ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my profound gratitude to

Mr.___________, and my School________________________.
This is my ___________project.

I would like to express my special thanks to our

mentor ______ for his time and efforts he provided
throughout the year. Your useful advice and
suggestions were really helpful to me during the
project’s completion. In this aspect, I am eternally
grateful to you.

I would like to acknowledge that this project was

completed entirely by me and not by someone else.

Signature

Your name
 INDEX

1)To verify that the relation R in the set L of all lines in a

plane, defined by
R = {(l, m): l || m)} is an equivalence relation
2) To demonstrate a function which is not one-one but is
onto
3)To explore the principal value of the function Sin^-1x using
a unit circle.
4) To find analytically the limit of a function f (x) at x=c and
also to check the continuity of the function at that point
5) To verify that for a function f to be continuous at given
pint Xo
∆y = | (Xo+ ∆x)-+ (Xo|x is arbitrarily small provided. ∆x is
sufficiently small.
 Activity 1
OBJECTIVE: - To verify that the relation R in the set L of all lines in
a plane, defined by R = {(l, m): l || m} is an equivalence relation.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: - A piece of plywood, some pieces of wire

(8), plywood, nails, white paper, glue

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION: - Take a piece of plywood of

convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix the wires randomly
on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of them are
parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are
inclined as shown in Fig.1

Fig1
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines L1, L2, ..., L 8.
2. l 1 is perpendicular to each of the lines L2, L3, L4.
3. L6 is perpendicular to L7
. 4. L2 is parallel to L3, L3 is parallel to L4 and L5 is parallel to L8.
5. (L2, L3), (L3, L4), (L5, L8), ∈ R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 1, every line is parallel to itself. So, the relation R = {(l,
m): l || m} .... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. 2. In Fig. 2, observe that 2 3 ll . Is l 3 ... l 2? (|| / ||) So, (l 2, l 3) ∈ R
⇒ (l 3, l 2) ... R (∉/∈) Similarly, l 3 || l 4. Is l 4 ...l 3? (|| / ||) So, (l 3, l
4) ∈ R ⇒ (l 4, l 3) ... R (∉/∈) and (l 5, l 8) ∈ R ⇒ (l 8, l 5) ... R (∉/∈)
3. 3. In Fig. 2, observe that l 2 || l 3 and l 3 || l 4. Is l 2 ... l 4? (|| / ||)
So, (l 2, l 3) ∈ R and (l 3, l 4) ∈ R ⇒ (l 2, l 4) ... R (∈/∉) Similarly, l 3
|| l 4 and l 4 || l 2. Is l 3 ... l 2? (|| / ||) So, (l 3, l 4) ∈ R, (l 4, l 2) ∈ R ⇒
(l 3, l 2) ... R (∈, ∉) Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is
not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R
is an equivalence relation.
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of an
equivalence relation.
 Activity 2
OBJECTIVE: - To demonstrate a function which is not one-one but is
onto
MATERIAL REQUIRED: - Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive and
plastic strips.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left-hand side of the cardboard and fix
three nails on it as shown in the Fig.3.1. Name the nails on the strip
as 1, 2 and 3.
2. Paste another strip on the right-hand side of the cardboard and fix
two nails in the plastic strip as shown in Fig.3.2. Name the nails on
the strip as a and b.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in
Fig. 3.3

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {1, 2, 3}
2. Take the set Y = {a, b}
3. Join (correspondence) elements of X to the elements of Y as
shown in Fig. 3.3

OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element 1 of X in Y is __a________.
2. The image of the element 2 of X in Y is _ b_________.
3. The image of the element 3 of X in Y is __b________.
4. Every element in X has a does not have a unique image in Y. So,
the function is not one-one
5. The pre-image of each element of Y in X exist. So, the function is
onto.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of one-one and
onto function.
 ACTIVITY – 3
OBJECTIVE: - To explore the principal value of the function sin–1x
using a unit circle.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Cardboard, white chart paper, rails, ruler,
adhesive, steel wires and needle.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1. Take a cardboard of a

convenient size and paste a white chart paper on it.
2. Draw a unit circle with center O on it.
3. Through the center of the circle, draw two perpendicular lines
X′OX and YOY′ representing x-axis and y-axis, respectively as shown
in Fig. 6.1.
4. Mark the points A, C, B and D, where the circle cuts the x-axis and
y-axis, respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1.
5. Fix two rails on opposite sides of the cardboard which are parallel
to y-axis. Fix one steel wire between the rails such that the wire can
be moved parallel to x-axis as shown in Fig. 6.2.
6. Take a needle of unit length. Fix one end of it at the center of the
circle and the other end to move freely along the circle Fig. 6.2

DEMONSTRATION
1. Keep the needle at an arbitrary angle, say x1 with the positive
direction of x-axis. Measure of angle in radian is equal to the length
of intercepted arc of the unit circle.
2. Slide the steel wire between the rails, parallel to x-axis such that
the wire meets with free end of the needle (say P1 ) (Fig. 6.2).
3. Denote the y-coordinate of the point P1 as y1, where y1 is the
perpendicular distance of steel wire from the x-axis of the unit circle
giving y1 = sin x1 .
4. Rotate the needle further anticlockwise and keep it at the angle π –
x1. Find the value of y-coordinate of intersecting point P2 with the
help of sliding steel wire. Value of y-coordinate for the points P1 and
P2 are same for the different value of angles, y1 = sinx1 and y1 = sin
(π – x1). This demonstrates that sine function is not one-to-one for
angles considered in first and second quadrants.
 5. Keep the needle at angles – x1 and (– π + x1), respectively. By
sliding down the steel wire parallel to x-axis, demonstrate that y-
coordinate for the points P3 and P4 are the same and thus sine
function is not one-to-one for points considered in 3rd and 4th
quadrants as shown in Fig. 6.2
6. However, the y-coordinate of the points P3 and P1 are different.
Move the needle in anticlockwise direction starting from 2 π − to 2 π
and look at the behavior of y-coordinates of points P5, P6, P7 and P8
by sliding the steel wire parallel to x-axis accordingly. y-coordinate
of points P5, P6, P7 and P8 are different (see Fig. 6.3). Hence, sine
function is one-to-one in the domain, [ -π /2, π /2] and its range lies
between – 1 and 1.

7) Keep the needle at any arbitrary angle say θ lying in the interval
[ -π /2, π /2], and denote the y-coordinate of the intersecting
point P9 as y. (see Fig. 6.4). Then y = sin θ or θ = arc sin–1y) as
sine function is one-one and onto in the domain, [ -π /2, π /2] and
range [–1, 1]. So, its inverse arc sine function exists. The
domain of arc sine function is [–1, 1] and range is [ -π /2, π /2].
This range is called the principal value of arc sine function (or
sin–1 function). This range is called the principal value of arc
sine function (or sin–1 function).
OBSERVATION
1. sine function is non-negative in 1st and 2nd quadrants.
2. For the quadrants 3rd and 4th, sine function is negative.
3. θ = arc sin y ⇒ y = sin^-1 θ where π /2≤ θ ≤ π.
4. The other domains of sine function on which it is one-one and onto
provides _________ for arc sine function.
 ACTIVITY: 4
OBJECTIVE: To find analytically the limit of a function f (x) at x = c
and also to check the continuity of the function at that point
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Paper, pencil, calculator.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Consider the function given by f(x)= {x²-16/ x-4, x ≠ 4}
= {10, x= 4}
2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c
(= 4) which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points
considered in step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and
the corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.
DEMONSTRATION

OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to 8, as x→4 from the left. 2. The
value of f (x) is approaching to 8, as x→4 from the right. 3. So, lim x
→4^-1 = 8 and lim f (x) x→4+ = 8.
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and
continuity of a function at a point
 ACTIVITY 5
OBJECTIVE: To verify that for a function f to be continuous at given
point Xo ∆y = | (Xo+ ∆x)-+ (Xo|x is arbitrarily small provided. ∆x is
sufficiently small
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Hardboard, white sheets, pencil, scale,
calculator, adhesive.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a white sheet on the hardboard.
2. Draw the curve of the given continuous function as represented in
the Fig. 10.
3. Take any point A (Xo, 0) on the positive side of x-axis and
corresponding to this point, mark the point P (Xo, yo) on the curve.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take one more point M1 (x 0 + ∆x 1, 0) to
the right of A, where ∆x 1 is an increment in
x.
2. Draw the perpendicular from M1 to meet
the curve at N1. Let the coordinates of N1
be (x 0 + ∆x 1, y 0 + ∆y 1)
3. Draw a perpendicular from the point P (x
0, y 0) to meet N1M1 at T1.
4. Now measure AM1 = 1 ∆x (say) and
record it and also measure N T1 1 1 = ∆y
and record it.
5. Reduce the increment in x to ∆x 2 (i.e., ∆x
2 < ∆x 1) to get another point M2 (x x 0 2 + ∆
,0). Get the corresponding point N2 on the
curve 6. Let the perpendicular PT1
intersects N2M2 at T2. 7. Again, measure
AM2 2 = ∆x and record it. Measure N T2 2 2
= ∆y and record it. 8. Repeat the above
steps for some more points so that ∆x
becomes smaller and smaller.
OBSERVATION

APPLICATION
 This activity is helpful in explaining the concept of derivative (left
hand or right hand) at any point on the curve corresponding to a
function.