reinforcement,
as well as the specialized construction techniques involved, can contribute to higher upfront
expenses.
o Lack of Flexibility: Rigid pavements are rigid and inflexible, which means they have
limited ability to accommodate minor ground movements or settlements. In areas with
expansive soils or poor subgrade conditions, rigid pavements may be prone to cracking or
uneven settlement, requiring additional measures to mitigate these issues.
o Complex Construction: The construction of rigid pavements requires specialized
equipment and skilled labor. Precise preparation of the subgrade, accurate placement of
reinforcement (if used), and proper curing of the concrete are crucial for achieving the
desired quality and performance.
o Difficult Repairs: Repairing damaged or deteriorated sections of rigid pavement can be
more challenging compared to flexible pavement. It often involves removing and replacing
entire concrete slabs or sections, which can be labor-intensive and costly. Additionally,
repairs may require longer curing times, leading to extended periods of traffic disruption.
o Noise Generation: Rigid pavements can generate more noise compared to flexible
pavements. The rigid surface can cause increased tire-pavement noise, especially at higher
speeds, resulting in potentially higher noise levels in adjacent areas.
o Environmental Considerations: The production of concrete for rigid pavements can have
a higher carbon footprint compared to the production of asphalt for flexible pavements.
Concrete production involves the emission of greenhouse gases during cement
manufacturing and the extraction of raw materials. However, measures such as using
recycled materials and optimizing mix designs can help reduce the environmental impact.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS AND RIGID
PAVEMENTS
S.NO FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT
1 It consists of a series of layers with the It consists of one layer Portland cement
highest quality materials at or near the concrete slab or relatively high flexural
surface of pavement. strength.
2 It reflects the deformations of subgrade It is able to bridge over localized failures and
and subsequent layers on the surface. area of inadequate support.
3 Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the
interlock, particle friction and cohesion. pavement slab itself by its beam action.
4 Pavement design is greatly influenced by Flexural strength of concrete is a major
the subgrade strength. factor for design.
5 Temperature variations due to change in Temperature changes induce heavy stresses
atmospheric conditions do not produce in rigid pavements.
stresses in flexible pavements.
6 Flexible pavements have self-healing Any excessive deformations occurring due to
properties due to heavier wheel loads are heavier wheel loads are not recoverable, i.e.
recoverable due to some extent. settlements are permanent.
7 The lifespan of flexible pavement is The maximum lifespan of rigid pavement
approximately 10 to 15 years. is approximately 20 to 30 years.
8 Poor night visibility due to the use of Good night visibility due to the use of
asphalt. concrete.
9 The initial construction cost is low, but The initial construction cost is high, but
the maintenance cost is high maintenance cost is low.

BASICS OF HARBOUR
HARBOUR

A harbour can be defined as a sheltered area of the sea in which vessels could be launched, built
or taken for repair; or could seek refuge in time of storm; or provide for loading and unloading of
cargo and passengers.

Harbours are broadly classified as:

 Natural harbours
 Semi-natural harbours
 Artificial harbours

NATURAL HARBOURS:
  Natural formations affording safe discharge facilities for ships on sea coasts, in the form
of creeks and basins, are called natural harbours.
 With the rapid development of navies engaged either in commerce or war, improved
accommodation and facilities for repairs, storage of cargo and connected amenities had to
be provided in natural harbours.
 The size and draft of present day vessels have necessitated the works improvement for
natural harbours.
 The factors such as local geographical features, growth of population, development of the
area, etc. have made the natural harbours big and attractive.
 Bombay and Kandla are, examples of natural harbours

SEMI-NATURAL HARBOURS:

 This type of harbour is protected on sides by headlands protection and it requires man-
made protection only at the entrance.
 Vishakhapatnam is a semi-natural harbour.

ARTIFICIAL HARBOURS:

 Where such natural facilities are not available, countries having a seaboard had to create
or construct such shelters making use of engineering skill and methods, and such harbours
are called artificial or man-made harbours.
 Madras is an artificial harbour.

PORT

 When these harbours are used for the purpose of commerce and trade such as loading and
unloading cargo, passengers or anything that generates revenue, these harbours may be said
to serve as a Port.
 A Port is a place within the harbour where a ship can dock for commercial purposes of
either handling cargo or passengers or taking care of the ship’s requirements.
 Ports play a very crucial role in transporting various types of goods and some ports are
classified based on the cargo that they handle. For example Iron Ore, Crude Oil, Grain, and
Passengers.
 A Port is also a place where water and land meet and therefore there are trains and trucks
that come into the port for the purpose of delivery (for exports onto a ship) or picking up
cargo (from imports off a ship). Each of the ports is controlled, operated and run by a Port
Authority which sets the commercial tariff for the handling of ships, goods and passengers
at that port.

TERMINALS

While some of the ports may handle only specific cargoes, a vast majority of the ports around the
world handle multiple cargoes within the same port. These demarcated areas handling different
types of cargoes are known as Terminals. In one port there could be terminals for
 1. Container Terminal
2. Ro-Ro (Roll On-Roll Off) Terminal (popularly known as Car Terminal)
3. Oil & Gas Terminal
4. Bulk Cargo Terminal
5. Multi-Purpose Terminal

The term Terminal is also extensively used to identify inland locations where goods are transported
from the port using rail and road modes. Inland Container Depots which are custom bonded
depots/terminals also referred to as “Dry Ports” are good examples.

BERTH/QUAY

A berth is basically an area where the cargo is loaded or discharged on and off the ships. Each port
or terminal will, in turn, have several berths/quays which usually have shore equipment for
handling cargo, covered sheds, open cargo storage areas etc. where the cargo is discharged, loaded
and may be stored.

The land area surrounding the berth is also sometimes referred to as a quay depending on where
you are from. One container terminal can have several berths/quay where several ships can be
handled at the same time.

PIER/JETTY

Pier/Jetty are usually to tie up small boats or yachts. A Pier or Jetty could also mean a walkway
extending into the sea/ocean where people can take a walk, do some fishing, eat at the restaurants
etc. There are usually no heavy commercial activities or cargo loading/unloading happening in a
Pier or Jetty.

So in a way, when it comes to commercial operations, there may be a hierarchy to this

 A coastal country may have many harbours

 Each harbour may have ports
 Each port may have terminals
 Each terminal may have berths and/or quay

But having said all of the above, in many cases, these different terms are used interchangeably in
different countries and there are still more terms like Wharf, Dock etc. that are used to refer to a
berth or harbour.

BASICS OF TUNNEL
Tunnels are underground passages used for transportation purposes. Tunnels are the underground
routes driven without disturbing the overlying soil to bypass the obstacles safely. Tunnels can be
used to carry passengers & freights, water, sewers, gases, etc.
Tunnels are constructed in various shapes & sizes. The shape of the tunnel cross-section is
governed by the nature & type of ground to be penetrated, existing overburden stress on the rock,
etc. while the size of the tunnel depends on the usage to which it is subjected. The economy of
tunnel construction depends on the relative cost of open cuts vs. tunneling. The tunnel becomes
more economical than an open cut beyond a certain depth.
Advantages of Tunnelling

 It reduces the route distance & travel time

 It provides easy gradients in hilly terrain
 Surface activities are not disturbed
 It remains free from the weather actions like rainfall, snow, etc.
 The tunnel becomes more economical than an open cut beyond a certain depth.
Disadvantages of Tunnelling

 The initial cost of construction may become higher

 Construction of tunnel requires skilled manpower & sophisticated equipment
 Strict supervision is necessary during construction
 Higher safety precautions are necessary during construction
 Construction of tunnel requires more time than open cuts
 A tunnel may collapse during an earthquake

BASICS OF AIRPORT

AIRPORT

An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off
and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport. An airport consists of at least one
surface such as runway for a plane to take off and land, a helipad, or water for takeoffs and
landings, and often includes buildings such as control towers, hangers and terminal buildings.

COMPONENTS OF AN AIRPORT LAYOUT

RUNWAYS

Runway is a paved land strip on which landing and takeoff operations of aircrafts takes place. It is
in leveled position without any obstructions on it. Special markings are made on the runway to
differ it from the normal roadways. Similarly, after sunset, specially provided lightings are helped
the aircrafts for safe landing.

Many factors are considered for design of runway. The direction of runway should be in the
direction of wind. Sometimes cross winds may happen, so, for safety considerations second
runway should be laid normal to the main runway. The number of runways for an airport is depends
upon the traffic. If the traffic is more than 30 movements per hour, then it is necessary to provide
another runway.

Runway can be laid using bitumen or concrete. Bitumen is economic but concrete runways have
long span and requires less maintenance cost. The width of runway is dependent of maximum size
of aircrafts utilizing it. The length of runway is decided from different considerations like elevation
of land, temperature, take off height, gradients etc.

TERMINAL BUILDINGS

Terminal building is a place where airport administration facilities takes place. In this building,
pre-journey and post journey checking’s of passengers takes place. Lounges, cafes etc. are
provided for the passengers. Passengers can directly enter the plane from terminal buildings
through sky bridge, walkways etc. Similarly, the passengers from plane also directly enter into the
terminal building.

APRONS

Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for loading and
unloading of aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of terminal building or
adjacent to hangers. The size of area to be allotted for apron and design of apron is generally
governed by the number of aircrafts expected in the airport. The aircraft characteristics also
considered while design. Proper drainage facilities should be provided with suitable slope of
pavement. Sufficient clearances must be provided for aircrafts to bypass each other.

TAXIWAY

Taxiway is path which connects each end of the runway with terminal area, apron, hanger etc. These
are laid with asphalt or concrete like runways. In modern airports, taxiways are laid at an angle of 30
degree to the runway so that aircrafts can use it to change from one runway to other easily. The turning
radius at taxiway and runway meets should be more than 1.5 times of width of taxiway.

CONTROL TOWER
The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is controlled whether they are in
land or in air. The observation is done by the controller through radars and information is carried
through radio. The controller from the control tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and
informs pilots about their airport traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc.
based on which the pilot decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve system of
an airport.

HANGER

Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway connects the hanger with
runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved to hanger easily. It is constructed in
the form of large shed using steel trusses and frames. Large area should be provided for Hanger for
comfortable movement of aircrafts.

PARKING

This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers which is outside the
terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.

BASICS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Railway engineering is a multi-faceted engineering discipline dealing with the design, construction
and operation of all types of rail transport systems.

ADVANTAGES OF RAILWAYS:

 Due to railways, the industrial development in for off places is possible, increasing the land
values & standard of living of the people.
 Mobility of labour has contributed to industrial development.
 During famines, railways have played the vital role in transporting food & clothing to the
affected areas.
 Commercial farming is very much helped by the railway network throughout the country.
 Speed movement of the commodities is possible through railways.
  Railway has made it easier to reach places of religious importance.
 Railway provides a convenient & safe mode of transport through out the country.
 During travel as people of different caste & religions sit together the interaction is
developed.
 Railways have helped in the mass migration of the population.
 Railways have created the sense of unity among the people of different religions, areas,
castes & traditions.
 With adequate network of railways, the central administration has become easy &
effective.

GAUGE

The clear minimum horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of the two rails forming
a track is known as Gauge. Indian railway followed this practice. In European countries, the gauge
is measured between the inner faces of two rails at a point 14 mm below the top of the rail.

FUNCTIONS OF RAILS

Rails are similar to steel girders.

They perform the following functions in a track:

 Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
 They provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction.
 The friction between the steel wheel and the steel rail is about one-fifth of the friction
between the pneumatic tyre and a metalled road.
  They serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
 They bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them through axles
and wheels of rolling stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.
 They carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the formation through
sleepers and the ballast.

SLEEPERS

Definition: Sleepers are transverse members of the track placed below the rails to support and fix
them in position.

Functions of Sleepers:

Sleepers serve the following functions:

 To hold the rails to proper gauge.

 To transfer the loads from rails to the ballast.
 To support and fix the rails in proper position.
 To keep the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at proper super elevation on curves.
 To provide elastic medium between the rails and the ballast.
 To provide stability to the permanent way on the whole.

BALLAST

Definition: Ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any other granular material
placed and packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the
formation. It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.

Functions of Ballast:

The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track:

 It provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.
 It holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
 It transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the formation.
 It provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
 It provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
 It provides effective drainage to the track.
 It provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION

Definition: Environmental engineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on the design,

development, and implementation of sustainable solutions to address environmental challenges
and protect the natural environment.

Goals: Environmental engineers work to improve air and water quality, manage waste, and ensure
the sustainable use of natural resources. Their ultimate goal is to create a healthier and more
sustainable environment.

Key Areas:
● Water and Wastewater Management: Environmental engineers design systems to treat and
purify drinking water, as well as manage and treat wastewater to protect water bodies from
pollution.
● Air Quality Control: They develop technologies to reduce air pollution and ensure clean air
through measures such as emissions control and monitoring.
● Solid Waste Management: Environmental engineers design strategies to minimize, reuse, and
recycle waste, as well as manage disposal in an environmentally responsible manner.
● Environmental Impact Assessment: They assess the potential environmental impacts of
projects and provide recommendations for mitigation.

Interdisciplinary Field: Environmental engineering draws from various disciplines, including

chemistry, biology, physics, and engineering principles to address complex environmental issues.

Regulatory Compliance: Environmental engineers must work within legal frameworks and
regulations to ensure that projects and industries meet environmental standards and minimize
negative impacts.

Sustainability: A central theme in environmental engineering is the promotion of sustainable

practices, which aim to balance human needs with the protection of ecosystems and natural
resources for future generations.

Global Significance: Given the increasing environmental challenges such as climate change,
pollution, and resource depletion, environmental engineering plays a crucial role in shaping a
more sustainable and resilient future.
Challenges: Environmental engineering faces ongoing challenges, such as addressing the impacts
of climate change, ensuring access to clean water, and developing innovative solutions to reduce
pollution.

Innovation: The field continually evolves with advancements in technology and research, leading
to innovative solutions for environmental problems.

Environmental engineering is a dynamic and vital field that plays a significant role in protecting
the environment and promoting sustainable development. It is at the forefront of efforts to address
pressing global environmental issues.

SOURCE OF WATER

The sources of water refer to the origin or location from which water is obtained. Common sources
of water include rivers, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater wells, rainwater, and desalination of
seawater provides readily accessible freshwater for drinking, irrigation, and industrial processes.
Additionally, natural springs and mountain glaciers are important sources of pristine fresh water.
Safeguarding and managing these water sources is crucial for ensuring a sustainable and secure
water supply for communities around the world.

SURFACE WATER
Rivers, lakes, and ponds are called surface water bodies. This category also includes artificial
rainwater storage tanks. Surface water has been used for domestic (household) and irrigation
purposes.

Canals are built to transport water from surface bodies to crop fields. Industries frequently
sprout up along rivers, such as the Rhine in Europe and the Damodar in India. Rivers are also
used to supply piped water to towns and cities. The Yamuna, for example, provides water to
Delhi.

1. OCEAN AND SEAWATER: Oceans and seas are the largest sources of water, covering
nearly (71%) of the earth’s surface. They have a high concentration of dissolved substances,
primarily common salt. As a result, the ocean and seawater are the most important salt
sources, but their water is unfit for direct consumption.
2. RIVERS AND LAKES: Water in rivers and lakes comes from rain and melting snow. It
also contains dissolved impurities such as salts and suspended impurities such as clay, sand,
twigs, and living organisms. Rivers and lakes are the best sources of water for domestic and
industrial use. However, because it contains impurities and germs that can cause diseases, this
water must be purified before consumption.
UNDERGROUND WATER
When it rains, some water seeps through the soil (through porous rocks in the soil) and collects
on non-porous rocks. This collected water is called underground water, and the groundwater
level is referred to as the water table. Due to high pressure, water occasionally escapes onto
the earth’s surface in the form of springs. On the surface, groundwater can also be obtained
by digging wells, tube wells, or lifting pumps (hand pumps).

1. SPRINGS AND WELLS: Well water and spring water are considered pure. They contain
dissolved impurities but no suspended impurities or germs because they have been filtered
through different soil layers—the nature of the soil surrounding the spring or well influences
the dissolved impurities. As a result, the taste of water varies depending on where you are.
Deep wells typically contain more pure water than shallow wells. This underground water can
be rich in minerals with medicinal properties at times. This water is typically pure and safe to
consume.

ABOVE SURFACE WATER

1. RAINWATER: Rain is our primary source of water. It would be more accurate to use the
term precipitation, which includes snow. Rainwater is the purest form of natural water. It is
formed naturally in the atmosphere by evaporation followed by the condensation of water
vapor. As it falls, rainwater dissolves the gases in the air and collects dust particles. Carbon
dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and oxides of nitrogen and sulphur are important gases dissolved
in rainwater.
Rainwater also carries smoke and germs from the air. As a result, the first shower of rain
contains impurities, but subsequent showers are impurity-free and thus safe to drink. Snow
and ice contain the majority of the water on earth. The majority of freshwater is frozen in
glaciers and polar ice caps.

It is rain that replenishes our sources of surface water and groundwater. The scarcity of water
in a place is determined more by how people use rainwater than by how much rainfall the
place receives. Thus, Cherrapunji (Meghalaya), which has one of the highest rainfall rates in
the world, faces a water shortage because rain runs off quickly down the deforested mountain
slopes.

USES OF WATER
1. Water is required for the survival of all plants, animals, and humans. This is because
water is required for all life processes, from taking in food to waste disposal. Water is
required for all life processes.
2. Domestic use: Water is required for nearly all domestic activities such as drinking,
bathing, washing clothes, and cooking.
3. Agriculture: Water is required for crop irrigation.
4. Industries: Almost every industry requires water as a mixing, cooling, or cleaning agent.
It is required to produce foods, chemicals, medicines, and a variety of other products.
5. The energy from water in the dams is used to generate power.
6. Rivers and oceans provide a surface for transportation and shipping.

DIFFERENT SOURCES OF WATER

WATER SOURCE DESCRPTION COMMON USES

Surface water Water bodies like rivers, lakes, and Drinking. Irrigation,
sources reservoirs. industry, and recreation.

Ground water sources It is the water stored below the Rural and urban water
Earth’s surface in aquifers, supplies.
accessed through wells.

Rainwater Precipitation collected and stored Irrigation, toilet flushing,

for various purposes. drinking (when treated).

Desalination Conversion of seawater into Coastal regions with water

freshwater using processes like scarcity.
reverse osmosis.

Natural springs Naturally occurring sources of Drinking, agriculture, local

freshwater flowing from supplies.
underground aquifers to the surface

Glaciers Glaciers are vast stores of Contributes to rivers and

freshwater in solid form found in lakes.
mountain and polar regions.

Atmospheric water Extraction of water vapor from the Emerging technology in

air, condensing it into liquid form humid areas.
for use.

Recycled / reclaimed Treated wastewater reused for non- Irrigation, industrial

water potable purposes. processes, cooling.
QUALITY OF WATER

I. DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE

● Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of
water.
● It is a critical factor for the health and well-being of both ecosystems and human populations.
● Clean and safe water is essential for drinking, agriculture, industry, and the overall health of
the environment.

II. FACTORS INFLUENCING WATER QUALITY A. NATURAL FACTORS

Geology: The composition of underlying geological formations can affect the mineral content
of water.
Climate: Precipitation patterns and temperature can influence the amount of water available
and its quality.
Biological Processes: Natural processes, like photosynthesis and microbial activity, can alter
water quality.
Ecological Systems: Aquatic ecosystems, such as wetlands and rivers, play a vital role in water
quality regulation.

B. HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Agriculture: The use of fertilizers and pesticides can introduce nutrients and contaminants into
water bodies.
Industry: Industrial processes and discharges may release chemicals, heavy metals, and
pollutants into water.
Urbanization: Stormwater runoff from urban areas can carry pollutants into waterways.
Municipal Wastewater: Sewage treatment and discharge can impact water quality if not
properly managed.
Mining: The extraction of minerals can lead to the release of pollutants and heavy metals.
Land Use: Deforestation and land development can affect erosion and sedimentation in water
bodies.

III. PARAMETERS FOR ASSESSING WATER QUALITY

A. PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

Temperature: Influences the solubility of gases and affects aquatic life.

Turbidity: Measures water clarity and indicates the presence of suspended particles.
 pH: Indicates water's acidity or alkalinity, affecting aquatic ecosystems.
Color and Odor: Can be indicative of organic matter or pollution.

B. CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Essential for aquatic life; low DO levels can harm fish and other
organisms.
Nutrients: Includes nitrates and phosphates, which can lead to eutrophication and algal blooms.
Heavy Metals: Toxic elements like lead, mercury, and cadmium can be harmful in even trace
amounts.
Organic Compounds: Such as pesticides and industrial chemicals, can be harmful in water.
Salinity: Measures the concentration of dissolved salts in water.

C. BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): Measures the amount of oxygen consumed by

microorganisms in water.
Total Coliforms and E. coli: Indicators of fecal contamination and potential disease risk.
Aquatic Life: The presence and diversity of aquatic organisms are indicative of water quality.

IV. WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

● Governments and environmental agencies establish water quality standards and regulations
to ensure the safety of water sources and protect the environment.
● Regulatory bodies set permissible limits for various water quality parameters, such as the
Safe Drinking Water Act in the United States.

V. MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT

● Regular monitoring of water quality is essential to assess changes over time and identify
potential issues.
● Sampling and laboratory analysis, remote sensing, and online monitoring are common
methods for assessing water quality.

VI. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT

● Management strategies include source protection, wastewater treatment, reducing pollution

sources, and restoration efforts.
● Public awareness and community involvement are crucial in preserving and improving
water quality.
VII. CONCLUSION

● Water quality is a critical aspect of environmental health, public health, and sustainable
development.
● Continuous efforts are required to protect and enhance water quality for the benefit of
ecosystems and human well-being.

WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be
designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head)
2. Population to be served.
Quantity= Per capita demand x Population

FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND

a. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for
smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses.

b. Presence of industries.

c. Climatic conditions.

d. Habits of people and their economic status.

e. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically & medically safe, the consumption will increase as
people will not resort to private wells, etc.

f. Pressure in the distribution system.

g. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and
unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.

h. Cost of water.

i. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the
basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
WATER QUALITY (AS PER IS10500-2012)

The raw or treated water is analyzed by testing their physical, chemical and bacteriological
characteristics:

Physical Characteristics: Chemical Characteristics:

 Turbidity  pH
 Colour  Acidity
 Taste and Odour  Alkalinity
 Temperature  Hardness
 Chlorides
 Sulphates
 Iron
 Solids
 Nitrates

Bacteriological Characteristics:

Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the degree of pollution. Water

polluted by sewage contain one or more species of disease producing pathogenic bacteria.

Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and many non-pathogenic bacteria such as

E.Coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of human beings. Coliform

itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to adverse condition than any other group.

So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful species will be very less. So,

coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of water with sewage and presence of

pathogens.

The methods to estimate the bacterial quality of water are:

 Standard Plate Count Test

 Most Probable Number

 Membrane Filter Technique

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION

Hydrology:

Hydrology is the study of the distribution and movement of water both on and below the Earth's
surface, as well as the impact of human activity on water availability and conditions.

Applications:

1. Estimation of water resources

2. The study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their interaction
and;
3. The study of problems such as floods and droughts and strategies to combat them.
4. Hydrology find its greatest application in the design and operation of water resources
engineering projects, such as those for (i) irrigation (ii) water supply (iii) flood control (iv)
water power (v) navigation
5. Factors are necessary to do the hydrological investigations for the proper assessment:
(i) The capacity of storage structures such as reservoirs;
(ii) The magnitude of floods flow to enable safe disposal of the excess flow.
(iii) The minimum flow and quantity of flow available at various seasons.
(iv) The interaction of the flood wave and hydraulic structures such as levees, reservoirs,
barrages and bridges.
6. Many important projects in the past have failed due to improper assessment of hydrological
factors. Some typical failures of hydraulic structures are:
(i) Overtopping and consequent failure of an earthen dam due to an inadequate spillway
capacity.
(ii) Failure of bridges and culverts due to excess flood flow and;
(iii) Inability of a large reservoir to fill up with water due to over estimation of the stream flow.

HYDROLOIC CYCLE

The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-Atmosphere system.
At its core, the water cycle is the motion of the water from the ground to the atmosphere and back
again. Of the many processes involved in the hydrologic cycle, the most important are:
evaporation, transpiration.
RAINWATER HARVESTING

Rainwater harvesting is a sustainable practice that involves collecting, storing, and using rainwater
for various purposes. Rainwater harvesting is a great way to collect and store rainwater for various
uses like irrigation, washing, and drinking. With proper planning and installation, rainwater
harvesting systems can be effective and valuable solutions to water scarcity and droughts. By
setting up a system, you can save money on your water bills, reduce your reliance on municipal
water supplies, and most of all help conserve water.

TYPES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING

The system of catching rainwater right where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchment area and the rainwater is collected on the roof of the house or building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to an artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive, and if
implemented correctly, helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area.

SURFACE RAINWATER HARVESTING

In urban areas, rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff can be caught and used for
recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

ADVANTAGES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

1. Promotes adequacy of underground water: With the rise in population, the dependency on
groundwater is increasing. Many residential colonies and industries are extracting groundwater
to fulfill their daily demands. This has led to a depletion of groundwater which has gone to a
significantly low level in some areas where there is huge water scarcity. Rainwater harvesting
enables groundwater levels to be further sustained rather than depleted.

2. Mitigates the effect of drought: Many countries, especially those with arid environments, use
rainwater harvesting as a cheap and reliable source of clean water. When drought occurs,
rainwater harvested in past months can be used. In deserts, ridges of soil are constructed to trap
 and prevent rainwater from running hills and slopes and enhance irrigation. Even in periods of
low rainfall, enough water is collected for crops to grow.

3. Improves groundwater table thereby saving energy to lift water: Rainwater harvesting systems
recharge run-off surface water to the underground aquifer to increase the water level and its
quality. This has resulted in creating a sustainable groundwater table even when there is less
rainfall.

4. Storing water underground is good for the environment: Storing rainwater underground
eliminates evaporation and provides long-term storage, it can also replenish groundwater
supply, prevent seawater from intruding, and protect ecosystems that depend on groundwater
for their very survival.

5. It is cost-effective: Rainwater harvesting is a cost-effective alternative to other water recycling

methods and is easier on the pockets as it is a long-term investment. Moreover, it removes the
need for the transportation of water to the doorstep via various means.

6. It helps conserve water: The idea of harvesting water allows you to save water and use it
effectively. This is the most effective way of water conservation. However, pay extra attention
to the rainwater harvesting system in place. Carry out a strength test of the concrete, curing of
concrete and the careful transporting and placing of concrete.

STEPS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

The steps of rainwater harvesting may seem lengthy however if implemented correctly, this system
will last you for a lifetime.

1. DETERMINE YOUR CATCHMENT AREA AND CLEAN THAT AREA:

The surface that receives the rainfall directly is known as your catchment area. It could be your
terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved ground. Therefore, the catchment is the area that provides
water to the harvesting system. It is important to determine which area in your premises is best
suited for this purpose and to clean this area just so there is no contamination at this stage.

2. DETERMINE THE LAYOUT:

The layout and location of the tank and pipelines are determined in such ways as to maximize the
use of collection surfaces. There are several options but the major ones are the spread-out tank
option and cluster tank option.

3. SET UP STORAGE:

The rainwater collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a storage tank. The storage tank
has to be designed according to water requirements, rainfall and catchment availability. Each drain
pipe and collecting system must include:

 A mesh filter at the mouth and first flush (also known as roof washer) device which will
divert the first flow of water away from the tank.
 A filtration system before connecting to the storage tank.
 An air gap to prevent stormwater backflow.
 Each tank should have an excess water overflow system.
 Excess water could be diverted to the recharge system.

4. INSTALL THE PIPES AND TANKS:

FOR INSTALLING PIPES:

 Seek the necessary permissions (if required) from the authorities to lay the pipes.

 Dig trenches, if laid underground.

 It is preferable to have the pipe as a single fall to avoid sediment collecting in places that
cannot be reached easily for cleaning.

 Lay the pipes in trenches or otherwise and connect using connectors.

FOR INSTALLING TANKS:

 Make a tank stand suitable for the property.
 Place the tanks on a stand and ensure they don’t blow away when empty.
 Connect them up so they can behave as one volume. Recommend putting a valve for each tank
mostly for maintenance.
 Install first flush diverters to keep the most contaminated rainwater out of your rainwater tank.
 Connect some sort of overflow arrangement. If the tanks are in a sump it would require
overflow arrangement and lots of drainages. When the overflow is undersized, pumps will
flood.
 Make the final connection between the PVC collector pipes and the tanks.
 Install a tank gauge to regularly monitor your water level and usage.

WATER STORAGE AND CONVEYANCE STRUCTURES

CANALS

As rainfall is ill-distributed and in sufficient in our country it is essential to supply water to the
fields artificially for the development of irrigation. Canals take off from rivers and water in them
flow by gravitation. Canals may be either irrigation canals or navigation canals. Irrigation canals
play a very important role in the development of a country.

IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION CANAL:

 Canals convey the water to the areas situated at a distance of 100kms or more.
 Canals are helpful in providing protection against famines.
 Canals provide facilities for drinking and other purposes.
 Canals carry fine silt suspended in water and increase fertility of lands.
 Canals help in increasing revenue to government while developing irrigation facilities.
 Canals while being used as a means of conveyance for water improper the plant growth also.
 Canals provide navigation facilities.

WATER STORAGE STRUCTURE - DAM

A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground
streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities
such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture,
and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A
dam can also be used to collect or store water which can be evenly distributed between locations.
Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such
as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific
land regions.
PURPOSES OF BUILDING A DAM
The artificially created barriers called Dams are used for various purposes. Some of the major
requirements are written below.

1. IRRIGATION
Water reserved in dams is mostly used for irrigation. By constructing a dam in a specific water
source, the water is directly transported to a crop field.

2. FLOOD CONTROL
Other than irrigation, the mass of water in dams is also used to control the flood to save many lives
near the river area. The dams built and utilised for flood control hold floodwaters and then release
that water into the lower region of the river or simply store and use that for other purposes.

3. WATER SUPPLY
Another function of a dam is storing, purifying, and distributing water evenly in various locations
through channels and pipelines.

4. HYDROPOWER GENERATION
In addition to the above purposes, the most critical functions of creating a dam are to generate
electricity. Nowadays, power has become an essential factor in living. Most of the electricity
comes from freshwater reservoirs by making a dam where we convert the mechanical energy of
water into electrical energy.

5. WATER STORAGE
For agriculture, municipal and industrial usage, water is stored by constructing a dam, which acts
as a reservoir.

6. RECREATION
By creating a dam, we can provide lots of recreational activities such as skiing, boating, picnic
facilities, camping, etc.

7. NAVIGATION OF FLOW
We can also navigate water flow in a particular area by just constructing a dam or lock.
8. CONTROL OF DEBRIS
Yes, the dam is also used to control pollution. Dams can help safeguard the environment by storing
harmful items (hazardous materials) and preventing or controlling sedimentation.

COMPONENTS OF DAM

1. DAM

A dam is a heavy hydraulic structure, constructed across a river. It stores water on one side up to
a certain level. A dam is an impervious barrier (obstruction), build across a natural stream of
water so that a Reservoir is formed.

2. RESERVOIR

The total impounded water collected on the upstream side is called Reservoir

3. UPSTREAM SIDE & DOWNSTREAM SIDE

 The side of the dam on which water gets collected is called the upstream side.
 It is the stretch of the stream below or down the dam.
4. CATCHMENT AREA

The catchment area is the rainfall area on the upstream side of the dam. It is feeding water to the
reservoir of the dam. The catchment area decides the capacity of the reservoir as well as the
height of the dam.

5. SPILLWAY

The spillway is the waterway for the overflow of a dam. It acts as a safety valve for the dam. Its
function is to let out the excess water from the dam to the downstream side otherwise, the excess
water in the dam may cause a breach of the dam due to over-storage.

6. CREST

The crest is the top surface of the dam. It may be used as a roadway.

7. SLUICE OR GATE

It is the component of a reservoir with regulating arrangements to control the quantity of water.
Through the sluice, water is let out from the upstream side of the dam.

8. HEEL & TOE

 The heel of the dam is the upstream end of the base of the dam.
 The Toe of the da is the downstream end of the base of the dam.
9. FULL RESERVOIR LEVEL (F.R.L.)

The full reservoir level is the level up to which water can be stored in the reservoir of the dam.

10. GROSS STORAGE CAPACITY OF THE RESERVOIR

It is the total quantity of water stored in the reservoir up to full reservoir level.

11. LIVE STORAGE

Live storage is the quantity of water stored in the dam from the level of the lowest set of sluices
to the full reservoir level

12. DEAD STORAGE

Dead storage is the quantity of water stored below the level of the lowest set of sluices in the
dam. This water cannot be released out and used for irrigation, etc

13. MEAN SEA LEVEL (M.S.L.)

Mean sea level means the height of the dam above the sea level

14. MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL (M.W.L.) OR HIGH FLOOD LEVEL (H.F.L.)

During floods, water may be allowed to rise above the full reservoir level to a certain maximum
level, called maximum water level (M.W.L.) or High flood level (H.F.L.). The top surface of the
dam is always constructed above the maximum water level of the reservoir.

15. FREE BOARD

The free board is the difference in height between the top surface of the dm (crest) and the
maximum water level of the reservoir.

16. DRAINAGE GALLERY

It is a passage left inside the dam, provided along the length of the dam above the river bed. Its
purposes are:

 To drain the water seeping through the foundation and upstream masonry
 To serve as a longitudinal inspection chamber

RESERVOIR
A reservoir is an artificial lake where water is stored. Most reservoirs are formed by
constructing dams across rivers. A reservoir can also be formed from a natural lake whose outlet
has been dammed to control the water level. The dam controls the amount of water that flows out
 of the reservoir. Service reservoirs are entirely artificial and do not rely on damming a river or
lake. These reservoirs, sometimes called cisterns, hold clean water. Cisterns can be dug in
underground caverns or elevated high above ground in a water tower.
People build reservoirs because the amount of water in a river varies over time. During very rainy
times or when mountain snow is melting, the water in a river rises and sometimes overflows
its banks. By limiting the amount of water allowed to continue downriver, reservoirs help
control flooding. During droughts, or extended dry periods, the water level in a river may be very
low. Under these conditions, more water is released from the reservoir so farmers can water their
crops and homes and businesses can function normally. Reservoirs serve other purposes. They are
used for boating, fishing, and other forms of recreation. Some of the dams that create reservoirs
are used to generate electricity.

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
Structural engineering is the field of engineering that deals with the structural integrity and
strength of a building or structure. Structural engineering is a specialty of civil engineering that
ensures the structures are safe, stable and don’t collapse under applied loads. It is mainly focused
on analysis and design of the structure.

Analysis of the structure

 Careful analysis of the wind speed that can carry structural loads and the overall capacity and
utility of the building also provides information.
 Analysis of the structure according to the principles of structural engineering will make sure that
the structure depends on all the necessary design codes.

Design of the structure

 Structures have to be designed so that they can withstand their own weight as well as the loads
and pressures that will be placed upon them.
 Structural engineers take steps crucial information about the foundations, roof types, load types,
beams, columns, material quality, retaining walls etc.

Responsibilities of a structural engineer

A structural engineer also plays a major role as a team among other professionals like surveyor,
quantity surveyor, and architects engineers.

The following tasks must be performed by a structural engineer:

 Design models of structures using software.

 Assessing the reaction of structures to pressures and stress.
 Finalizing the appropriate concrete materials that would be suitable for the structure.
 Assessing budget of the project.
 Liaising to ensure that newly erected buildings are structurally sound with construction
contractors.
 Using computers and computer-aided design technology for simulation purposes.

Role of Structural Engineering in building design & sustainable development

 Urbanization, buildings, and civil infrastructure are most important of the world for any
economy. Require lots of natural resources and energy required for their construction, operation,
maintenance and deterioration.
 Structural engineers play an important role in the efficient design, construction and execution
of a building. At the beginning of construction projects in collaboration with structural
engineers, architects, owners and construction managers, architects decide on the effectiveness,
feasibility and cost-effectiveness of concepts. As the project progressed to the design stage,
structural engineers produced the first set of executive design documents.
 Structural engineers have traditionally not identified themselves with environmental
sustainability. Growing concerns for the natural environment, the rise of smart cities, and the
growing importance of sustainability and energy efficiency are driving the demand for structural
engineers.
 Building construction consumes natural resources, potable water and energy. Secondly, the
construction process also contributes to 30% of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Thus, a sustainable environment is not achievable without contribution of the building &
construction sector, especially the structural engineering domain.
 The renewable energy department is a great leading factor. The concept of sustainability is
gaining popularity these days and it is clearly increasing the applicability in the energy sector.