The Professional Interior

Design Course
Tutorial Five

INTERIOR
DESIGN
Copyright 2002. J Morris. Revised 2023. Licensed in Britain to International News Syndicate.
 INDEX

Page

Introduction 3
Drawing Implements 4
Lettering 11
Scale Drawing of Plans 12
Elevation Plan 17
Standard Symbols 18
Self-Exercise #1 24
The Story of British Interior Design and Architectural Styles 24
Learning From The Experts... Advice From Leading Designers 38
Glossary of Construction Terms 39

Please note: To enhance your learning experience, the course material contains many links to
external sites and documents. While every effort is made to ensure links are active and up to date,
there may be occasions when you find a link is broken or has changed/been redirected,
either legitimately or due to poor domain management by the site owner.
If you see any broken or misdirected links in your tutorial, please contact us at
[email protected] and we will happily assist you.
Incorrect links will be promptly updated.
A further reminder: self-exercises are for your personal benefit and
are not required for submission to the College.
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Introduction

Visual Presentation Techniques

In this tutorial and Tutorial Six, we will be guiding you through some fundamental visual presentation
techniques, including drawing floor plans, furniture layouts and perspectives of proposed room plans.

These techniques may seem daunting at first, but, as with anything, become easier with practice. Many
people lack the ability to visualise a proposed design scheme without some form of concrete visual prompt,
which is why these presentation techniques are so very important for you to master as an interior designer.

You will also find that as you draw a furniture plan or perspective, you will also refine your own concept for
the scheme and may come up with some clever alternatives that had not occurred to you earlier.

Even if you intend to pursue a career in an area of interior design such as styling or retail work in the
future, where these skills may not be necessary, I cannot stress the importance of at least having a basic
understanding of the techniques.

You will always find them useful for pulling together a scheme in your own home, for instance. Whenever
I move house, for example, I always draw up floor plans of the rooms of the new house and do a furniture
plan so when the removalists arrive I can tell them exactly where to place everything and in what order. This
saves a lot of time and stress and reshuffling of heavy furniture later.

Closing The Sale

These presentation techniques are vital for selling your proposal to clients and establishing your
professional credibility and credentials. Most creative people (such as interior designers!) deplore
thinking of themselves as salespeople, but developing an incredibly beautiful and effective scheme is
no good to anyone unless you can close the sale.

I am a firm believer that interior spaces that are beautiful, functional and effective greatly enhance the
health and well-being of the occupants. With this conviction in mind, you can think of yourself as a health
professional and sell that philosophy to your client from the first appointment and throughout the project.

You can sell it because you believe in it. Good design is good for mental health and physical well-being, as
well as happier relationships between the people who inhabit the space, be it to live in or work in.

Your job is to listen to the client’s problems, make a diagnosis and come up with a prescription to solve
those problems. Successfully closing a sale is completing the entire problem-solving process, or at
least taking it as far as humanly possible. The ‘close’ is simply the natural outcome to a well-executed
presentation and communication experience.

The steps go something like this:

1. Establish trust. The client came to you with problems and in order for you to solve them, they must trust
in your professional abilities.
2. Explain the entire process carefully so your client has a clear understanding from the beginning of what
will be involved. For many clients, this will be their first experience of dealing with an interior designer,
so try to allay any fears or concerns.

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3. Continually establish your professionalism and expertise. Why else are they calling on your skills?
4. Have your facts and figures together so you can answer all questions clearly.
5. Prepare your client, not only for the process but the anticipation and excitement of the finished results.
6. Remain optimistic and confident in your abilities to effectively resolve the client’s problems.
7. Clarify objections. Listen and review your ‘prescription’ while continually re-establishing your
professional expertise.
8. Always have your paperwork in order and up to date.
9. Thank the client for their deposit/confidence in your plan.
10. Follow up effectively and maintain a caring, professional approach throughout the project until the
‘space healing’ is complete.

Drawing Implements

Index of Drawing Implements

The following list sets out the materials design story

commonly used by interior designers to
produce floor plans and drawings for clients.
Depending on which area of interior design
Designer pieces on a
you intend to specialise in, you may need very
few of these materials. At this stage, you will
only need to acquire any materials that will aid
high street budget
Want designer fittings on an Ikea budget? Save your
you in completing your assignments to a high
degree of presentation. clients money without compromising on quality or
style and shop at high street department stores such
as Debenhams, Habitat and House of Fraser which
1. Standard Pencils stock interior collections by top designers such as
Christian Lacroix, Matthew Williamson and Celia
Graphite lead pencils come in varying Birtwell.
differentiated degrees, from 8B through to 9H.
The letter B denotes that the lead is soft, the letter
H that the lead is hard, the number denotes the
degree of soft or hard; the higher the number, the
harder or softer the lead.

Complete pencil sets are available, or you

can select what pencils you require. The most
common pencil grade you may have seen, in
offices, schools etc., are B, HB and H, the three
middle grades.

For drafting and design purposes, you’ll need B,

HB, H and 2H. Remember, for any drafting, 2H
is for the first lines, where you are plotting out
the drawing, and the darker grades are for
firming in later.

The average price for a 12 pencil set, 8B to 8H is

£4.00.

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2. Clutch Pencils

An alternative to standard pencils is the clutch pencil. This implement is similar to a propelling pencil,
in that you feed the lead into the tip of the pencil by depressing the other end. The lead is the equivalent
thickness to an average pencil lead. As with the use of standard pencils, you will have a selection of clutch
pencil leads, and change leads in the pencil, or purchase extra clutch pencils, dedicating each one to an
individual lead.

The price of each (empty) clutch pencil starts from £9.20.

3. Clutch Pencil Leads

Can be purchased individually, in packets of two, and packets of 14. Lead grade range is more limited than
standard pencils, from 2B to 2H, due in part to the impossibility of using very soft leads in a clutch pencil.
The average price for a lead is £2.00.

4. Clutch Pencil Sharpener

Necessary to sharpen clutch pencil leads, this is a small plastic drum with two
holes in one end. The bigger hole is to sharpen the lead completely. Release 2 to
3 cm of lead from the end of your clutch pencil, insert into the bigger hole and
CAREFULLY rotate either the top part that contains the actual pencil or the drum,
keeping the pencil stationary. Do not force the pencil or the sharpener, as the lead
will break. It is essential to have a clutch pencil sharpener for your clutch pencil.
Keep your sharpener in a separate box or bag from all other implements, as it will
always have graphite residue coating it. The price range for a sharpener is usually
around £4.15.
Clutch pencil sharpener

5. Pencil Erasers

The best two erasers for the above lead types is a plastic eraser, (these come in various sizes, priced from £1
to £4) or a kneadable putty rubber, which is good for erasing larger areas of heavier markings. As its name
implies, you can knead it to literally freshen it up. The eraser must be kept in a container for it to keep moist.

Price from £1.50.

6. Erasing Shield

This is a paper thin sheet of stainless steel, about 9cm x 6cm. The sheet has cut-outs as in a template. These
cut-outs are small squares, ovals, curves and lines. The purpose of it is to let the drawer erase small mistakes
without erasing the surrounding area that is to be kept. You choose the shape that matches best the area to
be erased, place the shield over and erase! Do not be afraid of cutting or shaping your plastic erasers into a
shape that best suits the area to be erased. If you have a putty rubber, then you can twist it into the desired
shape.

Price of an erasing shield is usually around £1.50. It is sensible to keep two or three on hand, as it is easy to
damage them.

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7. Tweezers

You will need decent pointed surgical tweezers.

design in action
Use them to hold-cut off chunks of eraser that are
too small to hold for those really small alterations,
or if you have dirty hands and have to touch clean
paper. Also useful to remove jammed leads out of
sharpeners. A really good maintenance tool, these are
available from your chemist.

8. Scalpel Handle and Blades

Buy the best craft knife on the market (if it’s good
enough for surgeons, then it will do a clean job of Modern Furniture Classics:
trimming your paper!). The handle and blade come ‘Marshmallow’ sofa designed by George
in separate parts, so make sure that the blades fit Nelson in 1956 for Herman Miller.
your handle. Recommended is the number 11 blade. Photo by Simon Kenny
Blades come separately, or in boxes, for about £1.40
each or £3.50 for a packet of 10 blades. Handles start
from around £4 each.

9. Used Wine Bottle Cork

Use this to impale your current scalpel blade on, not just to protect your fingers, but also implements that
will share the same container.

10. Cutting Mat

This is a rubberised 3mm – 5mm thick mat, usually green, that is designed for you to damage rather than
your table, by cutting on it. It has dimensioned guidelines so you can correctly estimate lengths. Mats come
in all paper sizes from A5 upwards. Start with an A3, and consider getting an A1 and A4 at a later date,
depending on the usage you would give them.

11. Artline fibre tip pens

These are available in differing colours from all stationers, though black is traditionally
used for drafting plans and elevations. Such pens are the logical replacement of the
Rotring pen. They come in a variety of tip thicknesses, but typically 0.2 and 0.4 are used
for drafting plans, elevations and perspectives.

The thicker 0.6 is an excellent tool for sketching your ideas. There are, of course, other
makes or brands of this type of pen, which are all quite acceptable.

12. Drawing Board

You will need a board to apply your drawing paper to, which should be no smaller than A2. The cheapest
board is an off-cut from your local hardware store of smooth laminated MDF. It must have been cut squarely.
This can be propped up on a book (so it faces up to you like a school desk).
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Otherwise, there are varied tabletop and floor-standing drawing boards, ranging from £40.00 upwards (new).
Some boards have adjustable T- squares already installed, which will up the price. Most floor standing
boards are either A1 or A0 in size, which is preferable if you have space. Check out local auctions for floor
standing boards; they are much cheaper second-hand.

NEVER use your drawing board as a cutting board!

13. Masking Tape

You will need a roll to stick your drawing paper to your board!

14. T-Square

This allows you to draw horizontal lines. However, if you have a homemade drawing board, the sides must
be square; if not, you’ll have no horizontal lines.

If you are right-handed, hold the square in your left

hand, place it on your drawing board, so the handle
rests on the left-hand side, so you can slide it up and
design comment
down, therefore letting you draw multiple horizontal What’s the single, most important
lines at will. If you are left-handed, do the same, but piece of advice you’d want to give a
holding the T-square in your right hand. beginning designer?

T-squares come in varying lengths to cover sizes from

A4 to A0. Some have a measure running the length of
the rule, which is helpful if you are right-handed, but
like many other implements, the makers assume that
left-handed people do not use them, and a T-square with
“ ... always be adaptable and
willing to learn new things whether it’s
a new computer skill or on-site work.
Remember, everyone on a building site
has very good skills listen – learn, adapt
a measuring guide has never been seen for left-handed and make it better.
people.
Make sure that you are creative and
Never use your T-square as a ruler for your cutting inspirational to everyone around you,
knife!
not at work but in your everyday life as
you don’t know who you might meet!

”
15. Adjustable Set Square
Robin Davis
Architectural Interiors Ltd
This has a dual purpose:

(1) It measures angles of 90 degrees. Therefore, if you rest it on your T-square, you can draw vertical lines at
will.

(2) You can alter the angle from the standard 90 degrees. You will see an angle adjusting device on the
square, loosen the knob and slide the measure to your desired angle, and tighten the knob again. Rest the
adjusted set square on the T-square the same way as drawing a vertical line.

Adjustable set squares come in various sizes. Start with a bigger square, and get a small one later if you feel
the need. Smaller set squares are easier to manipulate, though have a shorter line.

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16. Scale Rulers

There are two different designs of scale rulers, the first resembles a standard double-
edged ruler, containing eight different scales, the second resembles a Toblerone
chocolate bar, containing six different scales. Both designs have their merits. The
triangular scale rules have more than one model, each containing different scales.
The most frequently used scales for plans and details are 1.20, 1.50 and 1.100.

17. Rulers Rotatable scale rulers

Besides using a T-square, adjustable set square, scale rules etc., you will have to get some rulers. All should
be stainless steel, not plastic. The following are recommended: 300mm and 600mm. A few drafting rulers
have foam backing. This stops the ruler sliding down your drawing board, but is more expensive. If you
need a ruler to cut against, keep it aside for that purpose – a cutting blade has been known to shave a metal
ruler, jeopardising the straight edge.

18. French Curves

A wave-shaped piece of plastic, designed to be drawn against, letting you

create curved lines, useful for drawing furniture in perspective. These
usually come in sets of three: small, medium and large. All sizes are
useful.

Remember, if you are using any template to draw curves that are to join
straight lines, draw the curves first.

19. Protractor

This device allows you to measure angles and draw accordingly, i.e. it An illustration created using
does the job of the adjustable set square, but also lets you measure the French curves
angles of drawn lines - worth having as a back-up, cost, £0.60 upwards.

20. Compass

Draws circles, but a decent set contains one small compass, one big compass, one extension arm, spikes and
leads. The compass uses leads like the clutch pencil, and the extension arm lets you draw circles the size of
pizzas. It has two thicknesses of spikes, which are inserted the same way as the leads. Be careful with the
compass point, it is not necessary to impale your drawing board but gently spike the paper.

20. Templates and Stencils

Never use letter stencils, the lettering will make your work look amateurish; practice your writing instead.
Incidentally, lettering should be drawn and not written to guarantee legibility.

Templates exist for circles, squares, isometric and axonometric squares and circles, and all other structured
shapes. They also are available for furnishings, kitchenware, bathware etc. Each template is available in a
different scale to accommodate your drawing, so always check this first. Bathware templates retail for about
£20.00 upwards. Some kitchen and bathware manufacturers have templates they will provide to interior
designers.
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22. Paper

Cartridge paper is available in pads from A5 design story

upwards to A0, though the most used is A4, A3
and A2. An A2 cartridge pad of 50 sheets retails
from £8.00 a go. Cult classic
The cult classic, pitcher no. 1044 by Henning
A cheaper method is to buy a ream (500 sheets) of Koppel, one of Denmark’s most celebrated
A4 photocopy paper starting from around £4.00. designers is probably the most recognisable piece
the designer made for Georg Jensen’s exclusive
living range.
23. Tracing Paper
Originally a stone sculptor, Koppel began his
Available in sheet or pad form from A4 up to career at Georg Jensen in 1945 and went on to
A0. Tracing paper exists in traditional paper
become the indisputable master of silverwork
form, or plastic sheeting. Both have advantages
and disadvantages. Paper tracing paper has design in the second half of the 20th century.
the advantage that ink dries relatively quickly He won the prestigious Lunning Prize in 1953
but, is impossible to remove, and pencil can and during his career designed lights for Louis
be erased adequately. Plastic tracing paper has Poulsen, glass for Kastrup and Orrefors, and
the disadvantage that pencil can easily smudge, furniture for Kvetny & Sonner.
and ink takes forever to dry (use a hairdryer,
blowing no closer than 30cm away), but its great Each silver pitcher is hand-beaten, with the handle
advantage is that both pencil and ink can be alone requiring 15 metres of silver thread and 200
(carefully) scraped off with a scalpel blade. It is
hours to produce the final product. Originals made
recommended that you experiment with both.
from silver fetch between £9,000 – £20,000 at
auction.
24. Yellow trace paper roll

An invaluable tool for sketching your concepts

and developmental designs on. The rolls come in
two widths, 300mm and 600mm.

25. Graph Paper

Available in sheet or pad form, from A4 to A0.

26. Calculator

If you don’t have one, get one. A simple model is all that is required, but big buttons decrease the likelihood
of mistakes being made.

27. Lightbox

Simply speaking, it is a large box, the top of which is white glass (or white Perspex) covered in a glass
sheet, which acts as a table-top. Inside the box are two strip lights. The purpose of this device is to let you
backlight anything you need to trace, though it also shows up all unnecessary details, so tracing from graph
paper can be tricky.

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28. Electric Pencil Sharpener

Considered to be a luxury item, but if you have a bulk of drawing to do then it does save time. Look out for
them at garage sales and op shops.

29. Spray Adhesive

Or spray mount. Aerosol glue which is useful for overlaying details and photos onto
drawings, along with any other application you can think of. Leaves a smooth finish that
cannot be obtained by stick glues. Can be messy, you will need a backing board, and
spray outside and 20-30 cm away from the paper. Tweezers are necessary to handle the
wet glue-backed paper en route to its final destination.

30. Aerosol Fixative

This stabilises pencil drawings so they cannot be smudged or erased (except on plastic
tracing paper). To be applied the same way as a spray adhesive.

31. Paint Brush

When you erase or need to sweep your drawing, do not rub it, as it will smudge the lines. A 5cm paintbrush
will serve the purpose. Make sure that it is new, i.e. has been nowhere near a paint pot!

32. Coloured Pencils

There are many varieties of colour pencils, soft and hard, water-soluble and oil-based. The best for starters
is Derwent Studio. Get a small set to begin with, between 15 and 25 pencils. Remember, you can mix most
colours from primary coloured pencils.

Also get a chinagraph white pencil, which is good for indicating reflections.

33. Pantone or Copic Pens

Solvent-based colour felt pens that come in a huge

design comment

“
range of colours and tones. Do not be tempted to
purchase bright, strong colours at first. Pale shades There is a strong emphasis now
will give depth to pencil colours. However, if you are on marketing and branding of products,
using tracing paper to render on, these pens should and interiors can be a big part of
be used on the REVERSE side of the paper. They are
creating an image. Shops and restaurant
expensive, starting from £3.00 each (10 coloured fine
liners starting from around £6.00). interiors are about selling a product – and
apartment interiors are about selling

”
lifestyle.
Tina Engelen, Interior Designer
www.tinaengelen.com

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Lettering

Neat, hand-drawn lettering is essential to labelling your floor plans, perspective drawings, sample
boards etc.

Hand Lettering

People develop their own style of lettering with practice. The most important rules are that lettering on plans
must be consistent, not distract from the drawing and, above all, it must be readable.

Using lightly pencilled guidelines is a way to ensure consistency of size.

KEEP THE LETTERING HEIGHT CONSISTENT

ABCDEF GH IJK L M NO P Q RS T U V WX YZ 12 3 4 56 7 89

It is wise to keep the lettering RULER

vertical ... a small plastic set
square can be useful STAY VERTICAL

Keep the letters in proportion,

and adopt a style which is
IS OK 2 W I D E 2NARROW
comfortable to read.

Spaces between the letters

should not be the same. They
SPACING OK WR ONG
will vary naturally. With
practice, you will see whether
the spacing ‘feels’ right, or it’s
somehow ‘uncomfortable’.

11
Scale Drawing of Plans

How to Draw up Floor Plans

The floor plan will serve as an essential map of the project that you are undertaking. This will be done as
soon as the client has confirmed that they have chosen you to work for them.

From that time onwards, the drawings will constantly be used by yourself as reference, allowing you to
calculate anything from materials to be used, to furniture plans. It can also be used by trades, i.e. a builder
will have to have floor plans to aid his quote.

It is therefore essential that you take the time and are accurate!

Whether you intend to use a computer or drawing board to draw up your final plans, you will have to get
down on your hands and knees with a tape measure.

Prior to any measuring, you will have to do the following:

1. When first visiting the site, take note on the ceiling height, external height, overall length and width of the
building; this will help you assess what equipment and how may assistants to take with you to measure
the building.

2. Arrange with your client a time that you can do the measure-up, advising on the estimated time it will
take to do this. Remember, measuring takes much longer than would first appear. This is the first process
of information gathering for you to build your designs later. This is one of the few times that the client
will let you do this, so the more information you get now will save the client’s and your time later.

For a three bedroom/two bathroom house allow up to a working day.

3. Check if the client will allow you to bring a camera

and/or camcorder.
design in action
4. Make sure that your client is aware that you will be
investigating all nooks and crannies of their building,
and that any large obstacles will have to be moved,
by either the client before your arrival, or yourself,
with or without the help of your client. This must be
agreed on prior to your visit.

You may need to take with you some or all of the

following:

1. A3 plain paper pad

2. Several pens (two to three colours), HB pencils,
sharpener and eraser
3. Steel ruler, 600 max
4. Steel pull-out ruler (available up to 25 metres long)
The curves of the metal stairway echo
5. Discus rule (for long distances)
the curves of the ceiling.
6. Step ladder/ladder (depending on building heights)
Photo by Simon Kenny
7. Camera and/or camcorder

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8. A compass
9. Hand-held laser distance meter*

* Hand-held device that accurately measures distance, area and volume. These machines radically shorten
measuring time, providing that they are held horizontally. Otherwise false readings will occur.

Give yourself some guidelines which should be

practised each time.

1. Decide how you measure, i.e. either include door/

window architraves as part of the wall, or measure up
to and excluding the architraves.

2. What you do not include on your plan will have to be

charted, i.e. draw up detailed charts of door sizes,
window architrave widths, door surrounds and so on.

3. When measuring wall heights, always include skirting

boards.

4. Number all doors.

5. Number all windows.

6. Use all standard drawing symbols and abbreviations as used in architectural building and engineering
drawings. This will eliminate all risks of any misunderstanding between you, the interior designer, and
any fabricators that you will use.

7. Draw up room by room, do not cross reference.

8. A camera or camcorder will help by recording the site for future reference. You can also record toilets,
doors, anything that may have to be replaced or matched at a later date. However, remember to ask the
client’s permission first!

9. Write clearly! It is all too easy to scribble stuff down as you go, assuming you will remember what that
squiggle is when you draw the site later – it never happens.

10. Use your compass to work out the North Point; whether you are designing interior, or interior and
exterior, you will have to know what light is expected to come through which windows. The North Point
should be included in all drawings.

Once the site is fully measured, all the details that you have taken have to be collated into the final plans.

There are two methods of drafting; by hand or by computer. For both methods, scaling the drawing has to be
considered. Most builders prefer 1:100 for a house, but for individual rooms, a scale of 1:50 or 1:20 is used
If you should have to deal with any councils, check first as to what scale they specify you to use. The duty
planner can help you here also.

The scale used must be specified on the front of the drawing. If a plan is drawn or printed ‘not to scale’, then
it must be specified on the front of the drawing, as should the site address.

13
If the dimensions prove too many for the plan, then split them into separate drawings, which each have to be
titled to explain this, i.e. Ground Floor – Door and Window Dimensions, Ground Floor Wall Dimensions.

When you are satisfied that you have completed

all necessary drawings, make sure that either they
are saved on your computer, or if you have hand- design story
drawn the plans, you have copies made, and only
use the copies as working drawings.
Maison &
How To Manually Draw Floor Plans

You may need some or all of the following:

Objet
When it comes to home decor, Maison & Objet is
on the cutting-edge of style. The colours, textures,
• Graph paper no smaller than A3
shapes, and motifs that surface at Paris’ premier
• Scale rule
bi-annual home furnishings exhibition always
• Adjustable set square shape trends for months to come. And as result,
• 2H, H, HB and B pencils designers, buyers and chic-seekers arrive by the
• Tracing paper same size as graph paper thousands.
• Eraser
• Pencil sharpener Maison et Objet is an enormous bazaar of style, a
• Tape measure show of shows that’s filled with everything from
luxurious fabrics and furniture to housewares, bed
• Templates – assorted shapes
linens, tableware, crafts, gardening gear, carpets
• Artline pens, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6
and goods from Asian and African cultures. It has
• Drawing board over 3,000 exhibitors who come from around the
• T-square world – but the booths epitomise Parisian savoir
• Clutch pencil (optional) faire. Besides the show itself, held twice a year at
• Clutch pencil leads 2H, H, HB and 2B the Parc des Expositions outside of Paris, many
(optional) design events take place throughout the city.
• Erasing shield

Having visited your site area and taken

preliminary measurements, it is time to translate
your notations.

Fig 1 sheets 1 and 2 (see diagrams at the end of

this Tutorial) demonstrate the sort of diagrams
you should be doing on site. NEVER throw these
drawings away, and keep them separate from the
other drawings that you will make from them.

This is not an exercise in aesthetics (you’ll notice

that the drawing on Fig 1 sheet 2 is not centred),
but to get all information you need down on paper, allowing you to pick what information you need later
from these drawings to create your working plans.

A note on the door openings. You will see in Fig 1 sheets 1 and 2, that the openings are demonstrated with a
diagonal line indicating direction. This system could only be used when taking quick plan sketches. At ALL
OTHER times a quarter circle MUST be used. The reason is this…
14
Imagine drawing a small empty space such as a toilet cubicle, with a door opening inwards, with the idea of
installing a new toilet inside. A diagonal opening line will give a false indication of the opening span of the
door, with the probable result that the door will hit the new toilet when it is installed. Therefore this principle
will also apply to the rooms in the illustrations and to any work you do.

To start on the scale plan drawing, get a sheet of A3 graph paper, and apply to your drawing board, so that
the paper edges are parallel with the drawing board edges.

A scale that the drawing is to be drawn in must be chosen. The plan in Fig 2 is drawn to 1:50, for separate
room drawings done on the A3 sheet you could take the scale to 1:20. It is not recommended to go smaller
than 1:100, (i.e. 1:250) as it will become increasingly hard to read.

Note: for all scaled drawing, it is not only essential but obligatory that a scale ruler be used. If you do not
have one, now is the time to purchase one!

Never ever try to mentally translate scales with a traditional ruler, it always goes wrong!!

To start, use H or 2H pencil or clutch pencil, and work out the layout of the plan. You will see in Fig 2, the
far left-hand side of Bed 1 has been left at this stage, it does not matter that the lines run over each other, or
run off the paper, they will be erased later.

When you have finished drawing the backing lines in 2H, it is time to FIRM IN, i.e. the finishing of your 2H
lines to give a final traceable illustration.

There are two implements you can use; the first is an HB pencil, and the second an Artline Pen. (Note,
whether you use a standard pencil or a clutch pencil, it MUST be kept sharp at all times, otherwise you will
start to get uneven lines, look at the bottom right corner of Bed 2).

Fig 2 uses both HB pencil and Artline pens, the pencil is mid-way through Bed 1 to the wall dividing Bed 2
and the lounge. In Fig 2, an 0.4 pen was used for all exterior walls and doors, and an 0.2 for the rest.

This is known as LINE HIERARCHY. If lines have different thicknesses and/or tones, then the finished
drawing will have depth and therefore definition, allowing you to emphasise areas you want the viewer to
concentrate on.

Use proper symbols where possible; these will be understood by electricians, and any other relevant trades,
who would see from Fig 2 that the house has only one-way switches and double-switched socket outlets and
a hot water heater in the laundry.

Your first plan drawing, as in Fig 2, is your template, and must be treated carefully, as distortion will lead to
false measurements. However, there are no dimensions on Fig 2, they will be added later, referring back to
Fig 1 sheets 1 and 2 for the relevant information.

From now on it is best to use tracing paper to collate the information, using the tracing paper to become a
series of layers.

A note on layers. What layers you create, and how much information is on each layer, is up to you. In
the case of our two-bedroom house, Fig 3 has all essential information. You will notice that all doors and
windows have been numbered, so now it will be easy to itemise each window and door in a chart for either
dimensions or finishes. Always double check your drawing. You’ll see in Fig 3, Window 1 is in Bed 2,
going to Window 6 in the Laundry. Logically, Bed 1 window should be number 1, finishing with the laundry
which would be window 7. What happened here is the windows were not double-checked, and to avoid
major erasing, Bed 1 window became number 7. In this case it doesn’t matter, but any changes relating to a
dimension will have to be redone.
15
However, Fig 3 is missing some wall dimensions such
as the internal walls of the dining room. This would
overcrowd the drawing leading to confusion, so a
design in action
separate layer (Fig 4) consisting of these dimensions
was made, which can be overlaid onto Fig 3 to give
the full scheme.

To draw a furniture plan (Fig 5), lay a blank sheet

of tracing paper over Fig 2 or Fig 3, and draw in the
items you require to illustrate.

To create Fig 6, apply Fig 2 onto your drawing board,

on top of that place Fig 5, and on top of that place a
blank piece of tracing paper, and draw the relevant
dimensions.

You can as easily combine layers – furniture, spatial

dimensions and even furniture dimensions could be
combined into one layer. In the dining room, two overscaled
pendant lamps add impact over the
Computer drafting systems such as AutoCad use the timber dining setting. The design
principle of layering in the same way.
of the kitchen cabinetry is repeated
on the dining side for a seamless
appearance.
Photo by Simon Kenny

16
Elevation Plan

While a floor plan is a view of the floor of a room from above, an elevation is a vertical view of a wall,
or a plan of a wall or vertical surface.

CLICK HERE FOR HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE  17

Standard Symbols

A series of standard symbols are used by architects and interior designers to indicate materials,
electrical outlets etc. on floor plans and elevations. In order to read complex architectural plans you
will need to refer to these.

Symbolic Representation of Materials

Sections

CLICK HERE FOR HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE  18

Symbolic Representation of Materials

CLICK HERE FOR HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE  19

Symbolic Representation of Elements

Walls, Window Sets and Door Sets

CLICK HERE FOR HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE  20

Symbolic Representation of Elements

Vertical Circulation and Surface Falls

CLICK HERE FOR HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE  21

Symbolic Representation of Fixtures and Fittings

CLICK HERE FOR HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE  22

Symbolic Representation of Elements

Electrical Services

CLICK HERE FOR HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE  23

Self-Exercise #1

Looking at the hand lettering on page 11 of this tutorial, have a go at practising this. Remember that
all lettering has to be in BLOCK CAPITALS, to avoid any potential confusion. Rather than write
lettering as you would normally, draw architectural lettering. In other words for the letter N, two
vertical lines are drawn with a diagonal linking them both.

The Story of British Interior Design and Architectural Styles

When dealing with the interiors of period homes and the adaptive reuse of heritage buildings, it
is imperative to have a good knowledge of architectural and design history. Furthermore, when
examining design in Britain it is useful to have an understanding of the design of ancient civilisations
that have had a strong influence such as Egyptian, Greek and Roman.

Ancient Egyptian Design 3100-311BC

The first historic civilisations appeared in Egypt and in the Tigris-Euphrates valley in Asia Minor. Unfired
mud brick was the main building material used in the Tigris-Euphrates valley and consequently little has
remained to shed light on the interiors from this time. However, Egypt’s temples and tombs were built of
stone, some even cut into solid rock, and have survived well.

Temples are characterised by vast hypostyle halls

filled with rows of columns to support stone roofing,
design story
Contemporary
the forms of the stone columns based either on
earlier columns of bundled reeds plastered with mud
or other plant forms. Walls were carved or painted
with written and illustrated inscriptions.
c. 1950-Present
Although houses from this period have not survived, Late 20th-Century designs originated in
miniature models found in some tombs give an idea of various countries are unified by stark simplicity
what interiors may have been like as does the furniture with long lines and low, horizontal forms,
placed inside to accompany the body into an afterlife.
vivid colours and strong contrasts, primarily
Furniture was light and simple, much of it portable
using man-made materials and sophisticated
or folding but made with fine proportions, subdued
carving and sometimes-colourful painted details. manufacturing techniques.
Walls featured decorations and woven materials Plastics and chrome are used extensively,
in rich colours. Columns were another decorative along with large expanses of glass window-
feature. Interiors were linked to the outdoors through walls. Furnishings are fashioned in rectilinear
open loggias and courtyards. Parts of rooms were or simple curvilinear forms. Woven fabrics
even open to the sky via the cloth awning.
in geometric patterns and bright solids are
incorporated to soften hard edges.
Ancient Greek design 650-30BC

Ancient Greek buildings have survived only as

ruins. Although important buildings were built in
stone, wood, which has since perished, was used
for roofing. Plans of ancient Greek houses can be
reconstructed from excavated ruins. However, the
main source of knowledge regarding interior design
and furniture is from the detailed representations on
vases and other pottery.
24
An excellent example of early Greek design can be seen in the restored portions of the palace of Knossos
in Crete (Circa 1600BC), which exhibits a grand staircase with its columns and a throne room with wall
painted decoration.

Greek art and design has been widely admired due to the fine proportions of buildings. This is best seen
in the temple architecture produced in the later historic civilisation of Greece. The common Greek temple
was a windowless rectangle building either surrounded by columns on all sides or with a front portico using
columns designed according to orders (a system of proportions).

There are three major orders: Doric, Ionic and

Corinthian (each named for the supposed place
of origin). Each order is defined by a particular
column design and a standardised system of
detailing the cornice above, which decorates the
stone lintels spanning from column to column.
The details seem to be based on an earlier system
of wood building that has been translated into
stone.

The Doric order has a simple column with no

base and a plain block capitol that has a pure and Doric Ionic Corinthian
distinguished effect. The spiral volute capitol of
the Ionic order displays a feminine charm in comparison. The Corinthian order is the most ornate with a
more elaborate capitol with acanthus leaf decoration.

Interior Design and Decoration

The generally simple rooms used restrained mouldings and elements taken from the architectural systems.
Rooms were decorated by objects such fine cups, dishes and vases and boldly coloured textiles such as
hangings, cushions and coverings.

Furniture was also of simple form and featured coloured decoration. A chair type known as Klismos was
characteristic of ancient Greek design. It had outward curving legs that could be considered structurally
inappropriate for wood, and it has been suggested that animal horns may have previously been used for legs.
The same basic leg design is seen in beds and couches.

Roman (43–406) 753BC-365AD

The earliest architecture found in Britain was built by the Romans, who occupied Britain from 43 until
406AD, excepting primitive hut dwellings and such prehistoric monuments as Stonehenge and Maiden
Castle. The Romans built the first cities and towns, which include Colchester (Camulodunum), St Albans
(Verulamium), Bath (Aquae Sulis), Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum), Wroxeter (Viroconium), Caerwent
(Isca Silurum), London (Londinium), York (Eboracum), Leicester (Ratae), Lincoln (Lindum), Gloucester
(Glevum) and Cirencester (Corinium), although many of these buildings have been lost or have yet to be
excavated.

25
The Romans imposed their own Mediterranean style of
architecture and town planning. Public buildings were
generally grouped around the forum or marketplace, as design story
at St Albans. Domestic townhouses are best studied at
St Albans, where the streets form a chessboard pattern;
the houses were centrally heated by hot air, equipped
with baths, and provided with mosaic floors. Larger
French Chic
Simple, large-scale furniture, set against a
dwellings include palaces, such as Fishbourne near
Chichester, and villas or country houses from where palette of white and pale aqua, evokes the
farming was carried on, some of them having over 50 casual elegance of southern French houses.
rooms. Accessories with a modern twist, such as the
paper chandelier, add a stylish edge.
Villas were inhabited by the native tribal aristocracy
adapting to the Roman ways of life. Consequently,
villas are concentrated where the native tribes were
most friendly: southern and midland England. They are
chiefly situated south and east of a line from York to
Exeter. Villas were built in rural areas but usually no
more than ten miles from town so that the owners could
conduct their business affairs. However, villas were
centres of rural industry in themselves. One complex
often held the landowner, their servants, overseers,
labourers, storehouses and industrial buildings.

Villas were generally one storey in height, based on

stone foundations and capped with slate or clay tiled
roofs. Floors were marbled or tiled often with mosaics,
and walls were plaster and either painted plain colours
or featured painted scenes. Under-floor heating systems
were universal. The second and third centuries were the golden period for villas, many even boasting
separate bathhouses. The best examples of villas are at Bignor, Sussex; Brading, Isle of Wight; Chedworth,
Gloucestershire; Folkestone, Kent; and Northleigh and Woodchester in Oxfordshire. After the departure of
the Roman legions at the beginning of the 5th-century villas fell into disuse or were taken over for other
purposes.

Interior Design And Decoration

Little is known about interior design and decoration in Roman Britain. However, it is likely that the Romans
replicated the designs used in Rome. Hence the study of ancient Roman interiors is crucial to understanding
Roman Britain. Roman interior decoration is known both from literary sources from the period and from
excavations.

Building Materials
As bronze was a scarce and expensive metal, much of the bronze used in Roman architecture was melted
down during medieval times to create new work leading to the possibly incorrect assumption that marble
predominated. Although much of the surviving marble is colourless, wall paintings at Pompeii and
Herculaneum show that coloured marble was used. Wall decoration began there around 150BC. By about
80BC plastered walls were painted to look like masonry to blend in with the true architectural features such
as doors and pilasters (flattened columns attached to the wall). These walls were painted in an imitation
marble style in hues of yellow, black, magenta and red, indicating an earlier custom of applying marble
veneers. Marble was also sometimes gilded. Time and exposure to the weather can account for the loss of
colour and gilding of remaining marble.
26
Other building materials include polished slabs of white and coloured stone that covered brick walls and
exotic imported marbles. Obsidian, a natural volcanic glass, dark green or purplish-brown in colour, and
copper-green malachite were used in more luxurious interiors or for special purposes. The Romans were
highly skilled glassworkers. Domestic glass was made in large quantities, both utilitarian and decorative, and
factories were established for the purpose. However, mirrors were made with polished bronze or silver rather
than glass.

Furniture
Roman furniture was made of stone, wood or bronze. Wooden furniture has not survived, but the use of
bronze is well-known. Tables were often made of stone or exotic woods and veneers, with ivory, bronze or
silver trim. Tortoiseshell veneers were popular. Dining couches were used instead of chairs and these were
richly decorated, often with gilded silver or bronze. Like earlier Greek forms, chairs had cushions rather than
fixed upholstery. Buffets with tiers of shelves were used to display silver.

Pottery
Vessels such as storage jars (amphorae), lamps, bricks, pipes and architectural ornaments were made in
factories as was tableware, which was often marked with the name of the potter. Pottery for the table
was commonly Samian ware. Although Samian ware was made in many other places than Samos, it was
distinguished by its red polished surface and, often, moulded relief decoration reminiscent of contemporary
silver.

Fine quality pottery vases mimicked those in Greece and included most of the familiar Greek styles. The
krater style was popular; it featured a large round body, largemouth, and small handles although the form
often varied. Vases were usually black with red decoration. This was much more elaborate than the Greek
originals.

Decoration
Most themes of Roman decoration came
from Greek sources. They became part of the
design comment
language of decoration that was used during Site Interiors

“
later classical revivals, such as the Renaissance
and the Neoclassical movement of the 18th We believe in a holistic, cohesive
century.
approach to design that dissolves the
The acanthus leaf is by far the most common boundaries between architecture and interiors,
decoration and was used almost continually functionalism and aesthetics. Site is about
from the 5th century BC in Greece to the appreciating that great designs have subtle
19th century AD in the West. While the elements of surprise, unexpected twists and

”
acanthus leaf of the Greeks and Byzantines bring living and working spaces alive.
is inclined to be stiff and formal, the Roman
and Renaissance form is much more natural.
The vine-leaf and grapes motif was used
frequently, and the palmette occurs particularly
on painted vases. The ivy, laurel, olive and
honeysuckle (anthemion) are commonly seen
as frieze ornament, sometimes in stylised
form. Garlands, swags of laurel, festoons
and cable or twisted rope (a kind of plaited
ornament) were common features in relief
sculpture.

Stylised roses with equally spaced petals, Suzanne Green and Melissa Collison, interior design
known as rosettes, were widely used.
27
Originating in Assyria, rosettes have continued in use to the present day. Egg-like forms alternating with
tongue or dart-shaped ornaments were originally a carved stone architectural ornament. However, in later
times they were used as part of interior plasterwork.

The frieze of small putti, or cupids, in a variety of guises and at work at a large number of different tasks
was a common type of embellishment, as seen in the remains of Pompeii. These remained popular until well
into the 18th century, when porcelain figures of putti in disguise or in an allegorical pose became common.
They also formed part of wall decorations and were painted on furniture.

Reading

• Architecture in Roman Britain, Guy de la Bedoyere, Shire Publications Ltd, 2002

• Towns in Roman Britain, Julian Bennett, Shire Publications Ltd, 2001
• Roman Villas, David E. Johnston, Shire Publications Ltd, 2004

Saxon (600–1050)

There is little remaining architecture from the Anglo-

design in action
Saxon period as most of the buildings were burnt and
destroyed during the frequent warfare and invasions,
largely at the hands of the Vikings between 800-
950AD. Most of the architecture that has survived
dates from either 600-725AD or 900-1050AD.
Another cause for the lack of Saxon architecture is the
building material used. Saxon buildings were largely
constructed of wood with wattle and daub walls. Only
monasteries and churches were built in stone. Saxon
churches are generally small and simple with little
decorative elements. Windows are often narrow slits
with rounded tops. The chancel and nave are usually
separate rectangular enclosures. Saxon churches
usually have towers that the villagers used as a
lookout point and a defensive structure to assist when
they were under attack. Stone crosses and vertical This luxurious contemporary house
stonework were other common features. designed by Dino Raccanello of
Archlinea features subtle lighting
Domestic buildings were simple square or rectangular
effects and design classics such as the
one-room structures made of wood with thatch and
two ‘Barcelona’ chairs designed by
sometimes with turf and wooden shingle roofs.
Most houses had no windows, and those that did Mies van der Rohe shown here.
were usually covered with thin animal skins. Many
buildings had sunken floors where plank floor was
suspended over a pit, which may have been used for storage or as a work area or filled with straw for
insulation. Saxons also kept warm with a central fire with a hole in the roof to let smoke escape. Even the
halls of nobles followed this simple design.

Reading

• The Anglo-Saxons, James Campbell, ed., Penguin, 1991

• British Architectural Styles: An Easy Reference Guide, Trevor Yorke, Countryside Books, 2008

28
Medieval or Middle Ages (1066-1530)

Also called the Middle Ages, Medieval design was heavily influenced by religious and regal themes.

Walls and floors were stone, often with rich wood accents, and were softened by plush, deep-toned rugs
and wall tapestries that were usually hung on decorative metal rods and embellished with tassels. Carved
detailing in wood panelling and exposed wooden ceiling beams were typical as was a prominent stone
fireplace and hearth. Intricate wooden inlay designs and carvings were common on dining room tables.
Chairs and benches were also made of carved wood and upholstered using fabrics such as velvet, chenille,
damask, and brocade using deep colours such as red, gold or blue. Such fabrics were also used on sofas and
draperies.

Medieval architecture can be loosely categorised into four main stages. These are Romanesque or Norman
(1066-1200), Early English Gothic (1200-1275), Decorated Gothic (1275-1375) and Perpendicular Gothic
(1375-1530).

Romanesque or Norman
Romanesque design was the style of the early Middle Ages, from about 800-1200AD, and in the British Isles
is commonly referred to as Norman. Romanesque refers to the churches, monasteries and castles built by
the Normans shortly before their conquest of Britain in 1066 until the end of the 12th century. The conquest
and the resulting influx of Norman barons and ecclesiastics brought about a revolution in society and
architecture. Also, many medieval knights had travelled to the Holy Land on crusades and were influenced
by the solid fortresses of the Byzantine Empire. During this time many churches were rebuilt and moved to
more favourable positions by the first Norman bishop to take over.

Romanesque copied the pattern and proportion of Roman

architecture and was characterised by barrel vaults, round
arches, thick piers and few windows. Toward the end of
the Romanesque era, larger churches began to show more
elaborate decorative detail and structural experiments in
buttressed vaulting moved the style toward the development of
Gothic style.

Monasticism produced a large number of churches, chapter

houses, cloisters and dormitories, many surviving in
reasonable condition. In these, simplicity became a matter of
religious conviction as well as a practical necessity. Hence,
they were minimally decorated, which drew attention to the
spatially impressive structures.

Early medieval castles were often simple tower houses built

in easily defended locations. Existing interiors with stone
floors and roofs reveal the generally unornamented functional
Abbatiale de Saint-Austremoine.
character of Romanesque design through such details as
Superb romanesque architecture
fireplaces for heat and cooking and stone window seats at the
small slit-like window openings. Furniture was also minimal
due to the undeveloped standards of comfort and because
occupants moved frequently in order to maintain their authority throughout their territories.

Thus, furniture consisted of plank on trestle tables, benches and stools of simple design, demountable,
portable beds, trunk-like chests for storage, and tapestries as wall coverings. Peasants had even less
possessions and extremely basic furniture.

29
Gothic Design

Gothic design is widely regarded as one of the great achievements of the

Middle Ages. The characteristic feature of Gothic design is the pointed
arch which appeared in door and window mouldings, around fireplaces
and ceiling constructions. The degree of elaboration reflected the wealth
and position of builders and owners. The vault also characterised Gothic
design; a technical development that made it possible to raise the height
of the building and fill the walls with large window areas. At its peak, the
cathedral became a skeletal stone cage with wall areas largely filled with
stained glass windows which depicted religious narratives.

The layouts of medieval houses varied greatly to suit each occupant’s needs
rather than adhering to any particular style. Medieval art is the greatest
source of information about interiors as intact surviving furniture and Pointed arches are a feature
decorative details are rare. Wood furniture of increasing quality, elaboration of Gothic architecture
and functional variety began to appear. Chairs and benches with designs
that seem to derive from the simple box chest were prevalent and usually
consisted of a frame of heavy metals and thin inserted panels.

Early English Gothic

Beginning in 12th century France, gothic architecture was simply known as ‘the French Style’ until
Renaissance advocates dubbed it Gothic – a reference to the imagined lack of culture of the Goths, a
barbarian tribe who ransacked Rome. Their objection was to Gothic’s abandonment of classical line and
proportion that featured in Romanesque architecture. The crusades exposed Britain to advanced architectural
techniques in the Arab world such as the pointed arch, ribbed vault and the buttress. Not only did pointed
arches in the nave, windows and doorways look better but it was a stronger construction that distributed
stress more efficiently. It allowed vaults to be built over the nave and for builders to dispense of wooden
roofs at risk of fire. Heavy Romanesque piers were replaced by slender dusters of columns and much larger
window sizes, set in thinner walls. Roche Abbey, Wells Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral are excellent
examples of early English gothic design.

Decorated Gothic

The invention of the flying buttress and improved vaulting

techniques meant the walls supported less of the building’s
weight. This meant they could become more decorative
and hold much larger windows. Windows were subdivided
by vertical stone bars known as mullions. Tracery and
ornamentation decorated the windows, now made with more
colourful glass. Columns became higher and more elegant. The
best examples of decorated gothic are Exeter Cathedral and the
Octagon at Ely.

Perpendicular Gothic
The chief characteristic of perpendicular gothic is the use of
strong vertical lines in window tracery that intersected with Exeter Cathedral
the horizontal bars (transoms) used to strengthen windows
now that stained glass was more popular. Fan vaulting, elaborate towers and flowing, decorative flying
buttresses also characterised perpendicular gothic. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, Henry VII’s chapel at
Westminster Abbey and Bath Abbey are great examples.

30
Reading

• Romanesque Architecture in England,

design comment

“
Alfred Clapham, Longmans, 1950
Make sure that you listen to the
• Early Medieval Architecture, Roger
client when they tell you what the
Stalley, Oxford Paperbacks, 1999
budget is; often this is not a figure just
plucked out of the air, this is a figure
England in the Renaissance they have thought about a lot. If they say
£50,000 they mean MAX £50!
Renaissance ideas first appeared in England in the
16th century during Tudor and Elizabethan times
This means it is up to you to make sure
by those who had visited Italy, Italian craftsmen,
and, indirectly, craftsmen-designers from the Low that you are only actually spending
Countries, where a somewhat modified version of £45,000 to allow for the possibility of 10%
Italian and Spanish design existed. more being needed. This is especially true
when doing building works. Allow a 20%
English design of the Renaissance developed in margin of error as there can always be
a series of styles identified, as in France, with the
unforeseen circumstances.
reigning monarchs. Designers, cabinetmakers and
other craftsmen seem to have felt that a change
of rule offered a reason for introducing stylistic More often than not the budget is the
changes that were already in the wind. main initial worry for clients, so whether
they say £5,000 or £50,000 you need to
The great house of Longleat (circa 1568-1580) is make them feel comfortable with the
a perfect example of Elizabethan early renaissance
number they have chosen. As always be
design with its external symmetry and Italianate
honest about what can be achieved with

”
interiors. Hardwick Hall (1590-1597) is another
great example and is likely the work of Robert that number.
Smythson (circa 1535-1614), one of several builder- Kia Richardson
craftsmen who seem to have acted as architects in Kia Designs Ltd - https://www.kiadesigns.co.uk/
this period.

Inigo Jones (1573-1652) took design in a more

sophisticated and consistent high Renaissance direction. He had visited Italy and was familiar with
Palladio’s work. Jones used a Roman temple concept for the English church of St Paul at Covent Garden
(1631), to create an interior of classic simplicity.

Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) built a new Cathedral of St Paul’s with its famous dome and many small
city churches after the great fire of 1666 in London. His designs moved the Renaissance in England a step
closer to the Baroque spirit.

Tudor (1485-1603)

In 1485 Henry Tudor became King Henry VII after winning the battle of Bosworth. The Tudor dynasty
reigned over England seeing the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of Renaissance and was a
period of religious reform where the power of the church declined. Consequently, building effort now went
towards secular, rather than ecclesiastical buildings and tastes turned from the practical to luxury. Permanent
houses with amenities replaced the rustic cottages and sparse furniture of the Middle Ages. As the period
progressed, there was a shift away from the grand Gothic designs towards symmetrical Renaissance design.
Flattened arches replaced the pointed Gothic arch. Tudor houses were framed with blackened vertical

31
timbers, supported by diagonal timbers. Brick
was introduced from the Low Countries in the
late medieval period and was used by the rich design story
to fill in the building. As the wooden posts
supported the house rather than the bricks,
bricks could be laid in decorative patterns
such as herringbone. Less wealthy people used
plaster or wattle and daub, resulting in the
In the frame
• When hanging artwork, a group of pictures should
distinctive black and white half-timbered Tudor have a common plane. Line them up either along the
houses. top, bottom, or from the middle point.

In Tudor towns, space was at a premium, so • Pictures should all be hung at eye level.
the second floor often overhung the first to
create more living space. Many houses had • A alternative idea to hanging artwork is to simply
steeply gabled roofs covered with slate or prop it up against the wall on top of a shelf or dresser.
wood shingles and some had thatched roofs.
• When choosing a frame, think of the picture rather
Windows were usually horn or wooden
shutters. Only the rich had glass windows, as than the room.
glass was so expensive to make. Only small • Don’t be afraid to try something different when
pieces of glass could be made due to the
framing such as putting a small picture in a large
limited production techniques used and so the
mount.
pieces of glass were joined together by lead in
a criss-cross or ‘lattice’ pattern. Influenced by • UV proof glass or acrylic will protect works on
the architecture of churches and cathedrals, the paper.
wealthy had stained and painted glass window
panes featuring heraldry and portraits in vibrant • When mounting pictures, don’t use glue, as it can
jewel tones, reds, blues, golds, and oranges. yellow with age and seep through to the front of the
picture.
Chimneys became common, replacing the
simple hole in the roof used in medieval • Hang rows of identical frames in a line for a dynamic
times. One reason for this was the widespread display. And keep it fresh – change pictures around
adoption of coal rather than wood as fuel. often so you don’t get tired of the view.
Chimneys became important features and
were often curved or twisted or decorated with • Pictures in groups look fantastic, but always group in
chequerboard patterns of different-coloured odd numbers.
bricks.

Interior Design And Decoration

The materials used for exterior Tudor
architecture – oak, stone, plaster, brick, iron,
copper and slate – also influenced the interior
design. The main elements of a Tudor interior
is wood panelling, stone hearth surrounds and
plaster ceiling panels. Walls were covered in
rich oak panelling, which sometimes featured
carved linen-fold designs, botanical themes
or geometric patterns. Tudor style panelling
usually extends up the wall about two-thirds,
with stone or plaster above it. Walls were also
adorned with hanging rugs, tapestries, crests
and coat-of-arms. Flooring was usually made
of wood, brick or stone and sometimes softened
with wool rugs in soft, neutral colours.
32
 Tudor furniture was usually made locally from wood, which tended to
be heavy with carved details and iron hardware like pulls, hinges, studs
and latches. Like today’s society, the furniture used depended greatly on
the wealth of its owners, and the rich sometimes imported furniture from
abroad. While the poor slept on straw pallets or rough mats covered by a
sheet, the wealthy slept on down and feather mattresses in ornately carved
four-poster beds, draped with heavy curtains.

Poor Tudors considered individual chairs a luxury and sat on wooden

benches. The wealthier often used ‘settle chairs’, which had high straight
backs and panelled storage space built into the bottom. As space was
A Tudor four-poster bed often at a premium, trestle tables were common. Due to the vermin that
often infested the floors and the filthy rushes that were used, chests were
designed with legs. Many chests were also designed to travel as the wealthy Tudors constantly moved from
one residence to another on ‘progresses’. Wealthy Tudors displayed their status through stepped buffets. The
number of shelves indicated wealth and rank. Servants served from these buffets at banquets and feasts. The
buffets were covered with rich drapes and the finest gold and silver plates were displayed.

Built-in sideboards and cabinets, along with storage benches were classic elements of Tudor homes. Pewter
dishware and glassware were often showcased in open cabinet shelves with the occasional exotic porcelain
piece. Leather bound books with leather covers were another accessory.

Reading

• The Great Rebuildings of Tudor and Stuart England: A Revolution in Architectural Taste, C.Platt, 1994
• The Tudor and Jacobean Country House: A building history, Malcolm Airs, 1995

Elizabethan (1540-1640)

Towards the end of Henry VIII’s reign, the country was on the verge
of bankruptcy and very little building occurred. However, under
Queen Elizabeth, the country began to experience new wealth.
A great number of both small houses and country mansions were
built and many medieval or Tudor manors were remodelled. This
period was called the ‘great rebuilding’. The full influence of the
Italian Renaissance began to be felt and stone, rather than brick,
once again became the material of choice for the wealthy. The
Renaissance influence could also be seen in the symmetrical designs
favoured and in the classical details used, such as columns beside a
door or fireplace and round-head arches for front doors and niches.
Elizabethan chimney stacks were often built to resemble classical
columns, making a break from the twisting, corkscrew Tudor
chimneys. Another notable difference was the use of large windows
now that glass was more affordable. Perhaps the greatest change
was the addition of the long gallery on the upper floor of the main
Long gallery on the upper floor of
hall, which became a universal feature of Elizabethan manors. The the main hall, Aston Hall, 1618
gallery was used for entertaining, as a family room or exercise area
or a portrait gallery. It was the centre of the home. Strapwork was the most common decorative motif of the
times. Carved in low relief or moulded in plaster it mimicked leather strapwork.

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Reading

• Elizabethan Architecture: Its Rise and Fall, 1540-1640, Mark Girouard, Yale University Press, 2009
• The Buildings of Elizabethan and Jacobean England, Maurice Howard, Yale University Press, 2007

Baroque (1690-1726)

Baroque architecture was born in early 17th century Italy. It was theatrical with bold curved shapes, strong
lines and lavish embellishment. Shapes were exaggerated with little attention paid to proportion. Baroque
architects were concerned with rich colour, strong light and shade contrasts, opulent use of ornaments, large
scale frescoes and illusory effects like trompe l’oeil and the blending of painting and architecture. The focus
was on creating an intense and overawing effect on the viewer.

Although popular on the European continent, Baroque only enjoyed a short life in Britain, from 1690 to
1730. The most notable examples of Baroque architecture were both built by Sir John Vanbrugh (1664-
1726): Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace. Despite Baroque being synonymous with embellishment,
Vanbrugh used size and scope instead to make an impression. Nicholas Hawksmoor, who worked with
Vanbrugh for a time, was another key Baroque architect. He was responsible for the Western towers at
Westminster Abbey, All Soul’s College, the Clarendon Building and the Queens College Oxford, as well as a
succession of London churches.

Reading

• Baroque Architecture 1600-1750, Frédérique Lemerle and Yves Pauwels, Flammarion, 2008
• Modern Baroque Interiors, Aitana Lleonart, Daab, 2008
• Reflections on Baroque, Robert Harbison, Reaktion Books, 2002
• The Triumph of the Baroque: Architecture in Europe 1600-1750, Henry Millon, Thames and Hudson,
1999

Georgian (1730-1800)

Although King George IV did not die until 1830, the

style that was identifiable as Georgian architecture
was prevalent from 1730 to 1800. As many young
aristocratic men travelled throughout Europe, British
architecture was heavily influenced by the classical
architecture from Greece and Rome. Georgian
architecture largely stemmed from Palladianism, a
philosophy of design based on the writings and work
of Andreas Palladio, an Italian architect of the 16th
Grand Georgian architecture
century who tried to recreate the style and proportions
of the buildings of ancient Rome. Inigo Jones,
Surveyor-General under James I popularised Palladian style, seen in Queen’s House, Greenwich and the
Banqueting House at Whitehall. Richard Boyle and Lord Burlington were also adherents to this style.

Georgian architecture is strongly characterised by rigid adherence to orders, a formalised system of

proportions. This created the grace and understated elegance that Georgian architecture is known for. Much
of the architecture was symbolic, often relating to ancient Greek and Roman mythology and was used to
make a statement of the builder’s philosophy.

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The 18th century was a time of great urban growth, which meant many houses needed to pack into a small
space. This resulted in townhouses being joined end to end to create ‘terraces’, the building that epitomised
the Georgian period. Houses were separated by thick walls to prevent the spread of fire and to carry
the weight of the chimney stacks. Most were four storeys high, the most important floor being the first.
Windows were short on the ground floor for stability, tall on the first floor and got progressively smaller on
the upper floors.

Georgian architecture is also known for the country-house estates that flourished during this period. Wealthy
landowners built grand manors in landscaped parks, dotted with copies of classical temples, grottos, bridges
and follies.

Reading
design story
• Georgian London, John Summerson, Yale
University Press, 2003
• The Georgian Group Book of The Georgian
House, Steven Parissien, Aurum Press, 2008
Wallpaper
Commonly thought of as expensive and hard to
mount, wallpaper is back in fashion as one of the
Victorian (1837-1901) cheapest and chicest ways to add interest to a home.

The Victorian era was the period of Queen Since the 1990s, wallpaper has come along in leaps
Victoria’s reign from June 1837 to January and bounds. Innovations in digital equipment have
1901. It was a period of great prosperity and meant that original wallpaper designs made by
peace, allowing a large, educated middle class to independent designers are now more accessible to
develop. The classicism of the Georgian period
the general public.
remained popular but as time wore on a vast
range of styles from past eras became popular
again. Thus, Victorian architecture can best be Textured wallpaper in sand, bamboo and even
described as an eclectic mixture of styles. As the Swarovski crystals are in vogue and because of
rail network developed, people and goods were advancements in the way wallpaper is produced
now able to travel like never before, allowing there are now papers available that are not only easy
many architects to become inspired by the to hang but are also easy to remove and reposition
different historic architecture they encountered. on a whim.
Byzantine, Romanesque, Elizabethan and even
Japanese styles were used. In reaction to the
Classic style, the Gothic Revival, led by John
Ruskin, saw a return to traditional styles such as
Tudor and mock-Gothic. These throwbacks to the
past that marked the early Victorian years saw
large elaborate houses being built, which were
often terribly impractical to inhabit.

Arts and Crafts (1880-1910)

In later years, the tide turned as a reaction against

the Industrial Revolution and the eclectic revival
of historical styles. John Ruskin and William
Morris triggered the Arts and Crafts Movement,
which promoted using traditional building crafts
and local materials.

35
While the Arts and Crafts Movement was in large
part a reaction to industrialisation, on the whole, it
was neither anti-industrial nor anti-modern. Machines
design comment

“
were seen to be necessary to improve efficiency,
but it was believed that they should only be used The single most important
to relieve the tedium of mundane, repetitive tasks. aspect of design is whilst moving
Many believed that humans had become slaves to the forward is to fully understand and
industrial machine during the Industrial Revolution. appreciate the past. When I interview
They sought the means through which a true
craftsman could master a machine to do his bidding
candidates for junior roles they have
in order to reach a compromise between the efficiency no comprehension of the traditional
of the machine and the skill of the craftsman. Some heritage of fabric design or architecture
leaders of the Movement, such as Morris, designed and believe it is redundant.
products for machine production. Morris designed
numerous carpets for machine production in series. They are taught to ignore the past and
only look at current trends - BIG mistake.

”
Adherents to the Movement were in favour of the idea
of the master craftsman, creating all parts of an object Most ideas are based on past ideas.
as well as taking part in its assembly and finishing,
with some possible help by apprentices. This was in Robert von Hawrylak, Felbrigg Design
contrast to the French manufacturers, where the focus
was on achieving the fastest production possible. This
was done by having different parts produced by different people all done according to a plan laid out by a
designer who assisted with production.

The Arts and Crafts Movement was largely adopted by the well-to-do as traditional craftsmanship was a
more expensive method of production. However, some Arts and Crafts leaders felt that objects should also
be affordable. The conflict between quality production and ‘demo’ design, and the attempt to reconcile the
two, dominated design debate at the turn of the 20th century.

Focus on the master craftsman meant that the personality of the designer became more central to designs.
However, certain styles still predominated such as reformist neo-Gothic influences, rustic and ‘cottagey’
surfaces, repeating designs, and vertical and elongated forms. Some products were deliberately left slightly
unfinished to create a rustic and robust look.

Simple English farmhouses proliferated during this time. Richard Norman Shaw (1831-1912) produced
a series of such country houses in the ‘Old English’ style, as did Sir Edwin Lutyens (1869-1944) who
followed him.

Reading

• Building Jerusalem: The Rise and Fall of the Victorian City, Tristram Hunt, Wildenfeld & Nicholson,
2005
• Victorian Houses and their Details, Helen Long, Architectural Press, 2001
• Victorian Gothic House Style, Linda Osband, David & Charles, 2000
• Arts & Crafts Architecture, Peter Davey, Phaidon
• Historic Arts & Crafts Homes of Great Britain, Brian Colemen
• The Arts and Crafts Movement, Elizabeth Cumming, Thames and Hudson

36
Interior Design in the 20th Century

Modernism
The key pioneers of Modernist design were America’s
Frank Lloyd Wright and Walter Gropius, and
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier from
Europe. However, many others also made significant
contributions to Modernism’s development.

The ideas of Sullivan and Wright did not find wide

acceptance in the early 20th century. At the Chicago
Sullivan’s transportation building
World’s Fair of 1893, Sullivan’s transportation building
was considered more strange than beautiful, while the other buildings inspired by Roman classical design
were greatly admired.

Eclecticism
British architects often went to France to study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and came home trained to
produce buildings designed in the style now called Beaux-Arts in recognition of its origin. The Beaux-Arts
imitative way of working influenced most important buildings designed before World War II, often called
eclecticism. Eclecticism means borrowing from many sources, which was the main characteristic of eclectic
design. Interior design was expected to follow, providing historically believable decoration in whatever style
suited the building or the taste of the owner. Interior designers focused on creating rooms furnished with
antiques and related details. The Paris Opera House by Charles Garnier (1861-1876) is a fine example of
eclecticism, with its rich overlay of florid, classically inspired, decorative detail.

Art Deco
Art Deco was influenced by primitive art, cubist painting and
sculpture, combined with modern motifs such as a radio. Ornament
was accepted, but it was modern; utilising zigzags and step motifs
associated with the rhythms of jazz music. Art Deco was the style
commonly adopted for theatres, exhibition buildings, public spaces,
office building exteriors and apartment buildings.

Post-War Modernism
Post World War II saw interior designers and architects continue to
uses the modernist style of the pre-war pioneers. The influence of
Gropius and van der Rohe as teachers combined with a widening
admiration of modern work, led to the adoption of Functionalism,
or the International Style, in most public and commercial work.
The modern interior was available everywhere thanks to the
availability of furniture design classics by the European leaders and
The art-deco spire of the Chrysler the full range of more recent furniture and related products by post-
Building in New York, war designers. Late Modernism defines the most conservative of
built 1928–1930. modernism styles but is more aesthetically varied.

Postmodernism
Postmodern design departs from Modernism in its willingness to include ornamentation and elements
referring to historical styles. When such traditional elements are included, they act as references used out of
context, often with humorous impact, rather than as imitations of past building styles.

37
Late Modernism
Late Modernism rejects the characteristics of Postmodernism in favour of continuing loyalty to the concepts
of earlier Modernism. It does not imitate that of the modern pioneers, but rather develops and expands upon
their original techniques and style.

Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism originated in 1988 at a Museum of Modern Art exhibition that showed drawings and
models of unbuilt works where parts appeared to be torn apart and loosely reassembled in chaos. They were
‘deconstructed’.

Tip! Whenever you pass an op shop, go in and buy any old design/furniture/house books be it British
Home Decorating circa 1971 or whatever, also any old magazines related to design and home decoration.
Also, junk shops, markets and auctions are great places to pick up cheap block back issues of magazines.
Browsing auctions is also a good way to acquaint yourself with various furniture styles, as they will give
proper descriptions of each piece in their lists.

Learning From The Experts… Advice From Leading Designers

Brendan Wong, interior designer

The Ability to Draw

Clearly communicating one’s ideas is crucial for designers. While words are important in clarifying ideas,
according to Wong, ‘design is a visual medium’.
‘There’s a great advantage to being able to draw
and draw relatively quickly in front of a client. You
could speak for 10 minutes about an idea. But a design in action
quick thumbnail sketch can often say much more in
considerably less time, in five seconds.’

Not All About You

Clients seek out a designer with the hope they
will find a solution to their problems. ‘The client
specifically comes to you because they have seen
your previous work and think there is a sense of
compatibility. But they aren’t buying your style.
They recognise there’s a synergy between what you
do and what they are after. It’s not all about you and
how you see the project developing,’ says Wong.

Financial Rewards
For a designer, the financial rewards can vary
considerably. Fees differ depending on a number of This living room mixes warm neutral
factors: years of experience, educational levels and tones with bright kicks of colour to
geographical considerations. ‘The financial rewards give a warm and welcoming aesthetic.
can be attributed to your skills and your level of
The orange feature wall is particularly
motivation. If you’re an average interior designer,
you can expect an average salary,’ says Wong. effective in bringing the room to life.

38
Glossary of Construction Terms

Airbrick: A perforated block built into a wall to ventilate a room or the underside of a wooden floor.

Architrave: The collective name for the various mouldings covering the joint
between the frame and wall surface around a door or window.

Balusters or Banisters: The upright sections that support the handrail of a staircase.

Balustrade: A row of balusters.

Batten: A strip of wood used, for example, for fixing slates, tiles, cupboards,
panelling etc. to a wall. Architrave

Beading: Semi-circular moulding used to cover a joint.

Blocks: Hollow or solid blocks of materials such as clay, gypsum or concrete which are used like bricks but
are larger, cheaper and quicker to lay.

Carpentry: Structural woodwork, e.g. joists, beams.

Casement Window: One which is hinged to open along its vertical edge.

Cavity Wall: A wall consisting of two leaves or layers of brickwork with a

gap between.

Chasing: A groove cut into a wall or floor to take pipes or cables.

Chipboard: Man-made wood-like boards made from compressed waste

wood and resin.

Cladding: Any material fixed as a non-load bearing covering to a structure

Casement Window or building.

Clapboarding: Overlapping boards of wood used as cladding.

Conduit: Metal or plastic tube for encasing cables.

Cornice: An ornamental moulding running around a wall at ceiling level.

Course: Continuous horizontal layer of bricks or blocks in a wall.

Coving: Concave surface which bridges the join between floor and wall or
between ceiling and wall.

Dado: Panelling above the skirting on the lower half of wall.

Damp-proof Course: Layer of material such as slate, polythene or copper

which is impervious to moisture, laid in the wall to prevent rising damp.

Dormer Window: One which projects vertically from a sloping roof.

Dado panelling
Downpipe: Pipe carrying rainwater from gutter to a drain in the ground.
39
Dry or Wet Rot: Timber decay caused by fungi.

Eaves: Horizontal overhang of a roof projecting beyond the wall of a house.

Facing Brick: Good quality brick used for the visible part of a wall.

Fair-faced Brickwork: Good quality brickwork with neat pointing, left

unpainted. Eaves

Flashing: Watertight metal seal, used for example around the joint between the chimney and roof.

Footings: Wall foundations.

Frieze: The part of the wall between the cornice and picture rail. In modern terms it can refer to any
decorative strip, usually paint or paper, applied around the walls of a room.

Gable: Triangular upper part of wall at the end of a pitched roof.

Glazing Bar: Wood or metal bar holding panes of glass in a window.

Grout: Thin mortar used to finish joins between wall or floor tiles.

Jamb: The vertical side of an archway, doorway or window.

Joinery: Finished woodwork such as doors, shelves etc.

Joist: Beams supporting floor or ceiling, usually made of timber.

Key: Roughening of the surface so plaster, mortar, adhesive or paint can grip.

Laminated: Made of thin layers stuck together.

Joist Laths: Narrow, flat strips of wood used as the backing for plaster.

Lining Paper: Thin, plain paper (usually white or cream) used on top of plaster as a base for wallpaper.

Lintel: Beam over a door or window that is structurally essential to bear the weight of the wall above.

Load-bearing Wall: Part of the basic structure of a building which cannot be removed without the insertion
of a joist.

Mortar: Mixture of cement, sand and water used for bricklaying.

Moulding: Applied decorative beading (as on an architrave).

Oriel Window: One which is in a projecting bay supported on brackets.

Party Wall: Wall separating two houses or flats.

Pebbledash: Exterior finish consisting of small stones embedded in rendering.

Pediment: A low pitched gable over a door or window. Oriel Window

40
Pointing: Facing mortar between joins in brickwork.

Primer: Sealer used on exposed metal, wood, plaster etc. before painting.

Rafters: Sloping timbers which support the roof.

Rendering: Covering of cement or plaster on an external wall, so that

the brick or stone is not visible.

Reveal: The return face of wall inside a window or door opening.

Riser: Vertical piece in a staircase, connecting two treads. Rafters

RSJ: Rolled steel joist, inserted as essential support after the removal of a structural wall.

Sash Windows: Vertically sliding windows.

Screed: The layer of plaster or concrete which finishes a floor surface.

Shingle: Wooden roofing tile.

Skirting Board: Wooden board fixed to foot a wall to prevent scuffing.

Size: Liquid seal applied to walls before papering.

String Course: Moulding or narrow projecting course running horizontally in exterior wall of a building.

Structural: All parts of a building which carry weight.

Stucco: Exterior plaster finish.

Stud Wall: Non-structural internal wall made of timber posts and cross-bracing, lined on either side with
plasterboard.

Tongue and Groove: Join made where the tongue on one edge of a board fits
into a groove on another.

Tread: Surface of a step on which the foot is placed.

Wainscoting: Wood panelling up to dado height.

Winder: Triangular or wedge-shaped tread forming the bend in a staircase.

Tongue and Groove panelling

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Suggested further reading:

For something a bit more high powered, should you need to know anything from the typical height of a
boardroom table compared to dining and coffee tables or the dimensions of a 747 compared to a typical
airport, then try:

Metric Handbook Planning and Design Data

(Edited by David Adler, published by Architectural Press, about £35.00)

Another useful construction title is:

Building Construction Illustrated

(By Francis D. K. Ching and Cassandra Adams, published by John Wiley and Sons Inc, about £35.00)

Both of the above are available from Riba Book shops.

end of tutorial five (5).

We hope you are enjoying and benefiting from your course.

Please make a point of reviewing these notes until you are

totally familiar with the content and techniques presented.

There is no assignment to submit for this tutorial and you do

not have to send back the tutorial cover sheet.

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Figure 1
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Figure 3

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Figure 5

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Figure 6

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Furniture Plan

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