Lecture_8

Generalized velocity
Generalized Coordinates
and
Degree of Freedom
Phase Space
Equation of constraints
 Generalized coordinates
How do we represent one particle in a coordinate system? (x=3, y=2, z=5)

𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≡ 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 ≡ (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧)
Z
Conclusion: 1-particle requires 3 coordinates (3× 1=3 (One particle)
nos.) to indicate its location in Euclidean Space (System of Particles)
(Rigid Body-Size & Shape)
How do we represent 2 particles in a coordinate system?
Conclusion: 2-particle requires 2 sets of coordinates (3× 2=6
nos.) to indicate its location in Euclidean Space X
(Euclidean Space)
How do we represent n particles in a coordinate system? Y
Conclusion: n-particle requires 3N sets of coordinates (3× 𝑛=N
nos.) to indicate its location in Euclidean Space
What is Euclidean Space?
 Generalized coordinates
What is “generalized” in generalized coordinates? (x=3, y=2, z=5)
Do coordinates have the same dimensions in coordinate systems? Z
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ≡ (𝑚, 𝑚 , 𝑚) (One particle)
(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙) ≡ (𝑚, 𝑟𝑎𝑑. , 𝑟𝑎𝑑. ) (System of Particles)
(𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧) ≡ (𝑚, 𝑟𝑎𝑑. , 𝑚)
(Rigid Body-Size & Shape)
Conclusion:
• All 3 physical axes of coordinate systems have different dimensions.
X
• They can have their units (Rad. is not considered a unit.)
(Euclidean Space)
• But, the system remains the same! Y

We can say “Coordinates” are “Generalized coordinates”

Choose a coordinate system of your convenience to solve the problem!

𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≡ 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 ≡ (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧)
 Generalized coordinates
Choose a coordinate system of your convenience to solve the problem!
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≡ 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 ≡ (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧) ≡ (? , ? , ? )
Can we have common symbols to represent them as “Generalized Coordinates”?
1-particle requires 3 coordinates (3 nos.) ≡ (𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐 , 𝒒𝟑 )

Just a
How to represent
Mathematical
them on axes?
representation?

How do we represent 2-particles in “Generalized” coordinate system?

NOTE: coordinates (q1, q2….)
≡ 𝒒𝟏, 𝒒𝟐 , 𝒒𝟑, 𝒒𝟒 , 𝒒𝟓, 𝒒𝟔
can have any dimension (may
How do we represent n-particles in “Generalized” coordinate system? also be dimensionless)!!
≡ 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐, 𝒒𝟑 , 𝒒𝟒, 𝒒𝟓 , 𝒒𝟔, … … … … … . 𝒒𝟑𝒏=𝑵
 Generalized coordinates

Generalized coordinates for n-particles system = 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐 , 𝒒𝟑 , 𝒒𝟒 , 𝒒𝟓 , 𝒒𝟔 , … … … … … . 𝒒𝑵

How to write them more concisely?

Generalized coordinates for n-particles system = 𝒒𝒊 ,

Where: 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, … .3𝑛
‘n’ is no. of particles

• Generalized velocities
𝑑 𝑑𝑞𝑖
𝑞𝑖 = = 𝑞ሶ𝑖 Where: 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, … . 𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Important Points to Remember: Generalized coordinates
• A set of independent coordinates sufficient enough to describe completely the
state of configuration of a dynamical system
• Minimum number of coordinates required to describe the motion of the
system
• Generalized coordinates can be anything: angles, energy units, momentum
units, or even amplitudes…
• Each 𝒒𝒊 is just a number, a scalar
• The choice of a particular set of generalized coordinates is not unique.
• No specific rule in finding the most “suitable” (resulting in simplest Eq. of
Motion)
 How to choose Generalized coordinates?
Y Z

𝜃
𝜃
𝜙
X
X

𝜃 = 𝑞1
Y 𝜙 = 𝑞2
𝜃 = 𝑞1
➢ A particle constrained to move ➢ A particle constrained to move
on the circumference of a circle on surface of sphere
 Constraints: Generalized coordinates

• Generally, the motion of a particle or system of particles is restricted by one or more

conditions. For example: A bead sliding on a moving wire

• The restrictions on the motion of a system are called constraints and the motion is said
to be constrained motion.

• A constrained motion cannot proceed arbitrarily in any manner.

• The constraints are always related to forces that restrict the motion of the system.
These forces are known as “forces of constraint”.
 Force of Constraints: Generalized coordinates

For example:

➢ The reaction force on a sliding particle on the surface of a sphere is the

force of constraint

➢ In a simple pendulum, the force of constraint is the tension in the string.

➢ A bead sliding on the wire is the reaction by the wire exerted on the
bead at each point.
 Force of Constraints: Generalized coordinates
✓ Forces of constraint are elastic in nature and generally appear at the surface
of contact because the motion due to external applied forces is slowed down
by the contact.

✓ Newton has not given any direction to calculate these forces of constraint.

✓ Generally, the forces of constraint act in a direction perpendicular to the

surface of constraints while the motion of the object is parallel to the
surface.

✓ In such cases, the work done by the forces of constraint is zero.

✓ These constraints are known as workless and may be called as ideal

constraints.
 How to write a Constraints equation!
• Rigid Body
(Rigid Body-Size & Shape)
Distance between 2 atoms/molecules in rigid body:-
Z
𝑟Ԧ2 − 𝑟Ԧ1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑟Ԧ2
𝑟Ԧ1
“As the system goes through rotational or translational
motion, 𝑟Ԧ2 − 𝑟Ԧ1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.

This is the constraint.

X
(Euclidean Space) NOTE: To write “Equation of constraints” define
Y “coordinate system” and “Origin”
Constraints: Condition or restrictions imposed on motion of particle/particles all the time till
dynamics is completed (Kinematics constraints)
 Constraints and Generalised coordinates
• Particle moving on a circle:
Y
R = constant

R Equation of constraints
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑅2
X

NOTE: To write “Equation of constraints” define “coordinate

system” and “Origin”

Constraints: Condition or restrictions imposed on motion of particle/particles all the time till
dynamics is completed (Kinematics constraints)
 Constraints and Generalised coordinates
• Particle moving on XZ plane:
Z
A particle is bound to move along the
circumference of an ellipse in XZ plane.

Equation of constraints
X
𝑥2 𝑧2
2
+ 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏
NOTE: To write “Equation of constraints” define “coordinate system” and “Origin”

Constraints: Condition or restrictions imposed on motion of particle/particles all the time till
dynamics is completed (Kinematics constraints)
 Constraints and Generalised coordinates
• Wheel Rolling on a horizontal plane:
Y
How to write “Equation of constraints”?
𝜔
𝑥ሶ = 𝜔𝑅𝑜
R
𝑥ሶ − 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑅𝑜 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
O 𝑂 – 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
X

Constraint = “Pure Rolling” (No Slipping)

Sufficient Friction for this condition

Constraints: Condition or restrictions imposed on motion of particle/particles all the time till
dynamics is completed (Kinematics constraints)
 Constraints Equations: Classification!
• Rigid Body: 𝑟Ԧ2 − 𝑟Ԧ1 = 𝐶.

Equalities relation
• Particle moving on a circle: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑅2 &
Solvable (known / Unknown)

• Wheel Rolling on a horiz. plane: 𝑥ሶ = 𝜔𝑅𝑜

𝑥2 𝑧2
• Particle moving on XZ plane: 2 + 2 = 1 If “Satisfies above points”
𝑎 𝑏
Such constraints are known as
“Holonomic Constraints”
Solvable!
 Constraints Equations: Classification!

Non-Holonomic Constraints: Equalities relation is NOT there

-Gas in a container
&
NOT Solvable (known / Unknown)

If “Satisfies above points”

Such constraints are known as

“Non-Holonomic Constraints”

Non-Solvable!