1
FUELS FOR ENGINES
CHAPTER IV PART I
Introduction
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Why do we study about Fuel for IC Engine?
Because fuel properties affect the combustion process in engine
and its operation
Engines are designed to run on fuels that meet certain standards
in terms of chemical and physical properties
Quality of fuel can affect engine durability
To understand the attendant ill-effect of fuels that used for IC
engine on environment and human health
Depletion of petroleum based fuel for IC Engine from time to time
Introduction
3
Basics of Combustion
Introduction
4
In order to generate Heat, Combustion of Fuel are required
Combustion
Fuel+ Air Flue Gas+ Heat
Therefore the fundamental knowledge of different types of Fuel
characteristics is essential in order to understand the combustion
process
Introduction
5
Fuel used currently for IC engines and some of its associated
aftermaths: pollution, global warming and resource constraints
Environment & Energy Restriction
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Global warming problem
To minimize global warming severe reduction of CO2 emission into the
atmosphere has become universal agenda
Air pollution problem
Reduction of toxic substances from vehicle has become a vital issues such as
Carbon monoxide (CO), Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), and
Particulate matter, PM2.5
Resource and energy problem
Transportation sector’s overdependence on petroleum must be reduced
(adaptation of alternative fuels is necessary, etc.)
Air Pollution Issue of SI engine
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The above motives can be achived through engine modification, after
treatment , fuel reformation and adaptation of alternative fuel
TWC convertor
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Air Pollution Issue of CI Engine
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The above motives can be achived through engine modification,
after treatment, fuel reformation and adaptation of alternative
fuels
Fuels for Engines
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IC Engines can be operated on different types of
fuels
1. Gaseous
2. Liquid
3. Originally solid also but now very rarely used.
May be
1. Naturally available or
2. Artificially derived
Solid Fuels
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Solid fuels have little practical application at the present
because of
Problem of handling
Disposing of the solid residue or ash
Feeding are quite cumbersome
Therefore this fuels have become unsuitable for I.C Engine
application.
Gaseous Fuels
12
Gaseous Fuels are ideal and pose very few problems in
using them in IC engine
Main gaseous fuels for engines are
Natural gas – from nature
Liquefied Petroleum Gas - from refineries
Producer gas - from coal or biomass
Biogas - from biomass
Hydrogen – from many sources
Gaseous Fuels
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Advantages of Gaseous Fuels
Mix more homogeneously with air
Eliminate starting problems
Disadvantage
Storage and handling Problem
Therefore gaseous fuels are commonly used for stationary power
plants located near the source of available of the fuel.
Some of the gaseous fuel can be liquefied under pressure for
reducing the storage volume but this arrangement is very
expensive and risky
Gasous fuel
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Natural gas
Found compressed in porous rock and shale formations sealed in
rock layer underground.
Frequently exists near or above oil deposits.
Is a mixture of hydrocarbons and non hydrocarbons in gaseous
phase or in solution with crude oil.
Raw gas contains mainly methane plus lesser amounts of ethane,
propane, butane and pentane, negligible sulfur, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and helium are present.
Gasous fuel
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Natural Gas
Natural Gas may be used as
• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
Natural Gas can be made artificially called substitute, or
synthetic or Supplemental Natural Gas (SNG).
Natural gas
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Preparation of Natural Gas
1. Separation of liquid and gas. Liquid may be a hydrocarbon
present in the gas well along with the gas.
2. Dehydration. Water is corrosive and hydrates may form which will
plug the flow. Water will also reduce the calorific value of the gas.
3. Desulfurization. Presence of hydrogensulfide is undesirable. The
gas is called sour. When the sulfur is removed the gas is
sweetened.
Natural Gas
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Composition
90-95% methane
0-4% nitrogen,
4% ethane and
1-2% propane.
Advantages of Natural Gas
Methane is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential
approximately 4 times that of carbon dioxide.
Its C/H ratio is lower than that of gasoline so its CO2 emissions
are 22-25% lower (54.9 compared to 71.9 g CO2/MJ fuel).
Has higher calorific values
Comparison of CNG with Gasoline
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Calorific Octane Auto-ignition
Values Number Temp (oC)
(Kcal/kg)
Gasoline 10, 400 92 390
Diesel 10, 200 low 280
CNG 11, 200 130 640
Natural Gas
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If an engine is switched to CNG from gasoline, the non-methane
organic gases like CO and NOx, all reduced by 30-60%.
Toxic emissions like benzene, butadiene and aldehydes were much
less than with gasoline.
Natural gas can replace diesel fuel in heavy-duty engines with the
addition of a spark ignition system.
Engines operate at = 0.7 giving low in-cylinder temperatures and
hence low NOx.
Natural Gas in IC Engines
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Heavy-duty natural gas engines are designed to meet low emission vehicle
(LEV) emission standards without a catalytic converter and will meet ULEV(Ultra-
Low Emission Vehicle) emission standards with a catalytic converter.
For heavy-duty applications, dual fuel operation is attractive, for buses,
locomotives, ships, compressors and generators. They are operated lean to
reduce NOx.
However, at light loads, the lean combustion conditions will degrade the
combustion process increasing HC and CO emissions.
Typical Composition of Producer gas
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Producer gas is a mixture of combustible gases consist of carbon monoxide
,hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen etc usually produced by
gasification process from any carbon contained materials such as biomass, coal,
petroleum, municipal waste etc
Component Percentage Energy density of
Hydrogen 20 stoichiometric fuel-air
mixture
Carbon Monoxide 19.5
Carbon Dioxide 12.5 Producer gas: 2.5 MJ/m3
Methane 2
Gasoline-air: 3.5 MJ/m3
Nitrogen 46
Octane Number 100-105 Diesel-air: 3.3 MJ/m3
Lower Heating Value 6.7 MJ/m3
Liquid Fuels
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The three commercial types of liquid fuels are
Benzol- a by product of high temperature coal carburization and
consist principally of benzene (C6H6) and toluene (C7H8)
Alcohol- used as a fuel after blending it with gasoline
Petroleum Products- the main fuels for IC engines (gasoline,
kerosene, diesel oil)
Liquid Fuels
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In most of the modern IC engines, liquid fuels are being used,
which are derivatives from liquid petroleum.
Crude petroleum consists of
A mixture of large number of hydrocarbons
Small amounts of sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen, and
Impurities such as water and sand
Liquid hydrocarbon fuels
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The basic families of liquid hydrocarbon fuels, their general
formula and their molecular structure is shown in table below
Family General Formula Molecular Arr.
Paraffin CnH2n+2 Chain
Olefin CnH2n Chain
Diolefin CnH2n-2 Chain
Naphthene CnH2n Ring
Aromatic CnH2n-4 Ring
Paraffins (Alkanes)
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Consists of a straight chain (open chain) molecular structure like
methane, ethane, propane etc
E.g. Butane
Suffix “ane”
The valence of each carbon atom is fully utilized in combining, by
a single bond, with other carbon atoms and with hydrogen atoms.
They are termed as saturated compounds and characteristically
very stable
Branch-chain paraffin
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Branch-chain paraffin has the same general chemical formula as the
straight-chain paraffin but a different molecular structure and
different physical characteristics and are called isomers.
E.g. Isobutane
Branch chain paraffins have good anti-knock qualities when used as
SI engine fuels
Olefins (Alkenes)
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Are chain compounds similar to paraffins
Are unsaturated because they contain double bond like butene
Are not stable due to the presence of the double bond
E.g. butene
suffix “ene”
Diolefins (Alkadiene)
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Are essentially olefins with two double bonds or triple bond
Are unsaturated and rather unstable
Tend to form gum deposits during storage by reacting with
oxygen
E.g. butadiene
Napthenes or Cycloparaffins
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Have the same general formula as olefins but with a ring structure
Are often formed as Cyclo-paraffins
Are saturated, and tend to be stable
Aromatics
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are ring structure compounds based on the benzene ring
While the double bonds indicate unsaturation, a peculiar nature of
these bonds causes this family to be more stable than the other
unsaturated families
E.g. Benzene
General Characteristics
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The above families of hydrocarbons exhibit general characteristics due to
their molecular structure which are summarized below
Normal paraffins exhibit the poorest antiknock quality when used in
SI engine.
But the antiknock quality improves with the increasing
number of carbon atoms and
the compactness of the molecular structure.
The aromatics offer the best resistance to knocking in SI Engines.
For CI engines, the order is reversed i.e.
the normal paraffins are the best fuels and
aromatics are the least desirable,
General Characteristics
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As the number of atoms in the molecular structure increases, the
boiling temperature increases.
Thus fuels with fewer atoms in the molecule tend to be more
volatile.
The heating value generally increases as the proportion of
hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms in the molecule increases due to
the higher heating value of hydrogen than carbon.
Thus, paraffins have the highest heating value and the aromatics
the least.
Oxygenated Fuels
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Alcohol
There is hydroxyl radical –OH in the molecules
Example: Methanol, Ethanol
Ethers – ignition improvers for diesels
Dimethylether (DME) – proposed as a bio diesel fuel (CH3)2O
Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
(CH3)3COCH3 – Octane improvement in gas gasoline engines
Oxygenated Fuels
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Methanol CH3OH
CH 4 H 2O CH 3OH H 2
Ethanol C2H5OH
starch water enzyme
C12 H 22O11 (maltose)
C12 H 22O11 H 2O 2 C6 H12O6 (glucose)
enzyme
C6 H12O6 2CO2 2C2 H 5OH
fermentation
CRUDE OIL
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Crude oil found in rock formations that were floors of oceans thousands of
thousand years ago
Organic matter trapped by rocks and subjected to high pressure and
temperatures
A mixture of water, dirt, and many different hydrocarbons of various molecular
shapes and sizes
Date of first oil well drilling in USA: 1859, Titusville, PA
Most fuels are a mixture of hydrocarbons CxHy, typically 86 % C and 14% H by
weight
Composition of typical crude oil
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Carbon: 80-89%
Hydrogen: 12-14%
Nitrogen: 0.3-1.0%
Sulfur: 0.3-3.0%
Oxygen: 2.0-3.0%
Plus
Oxygenated compounds like phenols, fatty acids, ketones
Metallic elements like vanadium and nickel.
Typical Petroleum Refinery Products
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Product Boiling Range, oC
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) -40 to 0
Motor Gasoline 30-200
Kerosene, jet fuel 170-270
Diesel Fuel 180-340
Furnace Oil 180-340
Lube Oils 340-540
Residual Fuel 340-650
Asphalt 540+
Petroleum Coke Solid
Refinery processes
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1. Distillation
2. Cracking
3. Reforming
4. Polymerization
5. Alkylation
Conversion
Distillation
Process
Blending
6. Isomerization Raw Mat.
Products
7. Hydrogenation
Refinery processes
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Fractional Distillation
Separating using boiling point temperature.
Liquid petroleum vaporized at 6000C
The vapor admitted to fractionating tower at its bottom
The vapor is forced to pass upward along a labyrinth-like
arrangement
The vapor with higher boiling point condensed out at lower levels
while those with lower boiling point moves up higher levels where
they get condensed at appropriate temperature
The factional distillation can be done
Atmospheric
Vacuum
Continues (Gas separation and stabilization)
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Refinery processes
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Fractional Distillation
Fractions with
low boiling
points condense
at the top
Fractions with
high boiling
points condense
at the bottom
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Refinery processes
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Cracking Process
Braking down large and complex hydrocarbons molecules into simpler
compounds.
Thermal Cracking
Large hydrocarbon molecules at height temperature and pressure are
decomposed in to smaller, lower boiling point molecules
Catalytic Cracking
Using catalysts at relatively lower pressure and temperature thermal
cracking
Naphthenes are cracked to olefins and paraffins
Olefins to isoparaffins needed for gasoline
Catalytic cracking gives better antiknock property for gasoline as compared
to thermal cracking
Refinery Processes
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Hydrogenation/ Hydrocracking
Cracks and adds hydrogen to molecules, producing a more saturated,
stable, gasoline fraction under high pressure and temperature.
Isomerisation
Changing the relative position of the atoms within the molecule of a
hydrocarbon without changing its molecular formula.
Converting straight chain hydrocarbons into branched isomers
Example
Converting n-butane in to iso-butane for alkylation
Conversion of n-pentane and n-hexane in to isoparaffins to improve knock
rating of highly volatile gasoline
Refinery Processes
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Reforming
converts saturated, low octane (low antiknock quality), hydrocarbons into
higher octane product containing about 60% aromatics.
It doesn’t increase the total gasoline volume
Alkylation
Combines an olefin with an iso-paraffin to produce a branched chain iso-
paraffin in the presence of a catalyst
reacts gaseous olefin streams with iso-butane to produce liquid high octane
iso-alkanes.
Example
butylene + iso butane iso-octane
alkyation
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Alternative fuels
The Need for Alternative Fuels
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Energy Security
Peak Oil- the world’s production of oil is close to its peak
Global warming
Concerns and the need to reduce C02 emissions ( calculate
the amount of CO2 in grams emitted per kilometer for every
vehicles)
Air Pollution
HC, CO, SO2, NOx
Alternative Fuels
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Petroleum Displacement Strategies
Replace petroleum with alternative fuels and
low-level blends.
Reduce by promoting energy efficiency in
vehicles through advanced technologies and
more fuel efficient vehicles.
Eliminate by promoting idle reduction, Eliminate
greater use of mass transit, trip elimination,
and other congestion mitigation approaches.
Alternative Fuels Portfolio
Alternative Fuels Blended Fuels
Biodiesel (B100, B20) Biodiesel/diesel blends (B2,
Electricity B5)
Ethanol (E85)
Hydrogen Ethanol/gasoline blends (E10)
Methanol
Natural gas Hydrogen/natural gas blends
Propane (HCNG)
P-Series
Biodiesel Properties
Produced from renewable sources such as new and used vegetable oils and
animal fats.
Physical properties are similar to petroleum diesel.
Biodiesel has positive performance attributes such as increased cetane, high
fuel lubricity, and high oxygen content, which may make it a preferred
blending stock with future ultra-clean diesel.
Biodiesel has a flashpoint higher than 150C, compared with about 52°C
for petroleum diesel and biodiesel is safer to handle, store, and transport.
Nontoxic and biodegradable
Reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter
Greenhouse gas and air quality benefits
Biodiesel Considerations
Cold weather starting and storage issues
8% less energy per gallon than petroleum diesel
Pure biodiesel or biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel can be used to
fuel most diesel vehicles.
Biodiesel Use
B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% diesel) is the most
common blend in U.S.
Used in all unmodified diesel engines.
Has similar payload capacity, range,
horsepower, and torque as diesel.
Biodiesel Truck
Used to fuel compression-ignition (diesel)
engines.
Promises rural and urban microeconomic
benefits.
Electricity as a source of fuel for vehicle
In an electric vehicle (EV) a battery or other energy
storage device stores electricity that powers the motor
EV batteries must be replenished by plugging into an
electrical source or using an onboard charger.
The electricity powers the vehicle's wheels via an
electric motor.
Electricity can be generated by (or produced from)
coal, natural gas, nuclear, wind, and other renewable.
Although electricity production may contribute to air
pollution, EVs are considered zero-emission vehicles
because their motors produce no exhaust or emissions.
Electricity Considerations
Range of 50-130 mile, energy storage
capacity limited
Electricity costs vary depending on location,
type of generation, and time of use
Vehicles with DC electric systems costs = 0.4
kilowatt-hours (kWh) per mile
Vehicles with AC systems costs = 0.174 to
0.288 kWh per mile
Electricity Use
Electricity use are two types : for EVs and
HEVs, both use batteries.
Hybrids use an electric motor or a
combination of a gasoline engine and
electric motor.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Electricity sources for battery recharging
include electrical outlet, gasoline engine
onboard generator , regenerative braking.
Hybrids use batteries to store electricity
produced by regenerative braking and the
onboard generator.
Alcohol
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Alcohols are an attractive alternative fuel because they can be obtained from a
number of sources, both natural and manufactured.
Alcohols have high octane fuel with anti-knock index number of over 100.
Engine using high-octane fuel can run more efficiently by using higher
compression ratio.
Generally lower overall emissions
The two kinds of alcohol that seems most promising and have had the most
development as engine fuel.
Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol)
Methanol (Methy Alcohol) and
Ethanol
• Ethanol is a clear, colorless liquid.
• Ethanol is a high-octane fuel.
• It is an alcohol-based fuel produced primarily from, starch crops,
such as corn or sugarcane (first generation) or from cellulosic
biomass (second generation) or algae (third generation)
• Octane helps prevent engine knocking and is extremely important
in engines designed to operate at a higher compression ratio, so
they generate more power.
• Ethanol enhances the octane properties of gasoline and is used as
an oxygenate to reduce CO emissions.
Ethanol
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• Low-level blends of ethanol and gasoline, such as E10 generally
have a higher octane rating than unleaded gasoline.
• Ethanol is the main component in E85, a high-level blend of 85%
ethanol and 15% gasoline.
• Corn-based ethanol production and use reduces GHG emissions by
up to 52% compared with gasoline (cellulosic by 86%).
• Refueling infrastructure not in place in all areas.
• Corn-based ethanol has 27%-36% less energy content than
gasoline.
• Ethanol industry creates jobs and helps the economy.
Ethanol
Nearly half of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol as
E10.
E85 is used in light-duty flexible fuel vehicles
(FFVs).
FFVs can use 100% unleaded gasoline or any Flexible Fuel Vehicle
ethanol blend.
FFVs have a 25% reduction in ozone-forming
emissions compared with gasoline.
FFV power, acceleration, payload, and cruising
speed are comparable whether running on
ethanol or gasoline.
Ethanol Use
Total U.S. Light-Duty E85 FFVs
8
7
Million FFVs
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008*
Source: Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center
Methanol
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Pure methanol is labeled M100, and a mix of 85% methanol and 15%
gasoline is labeled M85.
M85 has an octane rating of 102.
The cetane number of methanol is low at about 5, but it can be used in
compression ignition engines with diesel fuel pilot ignition.
Advantage of Alcohol
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When burned, it forms more moles of combustion, which
gives higher pressure and more power in the expansion
stroke.
It has high evaporative cooling which result in a cooler
intake process and compression stroke, Raised volumetric
efficiency and reduced required work input.
Disadvantage of Alcohol
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Low energy content of the fuel. This mean that almost twice as
much alcohol as gasoline must be burned to give the same energy
input to the engine.
But the power would be the same, as the lower air-fuel ratio
needed by alcohol.
More aldehydes in the exhaust. If as much alcohol fuel was
consumed as gasoline, aldehyde emissions is a serious problem.
Disadvantage of Alcohol
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Much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass,
aluminum, rubber, and many plastics.
In this context, it puts some restrictions on the design and
manufacturing of engines to be used with this fuel.
Poor cold weather staring characteristics due to low vapor
pressure and evaporation.
Poor ignition characteristics in general.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen exists in water, hydrocarbons (such as methane), and organic
matter.
The energy in 1kg of hydrogen gas is about the same as the energy in
3.785 liter of gasoline.
Steam reforming of methane (natural gas) accounts for about 95% of the
hydrogen produced in the U.S.
Pure hydrogen contains no carbon thus burns to form water with no CO2
or CO emissions.
Fuel-cell vehicles, powered by hydrogen, have the potential to
revolutionize future transportation system
Hydrogen
Fuel-cell vehicle’s have the potential to be 2
to 3 times more efficient than gasoline
vehicles.
Fuel cells use a direct electrochemical
reaction to produce electricity on board the
vehicle.
A light-duty vehicle must store 5-8.6 kg of
hydrogen to drive about 300 miles.
Hydrogen Use
Currently used in modified internal
combustion engines.
Honda FCX is the only commercially-
available vehicle. Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicle
Hydrogen can be blended with natural gas
to create a fuel for natural gas vehicles.
Fuel cell vehicles
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• In contrast to electric vehicles, fuel-cell vehicles produce their primary
electricity using a fuel cell. The fuel cell is powered by filling the fuel tank
with hydrogen.
• Like electric vehicles, fuel-cell vehicles use electricity to power motors located
near the vehicle's wheels.
• The most common type of fuel cell for vehicles is the polymer electrolyte
membrane (PEM) fuel cell. In a PEM fuel cell, an electrolyte membrane is
sandwiched between a positive electrode and a negative electrode.
• Because hydrogen has a low amount of energy by volume compared with
fuels such as gasoline, storing hydrogen on a vehicle using currently available
technology would require a very large tank
• Fuel-cell vehicles and the hydrogen infrastructure to fuel them are in an early
stage of development. Advanced technologies are needed to reduce the
required storage space and weight.
Natural Gas Properties
Mixture of hydrocarbons, predominantly methane (CH4)
High octane rating of 120, which makes it a very good SI engine fuel.
Engines can operate with a high compression ratio.
High octane rating is due to a fast flame speed.
Nontoxic, noncorrosive, and non-carcinogenic
Not a threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater
Compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG)
Lower ozone-forming emissions than gasoline
From gas and oil wells
Low engine emissions, Less aldehydes than with methanol, and less CO2.
Fuel is fairly abundant worldwide.
Natural Gas Considerations
NG vehicles cost more because of tank configuration.
A CNG-powered vehicle gets about the same fuel
economy as a gasoline vehicle.
To store more energy in a smaller volume, natural
gas can be liquefied (LNG)
To produce LNG, natural gas is purified and
condensed into liquid by cooling to -162°C.
At atmospheric pressure, LNG occupies only 1/600
the volume of natural gas in vapor form.
Because of such cold temperatures, LNG is stored in
double-wall, vacuum-insulated pressure vessels.
Natural Gas Use
There are two types of natural gas vehicles: bifuel
and dedicated.
Dedicated natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are
designed to run only on natural gas.
Bi-fuel NGVs have two separate fueling systems CNG Vehicle
that enable the vehicle to use either natural gas or
a conventional fuel (gasoline or diesel).
CNG can be used in light-, medium-, and heavy-
duty vehicles.
LNG fuel systems are used with heavy-duty
vehicles and locomotives.
Natural Gas Vehicles
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• In general, dedicated NGVs demonstrate better performance and have lower emissions
than bi-fuel vehicles because their engines are optimized to run on natural gas.
• In addition, the vehicle does not have to carry two types of fuel, thereby increasing
cargo capacity and reducing weight
• Compared with vehicles fueled with diesel and gasoline, NGVs can produce significantly
lower amounts of harmful emissions.
• The driving range of NGVs generally is less than comparable gasoline- and diesel-
fueled vehicles because of the lower energy content of natural gas.
• Extra storage tanks can increase their range, but the additional weight of the tank may
displace payload capacity.
• NGV horsepower, acceleration, and cruise speed are comparable with those of an
equivalent conventionally-fueled vehicle.
Natural Gas
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Disadvantage of Natural gas
Low energy density resulting in low engine performance.
Low engine volumetric efficiency because it is a gaseous fuel same reason as
LPG.
Need for large pressurized fuel storage tank. Most test vehicles have a range
of only 200 km. There is some safety concern with a pressurized fuel tank.
Inconsistent fuel properties
Refueling is slow process.
Propane Properties
By-product of natural gas processing and crude oil refining
Known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
High octane
33%-41% less energy content per gallon than gasoline
60% reduction in ozone-forming emissions compared with gasoline
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
76
Propane (C3H8) is a saturated paraffinic hydrocarbon. When blended with
butane (C4H10) or ethane (C2H6), it is designated as liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG).
LPG is obtained as a by-product from:
The lighter hydrocarbon fractions produced during the crude oil refining.
The heavier components of wellhead natural gas.
A common LPG blend is P92, which is 92% propane and 8% butane.
Propane has an octane number of 112 (RON), so it can raise the compression
ratio.
Propane requires about 5o spark advance at lower engine speeds due to its
relative low flame speed.
Propane Considerations
Nontoxic and no threat to soil, surface
water, or groundwater
High energy density = good driving range
Stored onboard a vehicle in a tank
pressurized to around 300 psi
Range vs. payload reduction issue caused
by larger fuel tanks
A gallon of propane about 25% less
energy than a gallon of gasoline
Liquid Propane Injection engines—higher
fuel efficiency
Widespread infrastructure
Propane Use
Propane is the most used alternative
transportation fuel in the U.S. and the
world.
Used in light- and medium-duty
vehicles, heavy-duty trucks, and
Propane Bus
buses.
Many propane vehicles are converted
gasoline vehicles.
Popular choice for non road vehicles
such as forklifts and agricultural and
construction vehicles.
Alternative Fuel Prices
Source: Clean Cities Alternative Fuels Price Report,
Alternative Fuel Prices
Source: Clean Cities Alternative Fuels Price Report, April 2009
Pros & Cons of Alt. Fuels
81
Challenges of Alt. Fuels
82
Both economy and engineering reasons.
Cost of alternative fuel per unit of energy delivered can be
greater than gasoline or diesel fuel.
The energy density of alternative fuels by volume is less than
gasoline or diesel fuel.
Today the alternative fuelled engines can be modified or retrofitted
engines that were originally designed for gasoline or diesel fuelling.
They are, therefore not the optimum design for the other fuels.