UNIT – 5 Nanomaterials, Sensors and E - Waste Management

Syllabus 08 hours
Nanomaterials: Introduction, size dependent properties of nanomaterials (Surface area, Catalytic,
Conducting), preparation of nanomaterials by sol-gel (TiO 2), chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
method (CNTs and GO by Hummer’s Method).

Sensors: Introduction, Construction, working and applications of Conductometric sensors (Estimation

of Acid Mixtures), Electrochemical sensors (Potentiometric estimation of FAS), Optical sensors
(Colorimetric estimation of copper), Gas sensors.

E-waste Management: Introduction, sources, types, effects of e-waste on environment and human
health, methods of disposal, advantages of recycling. Extraction of copper from e-waste.

Nanomaterials:
Definition
Nanomaterials can be defined as those materials with at least one of the dimensions in
the nanometer range, preferably between 1-100 nm. Or one thousand-millionth of a
meter (10-9m).

Classification of nanomaterials based on dimensions

Based on reduction in size of materials in different dimensions, nanomaterials are classified as

follows.

(i) Zero-dimensional nanomaterials: Here, all dimensions (x, y, z) are at nanoscale, i.e., no
dimensions are greater than 100 nm.
Example: Nanospheres and Nanoclusters.
(ii) One-dimensional nanomaterials: Here, two dimensions (x, y) are at nanoscale and the other is
outside the nanoscale. This leads to needle shaped nanomaterials.
Example: Nanofibres, nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires.

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(iii) Two-dimensional nanomaterials: Here, one dimension (x) is at nanoscale and the other two
are outside the nanoscale. The 2D nanomaterials exhibit plate like shapes.
Example: nanofilms, nanolayers and nanocoatings with nanometre thickness.
(iv) Three-dimensional materials: These are the nanomaterials that are not confined to the
nanoscale in any dimension. These materials have three arbitrary dimensions above 100 nm. The bulk
(3D) nanomaterials are composed of a multiple arrangement of nanosize crystals in different
orientations.
Example: Bundles of nanowires and nanotubes as well as multinanolayers (polycrystals).

SIZE DEPENDENT PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS

The Size dependant properties make nanomaterials unique and different from other materials. The
properties of nanomaterials are very much different from those of bulk materials. Two principal
factors cause the properties of nanomaterials to differ significantly from bulk materials are:
(a) Increased relative surface area
(b) Quantum confinement effect
The size dependent properties of nanomaterials are:
a) Surface area
b) Catalytic property
c) Conducting properties

a) Surface area
The physical and chemical properties of the materials depend on its surface area. The bulk material is
subdivided into individual nanomaterial, the total volume remaining same but the collective surface
area is greatly increased.
Surface area of nanoparticles is very high compared to the bulk material.
Bulk material is divided into individual nanomaterials as a result surface area increases drastically.
For example:

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Surface area of a cube having 1 m3 is 6 m2. If this cube is cut into smaller pieces of volume 1 nm 3, there
will be 1027 small cubes and total surface area will be 6000 km2. Increase in surface area is because of
more number of atoms at the surface of nanomaterials.

b) Catalytic property
− Nanomaterials have significant proportion of atoms existing at the surface. The properties like
catalytic activity, gas adsorption and chemical reactivity depends on the surface area of the materials.
Therefore, nanomaterials show a specific surface related properties that are not observed in bulk
materials.
− Eg: The catalytic activity of gold: Bulk gold is catalytically inactive due to less reactive site,
whereas the size reduces to nanoscale range, these gold nanoparticles becomes very reactive for
selective redox reactions and organic transformations due to more number of reactive site.

In bulk materials active site is very less whereas size reduces to nanoscale reactive site increases
drastically due to more surface volume.

Based on the surface area to volume effect, nanoscale materials have:

a) Increased total surface area.
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b) Increased number of atoms accessible on the surface.
c) Increased catalytic activity of those large number surface atoms.
d) Different/tunable surface catalytic properties by the change in shape, size and composition.
Hence, nanoscale catalysts can increase the rate, selectivity and efficiency of various chemical
reactions.

c) Conducting properties
In bulk materials, conduction of electrons is delocalized, that is, electrons can move freely in all
directions. When the size is reduced to nanoscale, the quantum effect dominates.

− The electronic bands in bulk material are continuous due to overlapping of orbitals of billions of
atoms. The nanoscale materials, very few atoms or molecules are present so the electronic bands
become separate leading to widening of the bands and the separation between different electronic
stats varies with the size of nanomaterial. Band gap increases with decrease in the size of
nanomaterials resulting in low electrical conductivity.

− Due to electron confinement, the energy bands are replaced by discrete energy states which make
the conducting materials to behave like either semiconductors or insulators. Therefore nanomaterials
are either semiconductors or insulators.

Band gap increases as particle size decreases

Applications of Nanoparticles
a) Silver nanoparticles have good antibacterial properties, and are used in surgical instruments,
refrigerators, air-conditioners, water purifiers etc.
b) Gold nanoparticles are used in catalytic synthesis of silicon nano wires, sensors carrying the drugs
and in the detection of tumors.
c) ZnO nanoparticles are used in electronics, ultraviolet (UV) light emitters, piezoelectric devices and
chemical sensors.
d) TiO2 nanoparticles are used as photocatalyst and sunscreen cosmetics (UV blocking pigment).
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e) Antimony-Tin-Oxide (ATO), Indium-Tin-Oxide (ITO) nanoparticles are used in car windows, liquid
crystal displays and in solar cell preparations.

Synthesis of Nanomaterial’s:

Nanomaterials are made by two generalized processes

(i) Top down: Start with the big chunk and cut away material to make what you want. It
begins with bulk materials that are subsequently reduced into nanomaterials.
Ex: Inert gas condensation, Ion beam technique, Laser ablation, etc

Advantages:
1. Bulk and mass production of nano materials can be prepared by this method

Disadvantages:
1. Method requires expensive apparatus

2. Method causes crystallographic damage and introduce surface defects

3. The nanomaterials will have internal stress

4. The nanomaterials will be generally contaminated

5. The particle sizes may not uniform

(ii) Bottom -up: Building what you want by assembling it from small prefabricated units
molecules react under chemical or physical circumstances to form nanomaterials. such as
atoms and molecules. It begins with atoms and molecules/. These atoms or
Ex: Hydrothermal, Sol-gel method, Co-precipitation and Combustion synthesis

Advantages:
1. Less defects in the Nano particles
2. Good homogenous chemical composition prepared by this method
3. Cost effective and high efficiency.
4. Methods are simple, versatile, and economically viable
Disadvantages:
1. Control the nanoparticle sizes from this method is difficult 6
2. Agglomeration of particles takes place

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 Figure: Schematic of Top down and Bottom up Process.

Synthesis of nanomaterials:
Synthesis of TiO2 by Sol-Gel Process:
“Formation of an oxide network through polycondensation reactions of a molecular precursor in a
liquid.”
Precursors
TiO2 nanorods prepared by sol-gel method using anodic aluminium oxide (AAO) as structure directing
template.
This process consists of following key steps:
1. Preparation of sol
2. Conversion of sol to gel
3. Aging of a gel
4. Removal of solvent
5. Heat treatment

1. Preparation of sol: First, a sol is prepared by dispersing precursors in a solvent.

The titanium isopropoxide in ethanol and water (first solution) and acetyl acetone (C 5H8O2)x with
ethanol [second solution], both solution is mixed with water to obtain a sol.
2. Conversion of sol to gel: Sol is further converted in to a gel by hydrolysis and condensation of
precursors.

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The AAO membrane is dipped in the sol and an appropriate amount of HCl is added to control
hydrolysis and condensation reactions to resulting in a gel.
Hydrolysis and condensation reactions are complex multiple-step processes. They occur sequentially
and in parallel forming a gel.
3. Aging of gel: Polycondensation reaction is allowed to continue until the gel transforms into a solid
mass, accompanied by contraction of gel network and expulsion of solvent from gel pores.
4. Removal of solvent: The AAO is removed by washing with NaOH solution. The water and other
volatile liquids are removed from the gel network. If isolated by thermal evaporation, the resulting gel
is termed as xerogel. If the solvent is extracted near super critical conditions, the product is called
aerogel.
5. Heat treatment: TiO2 nanorods are obtained by calcining the as prepared sample at 400 ℃ for 24
hours.

Advantages of Sol-gel process

− It produces thin bond-coating to provide excellent adhesion between the metallic substrate and the
top coat.
− It produces thick coating to provide corrosion protection performance.
− It easily shapes materials into complex geometries in a gel state.
− It has low temperature sintering capability, usually 200-600°C.
− It provides a simple, economic and effective method to produce high quality coatings.

Disadvantages of Sol-gel process

− The precursors used are toxic and hazardous to environment.

Synthesis of CNTs by Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD):

Principle:
Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) method involves a transport of reactant gases towards the
substrate kept at some temperature where reactants crack into different products which diffuse on
the surface and undergo certain chemical reactions at appropriate site nucleate and grow to form
desired films, coatings, wires and tubes.

Construction and working:

In CVD process CNTs are synthesized from a gaseous phase by a chemical reaction or decomposition
of precursors at high temperature. In this method, precursor (carbon source - C nHn) is vaporised and
mixed with inert gas like N2 or Ar and the mixture is fed into a reactor. Reactor is maintained at 700-
800oC temperature. As a result, inside the chamber initiate the growth of nanotubes at the sites of the

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metal catalyst and producing the CNTs, which is deposited over the substrate. The leftovers and by
products are passed on to the gas phase, which are easily removable from the reaction chamber
(through gas outlet). Reactions are often catalysed by the catalyst (Cobalt, Iron, Nickel and their alloys
are the most widely used catalyst) present over the substrate.

Precursor used in CVD process must be very pure and stable at room temperature but with sufficient
volatility. It must react with the substrate without any side reaction. Most commonly used precursors
are halides carbonyls, organometallics and hydride of metals.

Advantages

a) Versatile- CVD can deposit any element or compound.

b) CVD produces high dense films.

c) Economical in production since many products can be coated at a time.

d) Used for coatings or freestanding structures

e) Fabricates net or near-net complex shapes

f) Self-cleaning—extremely high purity deposits (>99.995% purity)

g) Conforms homogeneously to contours of substrate surface

h) Controllable thickness and morphology

Disadvantages:

Precursors used are volatile, which are usually hazardous and highly toxic. The by-products of these
precursors are also very toxic.

Applications

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a) CVD can be used for the synthesis of nanotubes and nanowires.

b) CVD can be used for hard coatings and metal films which are used in microelectronics.

c) CVD can also be used for preparing semiconducting devices, dielectrics, energy conversion devices
etc.

d) CVD processes are used on a surprisingly wide range of industrial components from aircraft and
land gas turbine blades, timing chain pins for the automotive industry, radiant grills for gas cookers
and items of chemical plant to resist various attacks by carbon, oxygen and sulphur.

e) Surface modification to prevent or promote adhesion.

f) Photoresist adhesion for semiconductor wafers Silane/substrate adhesion for microarrays (DNA,
gene, protein, antibody, tissue).

Graphene Oxide (GO):

Graphene Oxide (GO) is the oxidized form of Graphene. Functional groups are arbitrarily located and
randomly aggregated.

Synthesis of GO by Hummers method:

The GO was synthesized via conventional Hummers’ method using graphite flakes as the starting
material. The procedure for the synthesis of GO is fallows,

1. A known amount of Graphite flakes and NaNO3 are disperse in H2SO4, continue stirring for
about 5 hours.
2. To that solution add little amount of KMnO 4 and maintain the temperature of the solution
mixture for about 35 °C.
3. Then, add deionized water to the solution and keep it for overnight stirring.
4. To the reaction mixture add H2O2, as a result solution turns to yellowish colour.
5. As obtained yellowish solution is centrifuged by HCl and deionized H2O several times.

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 6. The brown-colored solution will be obtained and heat that solution in an oven for 12–15 h to
obtain wafer-like sheet.
7. Finally, grind the obtained sheet to get GO powder.

Figure: Synthesis of Graphene Oxide by Hummers Method

[Additional Information:
Properties of GO :
 Contains epoxy, hydroxyl and carbonyl groups on the basal plane, and carboxylic groups on the
edges.
 Higher interlayer spacing than G, due to sp3 carbons.
 Higher ability to retain compounds.
 Lower electron mobility.
 Soluble in water.
 Amphiphilicity.
 Surface-functionalization capability and versatility.
 Biocompatibility and able to interact with biological cells and tissues.
 Highly hydrophilic, forming stable aqueous colloids (Important on large-scale processing).
 Substrate-deposition capability and Convertible into a conductor (Great potential for electronic
application).

MEDICINE HIGH PERFORMANCE

GO COMPOSITES
POSSIBLE
APPLICATIONS

SOLAR CELLS

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Sensors:
Sensors are basically devices which “read” a physical stimulus, and then convert that reading into an
electrical signal output.
Physical Stimulus: Heat, Light, Sound, Weight, Attraction

 Sensor -Observe and acquire information

 Transducer -Converts one form of energy into another form
 An actuator -Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

Function of sensors

Measurement process for the instrumentation model

1) Sensor input-the physical value or measure and (X) is observed by the sensor device
2) Sensor output-The sensor generates a signal variable (S) output which is normally electrical
3) Signal conditioning-The signal is transmitted and conditioned if needed (amplified, converted,
filtered, etc.)
4) Display of measurement–the measurement is then displayed by the output device.

Classification of Sensors
There are several classifications of sensors made, some are very simple and some are very complex.
The following classification of sensors are already in use,

In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive. Active Sensors
are those which require an external excitation signal or a power signal. Passive Sensors, on the
other hand, do not require any external power signal and directly generates output response.
The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used in the sensor. Some of
the means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive etc.
The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e., the input and the output. Some
of the common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric, Thermoelectric, Electrochemical,
Electromagnetic, Thermo-optic, etc.
The final classification of the sensors are Analog and digital Sensors.
Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e., a continuous output signal (usually voltage but
sometimes other quantities like resistance etc.) with respect to the quantity being measured.
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 Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital data. The data in
digital sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature.

[Additional Information
Different Types of Sensors
The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly used in various applications. All
these sensors are used for measuring one of the physical properties like Temperature, Resistance,
Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.
 Temperature Sensor
 Proximity Sensor
 Accelerometer
 IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
 Pressure Sensor
 Light Sensor
 Ultrasonic Sensor
 Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
 Touch Sensor
 Colour, Humidity, Position Sensor
 Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
 Microphone (Sound Sensor)
 Tilt, PIR Sensor
 Flow and Level Sensor
 Touch Sensor

 Strain and Weight Sensor ]

Electrochemical sensors;
Sensors which convert the effect of electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface
into a useful signal are known as electrochemical sensors.

In Electrochemical sensors the electrode is used as transducer element. There are mainly three types
of electrochemical sensors,
 Potentiometric (measure voltage)
 Amperometric (measure current)
 Conductometric (measure conductivity)

Potentiometric Sensor
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Working Principle:

In this sensor change in potential during the chemical interaction between receptor and
analyte is measured using combination of an indicator electrode and a reference electrode.
Commonly, platinum is used as an inert indicator electrode whereas saturated calomel electrode is
used as reference electrode. Indicator electrode is used to measure change in potential due to redox
reaction occurring on the surface of the electrode. Using an ion selective electrode as an indicator
electrode, concentration of particular ion can be measured with good selectivity. pH glass electrode is
an example for this class of electrode. In potentiometric sensor, measurement is taken at zero current.

Procedure:
Pipette out 25 cm3 of the given FAS solution into a clean beaker and add 1 test tube of dil H 2SO4.
Immerse a platinum electrode and a saturated calomel electrode and connect to a pH meter in milli
volts (mV) mode. Fill a clean burette with standard K2Cr2O7 solution.
Commence the titration by adding large increments (1 cm 3) of K2Cr2O7 solution to FAS solution in the
beaker. Stir the solution thoroughly and measure emf after every addition. At the equivalence point,
there is a sudden increase in the emf. At this stage, add small increments of K 2Cr2O7 (0.1cm3) and note
emf values. After equivalence point, there will be a slight increase in emf on continued addition of
K2Cr2O7 solution.
A graph of ΔE/ΔV (ordinate) against volume of K 2Cr2O7 (abscissa) is plotted. From the graph volume
of K2Cr2O7 at equivalence point can be read.

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Calculation:
From the graph, volume of K2Cr2O7 at equivalence point = (X) cm3.
Normality of K2Cr2O7 = a N

Weight of FAS / dm3 = NFAS x Equivalent weight of FAS (392)

= b x 392 = 'c' g
Weight of FAS in 25 cm3 = c/40 g.

Applications of electrochemical sensors:

1. Used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gases, warfare agents etc.
2. Used in water analysis and environment monitoring
3. Used in diagnostic and health care applications like in situ monitoring of glucose serum uric
acid, Ca2+, Fe2+, Acetylcholine etc.
4. Used in the detection of hydrocarbon pollutants
5. Used for pH measurements
6. Used to detect pesticides

Conductometric Sensors:
Conductometric sensors are two electrode devices, measures the electrical conductivity in
sample solution between two electrodes.

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Principle:

The basic principle of conductometric detection involves a reaction that can change the
concentration of ionic species. This reaction leads to changes in electrical conductivity or current flow.
In this method, two inert metal electrodes are used. The ions or electrons produces during an
electrochemical reaction may change the conductivity or resistivity of the solution.

Working:

The conductivity is result of dissociation of an electrolyte into ions. The migration of the ions is
induced by an electrical field. When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is an
electrical field within the electrolyte, so the positively charged ions move towards cathode and
negatively charged ions are move towards anode. Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the
ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms
(or molecules). This chemical change is recognized by working electrode and transducers converts
this chemical change into electrical signal.

Procedure: Take 50 cm3 given acid mixture in a clean beaker. Dip the conductivity cell into it and
connect it to the conductivity bridge. Note down the specific conductance of this solution. Add
standard sodium hydroxide solution from the burette in increments of 0.5 cm 3 and measure the
corresponding specific conductance. Take readings when specific conductance increases significantly
(i.e. after the neutralization of weak acid).

Plot a graph of specific conductance versus volume of NaOH. From this graph, find the neutralization
points for strong and weak acids and calculate their strength and amount.

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Calculation:
Volume of NaOH required to neutralize HCl = (V1) cm3 (from the graph)
Normally of HCl (NHCl) = [NNaOH x V1] / Vmix
Amount of HCl= NHCl x Equivalent weight of HCl (36.5) = ...............g / L = [a]

Volume of NaOH required to neutralize CH3COOH = (V2 - V1) cm3 (from the graph)
Normality of CH3COOH, NCH3COOH = [NNaOH x (V2 - V1] /Vmix
Amount of CH3COOH = N x Equivalent weight of CH3COOH (60) = ................ g / L = [b]
Result: Amount of HCl present in given acid mixture is found to be = 𝒂/𝟐𝟎 g
Amount of CH3COOH in given acid mixture is found to be = 𝒃/𝟐𝟎 g
Applications:
1. Conductivity sensors are used to measure conductivity in aqueous solutions to determine the
purity or impurity of a liquid.
2. Conductometric sensors have been fabricated by applying imprinted polymers as receptors for
monitoring engine oil quality.
3. Conductometry is used to analyse ionic species and to monitor a chemical reaction by studying
the electrolytic conductivity of the reacting species or the resultant products.
4. The conductometric are used determine analyte concentration and enzyme activity.

Optical sensors (Colorimetry):

Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays into
electrical signals.
Example: Colorimetric Sensors

Principle: When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable wavelength, certain quantity
of light is absorbed by the analyte solution and it is observed by a sensor and transducer converts
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intensity of absorbed light into electrical signal. The change in intensity at certain wavelength within
visible (400–800mm) range can be determined using instrument.

Construction and working:

o Absorption-based optical sensors can be colorimetric or spectroscopic in nature.
o Colorimetric sensors are an important part of optical sensors that depends on the colour of the
analyte with in the visible range (400-800nm)
Its basic components include a light source, a wavelength selector, a photodetector and a read-out
device. A block diagram of a typical instrumentation system employed colrimetry is shown in Fig.

Components of Colorimetric sensors

A monochromatic light is made to pass through analyte solution where certain quantity of light is
absorbed and it is a function of concentration of analyte. The change in the intensity of light is
detected by photodetector (sensing). The light source generates an intense and stable radiation signal
needed to probe an optical property of the molecular recognition element in the sensor. The amount
of absorbance is governed by Beer- lamberts law.

Procedure:
Transfer the given copper sulphate solution (stock solution) to a burette and transfer 5, 10, 15,
20 cm3 of the solution into 50 cm3 volumetric flasks. Add 2 cm3 of ammonia solution to each of them
and dilute up to the mark with ion exchange water. Stopper the flasks and mix the solutions well. To
the test solution given in a 50 cm3 measuring flask, add 2 cm3 of ammonia solution then dilute up to
the mark with ion exchange water and mix well. Prepare a blank solution by diluting 2 cm 3 of
ammonia solution in a 50 cm3 measuring flask up to the mark with ion exchange water and mix well.
After 10 minutes, measure the absorbance of the solutions against blank at 620 nm using a
photoelectric colorimeter. Tabulate the readings. Draw a calibration curve by plotting absorbance
against volume of copper sulphate solution. Using the calibration curve, find the volume of copper
sulphate solution in the test solution and calculate the amount of copper.

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Observation and Calculation:

Applications:
Colorimetric sensors exhibit many applications due to easy fabrication, quick detection, and high
sensitivity and selectivity. They find applications in the following,
1. Colorimetric sensors exhibit promising potential application toward the detection of metallic
cations, anions, organic dyes, drugs, pesticides
2. Used to detect toxic pollutants
3. Used to estimate concentration of elements
4. Used in food & beverage quality control
5. Used in mineral oils & fuels industry
6. Used in medical & clinical tests
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Electrochemical gas sensors for NOx:
The major contributors to traditional air pollution are NOx, SOx, and H 2S, while NH3 and
Volatile organic compounds are of increasing concern recently. Traditional air quality monitors based
on mass spectroscopy, infra-red spectroscopy and gas chromatography are expensive and not suitable
for large scale deployment. Electrochemical gas sensors provide a cheap alternative option for
widespread air quality monitoring.

Principle: Electrochemical gas sensor interacts with a gas to measure its concentration and each gas
has a unique voltage; the electric field at which it is ionized. Sensor identifies gases by measuring
these voltages.

Construction and working:

Chemiresistive sensors based on graphene and its derivatives have been used to measure NOx.
Chemiresistive sensors measure the change in resistance upon exposure to analyte gases and can
detect toxic gases at very low concentrations.

NOx Gas Sensor

In general, the response obtained in a chemiresistive sensor is

Where,
R% is the reported sensor response
Ro is the resistance in dry clean air (Back ground Correction)
Rg is the new resistance observed under analyte gas
Reactions:

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The concentration of electrons decreases due to the reaction between the electrons in the sensing
materials and NOx gas, as shown and resistance offered by e- decreases and current increases.
“Higher the concentration of NOx, lesser would be the resistance”

E - Waste Management

Introduction:
Today’s Electronic Gadgets are Tomorrow’s E- Waste. It is no secret that E-Waste is increasing
at an alarming rate with each passing day. We live in a world where almost everyone owns an
electronic gadget. New electronic devices require a lot of energy and resources to create. Rapid
changes and improvements in electronic gadgets means older ones are discarded and become e-
waste.

What is E-Waste?

Electronic Waste or E-Waste describes rejected electrical or electronic devices.

All items of electrical and electronic equipment and its parts that have been discarded by the user as
waste without the purpose of re-use or re-cycle is called Electronic Waste.
There is rapid growth in e-waste generation since 1990s and will continue at faster rate in future. As
per an estimate, the average annual global E-waste volume is about 65-70 million tons per year.
Imagine the amount of energy and resources wasted and the large landfills occupied, rendering land
useless for decades.

Sources/Types of E-Waste:
Main sources/types of e-waste are,
1. Computer peripherals: Monitor, key board, mouse, mother board, laptops, CDs etc.
2. Telecommunication devices: Phones, cell phones, routers, pagers, fax machine etc.
3. Household appliances: TV, monitors, screens, fridges, washing machine, video players, ovens
etc.
4. Industrial electronics: Sensors, medical devices, automobile devices etc.
5. Electrical devices: Switches, wires, bulbs etc.
6. Toys, leisure (electronic toys, models, sports equipment)

Causes of E-Waste:
The main causes of Electronic Waste are:
 Advancement in Technology.
 Changes in style fashion and status.
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  End of their helpful life.
 Not taking precautions while handling them.
Composition of e-waste:

E-waste is characterized by more than 1000 hazardous and non-hazardous materials.

1. E-waste contains about 65% of iron, steel and other metallic materials including costly metals
like platinum, gold, silver and toxic metals like lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium etc.
2. E-waste contains about 21% of polymeric non-biodegradable materials including poly vinyl
chlorides (PVCs), polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardant plastics.
3. E-waste contains about 11.8% of cathode ray tube and LCD screens and other materials like
glass, wood, plywood and ceramics.
Most of these products are ended up in landfills, rubbish dumps and recycling centers creating
several applications for waste management officials, policy makers and residents.

Effects of E-Waste:

The effects of improper disposal of E-waste on the environment pose very real threats and dangers to
the global environment at large scale. Improper disposal of these wastes affect the soil, air and water
components of the environment.

Effects of E-waste on Environment:

 Effects of E-Waste on Air: Most common result of E-waste on air is through air pollution.
Burning of e-waste can release hydrocarbons within the atmosphere that pollutes the air.
 E-Waste Negatively Impacts Soil: E-waste can have a negative effect on the soil. As e-waste
breaks down, it releases toxic heavy metals. Such heavy metals include lead, arsenic, and
cadmium. When these toxins penetrate the soil, they influence the plants and trees. Thus, these
toxins can enter the human food supply, which can lead to birth defects as well as a number of
other health complications.
 Effects of E-Waste on Water: Heavy metals like mercury, lithium, lead present in electronics
(found in mobile phone and computer batteries), etc., when not disposed properly, these heavy
metals penetrate from soil to groundwater which then run to the surface as streams or small
ponds of water.

Effects of E-waste on Human Body:

Element Effects on human body

Lead Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems and
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 kidney damage. Affects brain development of children.
Chromium Asthmatic Bronchitis. DNA damage
Cadmium Toxic irreversible effects on human health. Accumulates in kidney and
liver. Cause neural damage.
Mercury Chronic damage to brain and respiratory system
Plastics including Burning produces dioxin. It causes reproductive and developmental
PVC problems; immune system damage, interfere with regulatory
hormones.

Methods of Disposal of E-Waste:

Knowing the ways to dispose of e-waste is important to fight against growing problem of e-waste.
There are a few different ways to dispose of e-waste that have historically been employed; each come
with their own set of environmental issues.

1. Landfilling: This refers to the practice of essentially digging a massive hole in the ground,
filling it with waste and then covering it back up with soil. While the pits are lined with clay or
plastic with a leachate basin to prevent toxic waste from leeching into the surrounding
environment, some substances such as cadmium, lead, and mercury inevitably finds their way
into the soil and groundwater, causing contamination.

2. Acid Bath: Soaking electronic circuits in powerful sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid
solutions separates metals from the electronic pathways. The metals can then be recycled and
used in the manufacture of new products. However, the highly hazardous acid waste needs to
be very carefully disposed of to prevent it from finding its way into local water sources –
essentially trading one waste disposal problem for another.

3. Incineration: A very crude e-waste disposal method that involves burning the waste in an
extremely high temperature incinerator. This has the twin benefit of significantly reducing the
waste volume and generating energy that can be repurposed for other applications.
Unfortunately, the process of burning the components which make up electronic waste also
produces vast quantities of toxic gasses – including cadmium and mercury – which are released
into the atmosphere.

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 4. Recycling: Many items of e-waste can be dismantled and their component parts repurposed
into new products. E-waste recycling techniques can recover precious metals from circuit
boards and be melted down to make new devices or used for other products such as jewellery.

5. Reuse: By far, the most environmentally friendly e-waste disposal technique is for, where
possible, devices to be reused. Many charities will gladly accept old electronic devices that can
then be refurbished and redistributed to people in more disadvantaged communities.

Advantages of Recycling E-Waste:

Saving environment from being destroyed further is the most important benefit. Adopting a
healthy habit of recycling e-waste by every individual makes a large difference in the longer run. No
matter how small our effort may seem, recycling e-waste should be considered an absolute necessity.
To better understand the positive impact of recycling e-waste, let us look at the following six benefits.

1) Save Landfill Space: Instead of disposal of e-waste into a landfill, the components of electronic
gadgets are separated and recycled and non-recyclable components are disposed of properly
so their harmful impact on the environment is reduced and recoverable e-waste components
are used to create new products.
2) Save Natural Resources: Recycling e-waste means that natural resources such as metals
aren’t wasted and the energy and cost required to manufacture and mine them are also saved.
3) Increase in Employment: By recycling e-waste, several people get a job. More jobs mean
financial stability for our communities. The overall economy of the country gets a boost.
Eventually, it results in the prosperity of the whole nation.
4) Increases Affordability: Recycling e-waste increases the opportunity for people who do not
have access to such devices to use and own them.
5) Removes Data Appropriately: It is vital to recycle electronic gadgets through proper e-waste
channels. They take extreme care of the customer data. They follow appropriate steps to
extract data, and then they remove it without leaving a trace.
6) Saves the Environment: Consumers must be responsible and protect the environment by
recycling e-waste. To save our future generations from an unhealthy environment or before
completely losing natural habitats.

Extraction of Metals from E-Waste:

Electronic industry uses over 300 tons of gold each year. More than 40% of 21 million metric
ton of copper produced in the world is consumed by electronic industry. Because gold and copper

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metals have good electric conductivity, good chemical stability and hence they are used for making
integrated circuits of electronic devices, bonding wires, coating for contacts and connectors etc.

E-waste contains 10 times more excessive concentration of gold compared to gold ores. It
approximately contains 10–10,000 g of gold/ton, whereas gold ore contains barely 0.5–13.5 g of
gold/ton. Concentration of copper in PCB is 20-40 times more than that is present in its ore. Usage of
electronic gadgets is increasing day by day and their life span is very short. Hence, there is a rapid
surge in e-waste generation. Presently more than 50 million metric tons of e-waste is generated
globally every year out of which only 17 % is processed to recover precious metals. Hence, e-waste
can act as a vital source of precious metals and can satisfy their demand in various industries.

Among e-waste, PCBs are rich in metals. It contains around 35% copper, 0.16% silver and 0.13% gold
by weight. Several techniques such as pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, biometallurgy, microwave
treatment and plasma techniques are employed to recover precious from e-waste. Among these, these
recovery of metals using hydrometallurgical route is more economical.

Extraction of Copper from E-Waste: (By Hydrometallurgical Method)

There are three stages in metal recovery by hydrometallurgical method:

1. Pre-treatment stage
2. Chemical treatment stage
3. Metal recovery stage

Pre-treatment stage:
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In the Pre-treatment step, e-waste is manually dismantled to separate various fractions like metals,
plastics, ceramics, wood and paper. Techniques such as gravity separation, electrostatic separation,
magnetic separation and eddy current separation are used to separate metals from other fractions.

Chemical treatment stage:

In the chemical treatment step, targeted metals are leached in to solution by treating with appropriate
chemical reagents. Several leaching agents such as thiosulfate, alkali cyanide and many acids such as
hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid can be used to leach copper in to solutions.

Acid leaching is the most common method used to extract copper. H 2SO4/HNO3 in the presence of
oxidizing agent, H2O2 is used in the process.

Cu + ½ O2 + 2H+ Cu2+ + H2O

Metal recovery stage:

In the last step, metal is recovered from leach solutions. Varieties of methods like electrodeposition,
solvent extraction, ion exchange, adsorption, precipitation and cementation are used to recover
metals from leach solutions. Selective recovery is possible for most processes.

Copper metal can be recovered by electrodeposition. Pure copper metal taken as cathode and inert
anode are dipped in leaching solution. When current is applied, copper is electrodeposited on cathode.

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