Biology for Science

Majors II (BIOL 1307)

Dr. Lisa Farmer
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The Bigger Picture: Inquiring About Life

A. Keep their integrity separate from that C. Transfer information:

of the environment and of other organisms,
i.e. they must maintain homeostasis. 1. within cells
As a result, life: 2. between cells (to maintain homeostasis or the
conditions required for life to exist)
1. is cellular 3. between organisms (to survive or to be able
2. must be able to control movement of to reproduce effectively)
substances into and out of the cell and therefore, 4. from one generation to the next
must deal with the properties of diffusion and (to provide for a continuation of the species over
osmosis, flow rates and SA/V ratios. time)

B. Transfer energy: D. Evolve:

1. within cells Organisms do not evolve; populations evolve.

2. between cells Environmental conditions determine which
3. between the environment and itself (e.g. organisms will survive. Over time,
from sun or from other organic compounds or environmental conditions can change. As a
organisms) result, if species are to survive, they must
include variants that can survive in the changed
conditions. Variation within species is the result
of genetic changes/mutations.

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 Introduction to Animal Reproduction

• All the physiological systems in the body are aimed at allowing

animals to survive long enough to gather resources and reproduce
• Producing offspring is the reason adaptations exist
• There are diverse mechanisms by which animals reproduce

• Understanding how reproduction occurs and how animals develop

from fertilization to birth is critical for many biological and medical
fields

Two Ways to Reproduce: Asexual and Sexual

Reproduction

Asexual Sexual

Mitosis 1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
3. Modification

Types: Gametogenesis
1. Binary fission (bacteria)
2. Simple mitosis (protists)
3. Fission, budding, parthenogenesis (animals)
Fusion of gametes

Produces genetically Produces genetically

identical progeny different progeny

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 How Does Asexual Reproduction Occur?

• There are three main mechanisms of asexual reproduction:

1. Budding—The offspring forms within or on the parent
• The process is complete when the offspring, a miniature version
of the parent, breaks free and begins to grow on its own

2. Fission—An individual splits into two or more descendants

Budding in hydra Fission in anemones

Site of fission

Bud

5 mm 10 cm

How Does Asexual Reproduction Occur?

3. Parthenogenesis—The female produces an offspring

without any genetic contribution from the male
• Offspring can be produced by mitosis, by meiosis, or by the fusion
of two products of meiosis
• This occurs in some invertebrates, fishes, lizards, snakes, and
birds

Parthenogenesis in some lizards

Unfertilized
eggs develop
into offspring

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 Switching Reproductive Modes
• Many animal species regularly switch between reproducing
asexually and sexually
• Example: Daphnia are crustaceans that reproduce both asexually and
sexually in a typical year
• Throughout the spring and summer, Daphnia produce only diploid female
offspring by parthenogenesis

• The eggs produced by

parthenogenesis develop Brood pouch
in a structure called a brood
pouch, and the offspring are
released when the female
molts her exoskeleton

0.5 mm

Switching Reproductive Modes

• Research indicates that Daphnia start reproducing sexually
when environmental conditions worsen
• Sexual reproduction leads to genetic variability, which makes for genetically
diverse offspring, increasing fitness

Sexual reproduction is m ore com m on in crowded In Daphnia m agna, a com bination of environm ental
populations of Daphnia pulex than in sparse populations. cues triggers the switch to sexual reproduction.
Percentage of Daphnia fem ales
reproducing sexually

Daphnia density (num ber/50 m L)

• When the environment changes, genetically diverse offspring are likely to

include individuals that will survive better and reproduce more than offspring
identical to their parents

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9

The Male Reproductive System

1. Spermatogenesis and sperm storage—
sperm are produced in the testes and
stored in the nearby epididymis
Urinary bladder
2. Production of accessory fluids—complex Seminal vesicle

solutions are formed in the seminal Prostate gland

Bulbourethral gland
vesicles, prostate gland, and Urethra
bulbourethral gland are added to sperm Erectile tissue of penis
to form semen Vas deferens
Epididymis
3. Transport and delivery—the vas Testis
deferens are tubes that transport sperm
from the epididymis to the ejaculatory
duct.
• semen then enters the urethra, a
longer tube that passes through the
penis and services both the
reproductive and urinary systems in
males
• The semen is expelled during
ejaculation

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 Structure and Function of Sperm
• There are four components to
the mammalian sperm:
1. The head contains the
nucleus and an enzyme, Acrosome
acrosome, for penetrating Head
the egg
Nucleus
Neck
• The enzymes allow the
sperm to penetrate the Midpiece Centriole
barriers surrounding the
egg Plasma
membrane
2. The neck contains one
centriole that will combine Vacuole
with a centriole contributed (not present
in all sperm)
by the egg to form a Tail
centrosome, which is Mitochondria
required for formation of the 0.5 µm
Flagellum
spindle apparatus during
mitosis

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Structure and Function of Sperm

3. The midpiece contains
mitochondria, which produce
the ATP required to power
movement
Acrosome
4. A tail with a flagellum—a long Head
structure composed of
Nucleus
microtubules surrounded by a Neck
plasma membrane that whips
back and forth to make Midpiece Centriole
swimming possible
Plasma
• Sperm are streamlined cells membrane
specialized for racing other
Vacuole
sperm to the egg
(not present
in all sperm)
• Eggs are bulky, far less mobile Tail
storage containers that are Mitochondria
packed with valuable materials 0.5 µm
Flagellum

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 The Female Reproductive System

• The most important part of the reproductive system in female

animals is the ovary, where meiosis occurs and mature eggs are
produced

• Birds are oviparous vertebrates; they lay an amniotic egg

protected by a shell

• Many release their eggs into the environment, the

parents provide no further care

• Birds incubate their eggs and feed their

young after hatching

• Most mammals are viviparous, and embryonic

development takes place entirely within
the mother’s body
• the embryo attaches to the
reproductive tract of the mother and
receives nutrition directly from her

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The Reproductive Tract of Female Birds

• In a female bird, the end result of

an egg moving through the
reproductive tract is a hard-shelled
egg
1. Meiosis and maturation
• The egg is laid from the cloaca of follicles. Follicles are ova
Left ovary (eggs) attached to yolk
• A chamber that the reproductive, (yellow spheres).
2. Entry of follicle into
digestive, and excretory tracts oviduct. Fertilization takes
flow into and that opens to the place if the hen has mated
environment with a cock. (Hens can store
sperm for up to 30 days.)

• From the time the egg is released 3. Addition of egg white.

Left
from the ovary until the zygote oviduct 4. Addition of outer
undergoes mitosis, the bird egg is membranes.

a single cell Uterus

5. Formation of eggshell.
• Females of most bird species have Intestine
just one functional ovary—an
Vagina 6. Egg is laid. Egg passes
adaptation for flight through the vagina and is
Cloaca
“laid” out of the cloaca.

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 Anatomy of the Reproductive System
in Human Females
• The mammalian internal female reproductive system has two functions:
1. Production and transport of eggs
• Eggs are produced in the paired ovaries
• During ovulation, an egg is expelled from the ovary and enters the
oviduct (fallopian tube), where fertilization may take place
• Fertilized eggs are then transported to the uterus
2. Development of offspring
2. The secondary follicle contains a
secondary oocyte.
Oviduct
• Embryonic development 3. Vesicular (Graafian)
follicle develops.

takes place in the uterus

• The developed fetus passes 1. A primary follicle contains a
primary oocyte.
Ovary
through an opening in the
cervix and into the vagina Uterus

Cervix
6. Corpus luteum 4. Ovulation: Oocyte is
degenerates. released.

5. Corpus luteum develops. Vagina

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Hormonal regulation of ovulation

FOLLICULAR PHASE LUTEAL PHASE

Ovulation
Follicle matures Corpus luteum degenerates

Ovarian
cycle
Hormone levels

Estradiol Progesterone
Ovarian
hormone
cycle
Hormone levels

LH
Pituitary
hormone
cycle FSH

Menstrual
uterine lining
Thickness of

flow
Menstrual
cycle

Day

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 Structure and Function of Eggs

• The egg not only carries genetic Sea urchin eggs are surrounded by a jelly coat.
material from the female but also These sperm
are digesting
contains nutrients needed by the their way
Jelly layer
through the Vitelline envelope
embryo during early growth jelly layer
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
• In most mammals, the mature egg Yolk granule
cell is a membrane-bound structure Nucleus
consisting of 50 µm

• A haploid nucleus Human oocytes are surrounded by a protective layer

of cells called the corona radiata.
These sperm
• A full component of other are digesting
organelles their way through
the corona Corona radiata
radiata
• A large supply of nutrients Zona pellucida
Plasma membrane
provided by yolk—a
Cytoplasm
fat- and protein-rich cytoplasm Yolk granule
Polar body

25 µm

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Structure and Function of Eggs

• A vitelline envelope: glycoproteins (a) Sea urchin eggs are surrounded by a jelly coat.
outside cell membrane These sperm
are digesting
• Further enclosing and protecting the egg their way
Jelly layer
through the Vitelline envelope
• In sea animals, the vitelline envelope plus a jelly layer
Plasma membrane
jelly layer further protecting the egg
Cytoplasm
• The plasma membrane plays a key role in Yolk granule
binding sperm from the same species, Nucleus
initiating fertilization
50 µm
• Other animals produce amniotic eggs that (b) Human oocytes are surrounded by a protective layer
contain four membrane-bound sacs of cells called the corona radiata.
These sperm
• Human vitelline envelope is unusually are digesting
their way through
thick and called the zona pellucida the corona Corona radiata
radiata
• This is surrounded by a layer of cells Zona pellucida
known as the corona radiata, which a
Plasma membrane
sperm must penetrate before it can
fertilize the oocyte Cytoplasm
Yolk granule
Polar body

25 µm

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 External vs Internal Fertilization
• Fertilization is the joining of a sperm and an egg to form
a diploid zygote
• Environment vs reproductive tract

• Animals that rely on external fertilization live in aquatic environments

and tend to produce large numbers of gametes

• Internal fertilization (copulation or a spermatophore) occurs in the vast

majority of terrestrial animals and in a significant number of aquatic
animals
External Internal

Eggs

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The Cell Biology of Fertilization

• In many species, sperm follow chemical signals

secreted by the egg

• Thousands of sperm can compete to fertilize an egg, but fusion

must be limited to a single sperm so the egg does not receive
extra chromosomes
• Finally, the fusion of two gametes has to trigger development

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 The Cell Biology of Fertilization

1. Sea urchin sperm follow a gradient

of chemical secreted by the egg’s jelly
2. The head of the sperm binds 1. Chemical signals
attract sperm to egg
to the jelly layer 2. Binding to
jelly layer
3. Acrosome releases its contents Sperm Jelly layer
Nucleus Vitelline
4. Portions of the jelly layer and Acrosome envelope
vitelline envelope are digested 7. Entry of Egg
sperm nucleus nucleus
5. Contact activates the flagella into egg Egg
cytoplasm
to start beating
6. Egg–sperm Cortical 3. Acrosome
6. Contact with the egg’s plasma membrane granule reaction
membrane, specific proteins in fusion

the plasma membrane of the egg

and sperm induce membrane fusion 5. Penetration
of jelly layer
4. Flagellar
7. The sperm nucleus enters the egg and and vitelline
hyperactivity
envelope
fuses with the egg nucleus; the egg is ready
for development and fertilization is complete

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What Prevents More than One Sperm

From Entering the Egg?

Sperm nucleus Ca2+ Ca2+

enters egg here A wave of Ca2+
release starts
at the point of
sperm nucleus
entry and
spreads
throughout
the egg

Fertilization
Sperm nucleus envelope
enters egg here

Excess
sperm

1. Egg is covered with sperm. 2. Fertilization envelope 3. Fertilization envelope expands

One sperm nucleus enters. begins to lift and clear away across egg. When complete, all
excess sperm. excess sperm are cleared away.

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23

Embryonic Development
• Fertilization activates development in which one cell becomes
two, two become four, etc.
• The stage of rapid cell division is called cleavage
• In most animals, cleavage divides cytoplasm present in the egg into a larger
and larger number of daughter cells
• As a result, the number of cells increases, but the embryo size remains the
same
• The cells created during cleavage are called blastomeres
• A mass of blastomeres is called the blastula

Cleavage Gastrulation

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Zygote 2-cell Many-celled Blastula Gastrula
embryo solid ball (cross (cross
section) section)

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 Embryonic Development
• Cleavage in mammals results in a type of blastula called a blastocyst
• The exterior of the blastocyst is called the trophoblast
• Inside the trophoblast is a fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel and a cluster
of cells called the inner cell mass
• The embryo develops from the inner cell mass, and the trophoblast forms part of an
organ called the placenta
• This exchanges nutrients and wastes between the mother and the embryo

Day 1 Day 2
Day 3 Blastocyst
Day 0 Day 4 (cross section)
Fertilization Day 5
Blastocoel
Fallopian tube

Day 6

Ovulation Inner
(release of egg cell
from ovary) mass

Trophoblast
Uterus Days 7–10: Implantation in
uterine wall
Ovary
Precursor
to placenta

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Gastrulation: Formation of Germ Layers

• As cleavage nears completion, cell division

slows and cell movement takes over from
cell proliferation Blastula Animal pole
(end of cleavage)
• Extensive and highly organized cell Blastocoel
movements and changes in cell shape
rearrange the embryonic cells into a
gastrula
Vegetal pole
• There are four steps to this process that
sets up the body plan and axes Gastrulation
(cell migration)
1. The frog blastula contains the blastocoel Blastocoel Formation of a
shrinking simple digestive
2. An invagination forms at the outer surface cavity
and eventually forms a circular opening
Blastopore
known as the blastopore
3. Surface cells fold into the interior of the
embryo through the blastopore, forming a Gastrula Ectoderm
(end of gastrulation) Mesoderm
tube that extends across the embryo that
Endoderm
will become the gut Simple
digestive
cavity Dorsal
4. The movement of cells ultimately results in
Ventral
the formation of the three germ layers

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 Formation of Germ Layers

• Gastrulation forms three embryonic

tissue layers—the ectoderm,
Ectoderm-derived
endoderm, and mesoderm Nervous system
Cornea and lens of eye
Epidermis of skin
• These layers are called germ Epithelial lining of:
layers because they give rise to mouth and rectum

all organs and tissues in the Mesoderm-derived

Skeletal system
adult Circulatory system
Lymphatic system
Muscular system
• Ectoderm forms the outer Excretory system
covering and nervous system Reproductive system
Dermis of skin
Lining of body cavity
• Mesoderm forms muscle, Endoderm-derived
internal organs, and connective Epithelial lining of:
digestive tract
tissues respiratory tract
reproductive tract
urinary tract
• Endoderm produces the inner Liver
lining of the gut and organs that Pancreas
Thyroid gland
develop from the gut Parathyroid glands
Thymus

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Formation of Notochord, Neural Tube, & Somites

• Organogenesis is the division, movement, differentiation,

and assembly of cells into tissues and organs
• The development of the notochord, neural tube, and somites is similar among
vertebrates
1. A rod-like element called the notochord forms from mesodermal cells soon after
gastrulation is complete

2. Molecular signals produced in the notochord induce the dorsal ectoderm to fold

3. This folding forms the neural tube, which is a tube of ectoderm that runs along the
dorsal midline and gives rise to the brain and spinal cord

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Notochord
Signaling
Dorsal Somite
molecules Neural tube

Future gut

Cross section of
frog embryo
Ventral

1. Notochord forms from 2. Ectoderm folds inward, 3. Formation of neural 4. Somites form.
mesodermal cells soon after induced by signals from cells in tube is complete.
gastrulation is complete. and near notochord.

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 Formation of Notochord, Neural Tube, & Somites

• Somites are mesodermal cells

near the notochord that are Surface view
organized into paired blocks Become muscles
Ectoderm
of back
(removed to
• Somites produce many important the left)
structures in the adult Become dermal
Neural tube
layer of skin
• Somites give rise not only to Become muscle
Somites
muscle but also to the lower in limbs
dermal layer of the skin and much
Become cells
of the skeleton
that build bone
Somite Neural tube
• Somite cells break away in
Cross section
distinct groups to migrate to their
final location in the developing
embryo Ectoderm

Neural tube
• These movements are critical Somite
to organogenesis
Notochord

Endoderm

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Formation of the Neural Tube and

Central Nervous System

• This is determined using instructions

encoded in the genome along with
guidance from signals from other cells. Forebrain
Future
eye
Midbrain
• Organogenesis of the CNS begins when
Hindbrain
the ectoderm along the dorsal surface of Heart
a vertebrate embryo begins folding to
form the neural tube.
Spinal cord
• Molecular signaling from the Somites
notochord is crucial in determining
which region of ectoderm becomes
which part of the neural tube.

• Organogenesis proceeds along two axes

• The anterior–posterior axis Folding Unsegmented
neural mesoderm
tube
• A radial axis that runs from the center
to the periphery 1 mm

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 Formation of the Neural Tube and
Central Nervous System

• The anterior portion swells out in specific

regions and then is folded back on itself to
form different brain structures. Forebrain
Future
eye
Midbrain
• Stem cells in the innermost layer of the Hindbrain
neural tube divide to become the inner Heart
layer and the outermost layer.

• The type of cell it becomes depends on Spinal cord

where during development the stem cell Somites
divided.

• The resulting layers are arranged along

the radial axis, and these are critical for
both brain and spinal cord function.
Folding Unsegmented
• This intricate process is driven by cell- neural mesoderm
specific gene expression controlled by tube
early regulatory transcription factors.
1 mm

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Fate of the notochord and the neural tube

Dorsal

Ventra
l
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 The Evolutionary Significance of
Genetic Variation Within Populations

§ Asexual reproduction is less energetically expensive than

sexual reproduction
§ Nonetheless, sexual reproduction is nearly universal among
animals
§ Overall, genetic variation is evolutionarily advantageous

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