UNIT II Modern Engineering materials

Semiconductors – Introduction, basic concept, role of

doping agents, applications
Super conductors-Introduction, basic concept,
applications.
Supercapacitors: Introduction, Basic Concept-
Classification – Applications.
Nano materials: Introduction, classification, properties
and applications of Fullerenes,
carbon nano tubes and Graphene nanoparticles.

1
Nano materials
• Scientists have not unanimously settled on a precise
definition of nanomaterials but agree that they are
partially characterized by their tiny size, measured in
nanometers.
1
• A nanometer is 𝑚 i.e., 10-9 m.
1000000000
• Approximately 100,000 times smaller than the
diameter of a human hair.
• Nanomaterials must have less than 100 nanometers.
• Most nanoscale materials are too small to be seen
with the naked eye and even with conventional lab
microscopes.

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 Nano materials

A comparison of sizes of nanomaterial. Reproduced with permission from reference

3
Ref. doi: 10.1039/C4CS00177J.
Nano materials
• The behavior of matter at the nanoscale alters material
properties in comparison to their bulk counterparts.
• Overall, materials at the nano-range demonstrate
modified physical behaviors that offer favorable
mechanical, thermodynamic, magnetic, optical, and
biomedical properties for a range of applications.
• As such nanomaterials have their prominence in most
scientific domains due to their ability to generate varied
responses suitable for specific requirements.
• However, the implementation of nanomaterials in each
situation requires a detailed understanding of the
chemical and physical properties of the base materials,
control parameters, and methods of fabrication.
4
Surface to Volume Ratio Increases
• Nanoparticles of material show different properties
when compared to the larger size particles of the same
material.
• As surface to volume ratio increases, a greater amount
of a substance comes in contact with surrounding
material and forces of attraction among the surfaces
become very strong.
• This results in better catalysts, since a greater
proportion of the material is exposed for potential
reaction.

5
Classification of Low-dimensional Materials
• Low-dimensional structures are usually classified
according to the number of reduced dimensions they
have.
• More precisely, the dimensionality refers to the
number of degrees of freedom in the particle
momentum.
• Accordingly, depending on the dimensionality, the
following classification is made:
a. Three-dimensional (3D) structure or bulk structure
b. Two-dimensional (2D) structure or quantum well
c. One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum wire
d. Zero-dimensional (0D) structure or quantum dots
6
Classification of Low-dimensional Materials
a. Three-dimensional (3D) structure or bulk structure: No
quantization of the particle motion occurs, i.e., the particle is
free.
b. Two-dimensional (2D) structure or quantum well: Quantization
of the particle motion occurs in one direction, while the
particle is free to move in the other two directions.
c. One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum wire: Quantization
occurs in two directions, leading to free movement along only
one direction.
d. Zero-dimensional (0D) structure or quantum dots: The particles
are confined in all three directions and cannot move in any
spatial direction.

7
Classification of Low-dimensional Materials

Schematic for the classification of low dimensional nanostructures

8
Classification of Low-dimensional Materials

Schematic for the classification of low dimensional nanostructures

9
Classification of Low-dimensional Materials

Schematic for the classification of low dimensional nanostructures

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Classification of Low-dimensional Materials

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Classification of Low-dimensional Materials

Schematic for the classification of low dimensional nanostructures

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Classification of Low-dimensional Materials

quantum wires
Nano materials: Nano Science, Nano Technology
Nano Science: Study of materials and their properties at
nanometer scale is called nano science.
Nanoscience deals with building up complex materials and
machines using fine control on the matter at the nano meter scale.
Nano Technology: The techniques involved in the preparation,
characterization and use of the properties of nanomaterials in the
various applications are collectively called as Nano Technology.

14
Nano materials: Synthesis
There are two different approaches for the
nano material synthesis.
1. Top-Down approach
2. Bottom-Up approach
1. Top-Down approach:
• Bulk materials are divided to produce
nanostructured materials.
• Include mechanical milling, laser ablation,
etching, sputtering, electro-explosion, etc.,
2. Bottom-Up approach:
• Precursors are the atomic / molecular / ionic
substances and produce nanostructured
materials.
• Include mechanical CVD, Solvothermal, The
sol–gel method, Soft and hard templating,
Reverse micelle methods, etc.,
Nano materials: Synthesis
Nano materials: Synthesis
Nano materials: Synthesis
Nano materials: Synthesis

A list of top-down and bottom-up approaches to synthesize

nanomaterials. (a) Ball milling, (b) PVD, (c) CVD, (d) Lithography,
19
(e) Sol-Gel method, and (f) Co-precipitation method.
Nano materials: Properties
Optical Properties: When light is incident on the material, it can be
absorbed or scattered and if the size of nanomaterial is
• less than 20nm, absorption is significant
• greater than 100nm, scattering is significant.
Thus, by designing the nano particle of different sizes, optimal
amount of absorption or scattering can achieved.
Ex. Opaque substances at the bulk level, become transparent at
nano level (Copper).
Gold nanospheres of 50nm are green in colour and 100nm
size appear Orange in colour and bulk level it is yellow.

20
Nano materials: Properties
Electrical Properties: Electrical conductivity of material is altered
when it is reduced to nano size, and it is possible to invent
nanomaterials having desired conductivity.
Ex. In Ceramics, the electrical conductivity increases with
decrease in nanoparticle size
In metals, electrical conductivity decreases with decrease
in nanoparticle size.
Magnetic Properties:
• Nano material are more magnetic than bulk material and show
magnetism even for nano size non-magnetic solids.
• Magnetic properties of material can be altered in reducing the
size to nano meters. Metal Bulk Size Nano Size
Na, K Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Fe, Co, Ni Ferromagnetic Super-Paramagnetic
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Nano materials: Properties
Structural Properties:
• Surface area to volume ratio increases from bulk to Nano size
and material become more reactive.
• Forces of attraction between surface can appear to be weak on
a large scale, but strong on nanoscale and this leads to changes
in surface morphology, changes in crystal structure etc.
Metal Macroscale Nanoscale
Cu Opaque Transparent
Pt Inert Catalytic
Al Stable Combustible
Au (Gold) Solid at Room Temp. Liquid at Room Temp.
Si Insulator Conductor

22
Nano materials: Properties
Quantum Properties:
• When the size of the nanocrystal is smaller than the De-Broglie
wavelength, electrons and holes are spatially confined, electric
dipole are formed, and discrete energy levels formed.
• Like particle in box, energy separation between adjacent levels
increases with decreasing dimensions.
• The quantum size effect occurs
mostly in case of semiconductor
nanoparticles, where band gap
increases with decreasing size
resulting in inter-band transitions
resulting to higher frequencies.

23
Different fields of Nano Science & Nano Technology

And there as directly and indirectly numerous fields….

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Applications of Nano materials

25
 Applications of Nano materials
Nanotechnology in Textile Industry
Nanotextiles are regarded as
conventional textiles with the
inclusion of nanomaterials.
These advanced textiles offer
different functionalities like,
• Flame retardancy
• Self-cleaning,
• Dirt repellency,
• Water repellency,
• Ultraviolet radiation protection,
• Antibacterial property etc.,

A diagrammatic representation of various utilizations of

nanotechnology - based textiles.
Reproduced from reference ( Yetisen et al., 2016, [56] )
26
Applications of Nano materials
Utilization of nanomaterials in textile functionalization.
Sl. No. Nanomaterial Function Reference
1 Nano-clays Active ingredient support, flame Gocek et al., 2019,
retardance, abrasion resistance
2 Aluminium flame retardance, abrasion Korkmaz et al., 2016
oxide resistance
3 Silicon dioxide Reinforcement enhanced the Dogan et al., 2017
dyeability, abrasion resistance,
water repellence, dirt repellence
4 Zinc oxide Stiffness, abrasion resistance, self- (Verbic et al., 2019
cleaning, antibacterial property and
UV protection
5 Titanium Water repellence, dirt repellence, Abbas et al., 2018
dioxide self-cleaning, UV protection
6 Silver Electrically conductive, Xu et al., 2017
antibacterial property

27
Applications of Nano materials
Materials: Stain-resistant clothes
• Microbe-killing - Silver
nanoparticles
• Waterproofing and stain
resistance - Silica nanoparticles
• Sun blocking - titanium dioxide
and zinc oxide nanoparticles Nanotechnology in Textiles | ACS Nano

• Nano moieties can induce stain repellence, wrinkle-freeness,

static elimination, and electrical conductivity to fibers without
compromising their comfort and flexibility.
• Nanomaterials also offer a wider application potential to create
connected garments that can sense and respond to external
stimuli via electrical, color, or physiological signals.

28
Applications of Nano materials
Materials: Protective nano paint for cars

Mercedes covered with tougher, shinier nano paint

• Water and dirt repellent
• Resistant to chipping and scratches
• Brighter colors, enhanced gloss
• In the future, could change color and self repair?

29
 Applications of Nano materials
Environment: Paint That Cleans Air a hybridization of
photocatalysis with
other technologies

b photocatalytic
reactor development

c photocatalyst
immobilization
methods

d low-cost
photocatalytic
materials

e photocatalytic
activities as a function
of the wavelength

f durability of
photocatalysts against
deactivation and30
Ref. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-22839-0 fouling.
Applications of Nano materials
Environment: Paint That Cleans Air

Nano paint on buildings could reduce pollution:

• When exposed to UV light, titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles in paint
break down organic and inorganic pollutants that wash off in the rain.
• Decompose air pollution particles like formaldehyde.
Ref. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments9090118 31
Applications of Nano materials
Environment: Nano Solar Cells
• Nano solar cells mixed in plastic could be painted on buses,
roofs, clothing
• Solar becomes a cheap energy alternative!

A panel of eight plastic solar cells Schematic diagram of a hybrid "plastic" solar cell
based on inorganic nanorods and with a nanorod/polymer layer sandwiched
semiconducting polymers. between two electrodes.

32
Applications of Nano materials
Current CD and DVD media have storage scale
• New nanomedia (made when gold self-assembles into strips on
silicon) has a storage scale in nanometers
• That is 1,000 times more storage along each dimension (length,
width)…
• 1,000,000 times greater storage density in total!

33
Applications of Nano materials
Health Care
CARBON NANOTUBES:
• With gold nanoparticles used to detect proteins which indicate
the presence of oral cancer.
• Lens coated with carbon nanotubes is used to convert light from a
laser to focused sound waves.
• Carbon nanotubes is used to change adult stem cells into a type
of cell that may help heal the damaged heart tissue.
• Using nanotubes as a cellular scale needle to deliver quantum
dots and proteins into cancer cells.

34
Applications of Nano materials
Health Care
NANOPARTICLES
• Used to deliver drugs to the tumors.
• The use of polymer coated in iron oxide nanoparticles to break up
clusters of bacteria,
• more effective treatment of chronic bacterial infections.
DENDRIMERS
• Drug Delivery and Targeting
• Gene Delivery
• In boron neutron capture therapy

35
Applications of Nano materials
Health Care
Nerve Tissue Talking to Computers:
• Neuro-electronic networks interface nerve cells with
semiconductors
• Possible applications in brain research,
• neurocomputation, prosthetics, biosensors
Detecting Diseases Earlier:
• Neuro-electronic networks interface nerve cells with
semiconductors
• Possible applications in brain research, neurocomputation,
prosthetics, biosensors
• Quantum dots glow in UV light and able to detect tumors.

Sources: http://vortex.tn.tudelft.nl/grkouwen/qdotsite.html 36
http://www.whitaker.org/news/nie2.html
Applications of Nano materials
Health Care
Preventing Viruses from Infecting Us:
 Nano-coatings over proteins on viruses could stop viruses from
binding to cells and never get another cold or flu.

37
 Applications of Nano materials
Health Care
Making Repairs to the Body:
 Nanorobots are imaginary, but nanosized delivery systems could
break apart kidney stones, clear plaque from blood vessels, ferry
drugs to tumor cells
 Nanorobots are expected to work
at atomic, molecular and cellular
levels to perform tasks in both
medical and industrial fields.

38
Sources: https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2302579.pdf
Classification of Low-dimensional Materials

39
Potential Risks of Nanotechnology
Health issues
• Nanoparticles could be inhaled, swallowed, absorbed through
skin, or deliberately injected
• Could they trigger inflammation and weaken the immune
system?
• Could they interfere with regulatory mechanisms of enzymes and
proteins?
Environmental issues
• Nanoparticles could accumulate in soil, water, plants; traditional
filters are too big to catch them
• New risk assessment methods are needed
• National and international agencies are beginning to study the
risk; results will lead to new regulations
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Nano materials: Allotropes of Carbon

sp3 sp2+ 𝝅
An allotrope of carbon is variants of a substance consisting of only
one type of atom.
• Diamond
• Graphite
• Fullerenes
• Carbon Nanotubes
The allotropes takes on interesting shapes
Nano materials: Nano Carbon

Fullerenes Horns

Cones Nanodiamonds Tubes

Nanofoam Carbon Black

Rods 42
 Nano materials: Fullerenes (also known as buckyballs)
Fullerenes are molecules with
60 atoms of carbon, commonly
denoted as C60.
Less commonly, with a larger
number of carbon atoms, for
example, C70, C76, C78, and
C80.
• In 1985, Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex, working with
James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley
from Rice University, discovered fullerenes in the sooty residue
created by vaporizing carbon in a helium atmosphere.
• In the mass spectrum of the product, discrete peaks appeared
corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or
seventy or more carbon atoms, namely C60 and C70. The team
identified their structure as the now familiar "buckyballs".
43
Source: doi:10.1038/318162a0
 Nano materials: Fullerenes (also known as buckyballs)
• Kroto, Curl, and Smalley determined that the structure of the C60
buckyball was a combination of 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal
rings, forming a spheroid shape with 60 vertices for the 60 carbons.
• The name "buckminsterfullerene" was eventually chosen for C60 by
the discoverers as an homage to American architect Buckminster
Fuller who designed a geodesic domes (more similar structure of
C60) and exhibited in Montreal World Exhibition (1967), he
popularized.
• The "ene" ending was chosen to indicate that the carbons are
unsaturated.
• The shortened name "fullerene" eventually came to be applied to
the whole family.
• Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the Nobel Prize (1996) in
Chemistry for this work.
44
Source: https://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/buckyball/c60a.htm
 Nano materials: Fullerenes (also known as buckyballs)
Fullerene has
iscosahedral
symmetry and an
electronic structure.
Red – Single bond
Yellow – Double bond
• The Pentagonal rings contain only single bond. The double bonds
connected to pentagonal rings leads to instability.
• The limitations on double bonds location leads to poor
delocalization of electrons, increasing the molecules reactivity.
• Fullerenes can be made in a carbon arc, but burning a
hydrocarbon feedstock with strict control of the oxygen supply is
a more controllable method.
• The fullerenes can be separated from coproduced soot
(“amorphous carbon”) by dissolving them out. 45
https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/3-s2.0-B9780080964478000090-f09-06-9780080964478.jpg
 Nano materials: Fullerenes - Synthesis
• Fullerenes can be made in a carbon arc, but burning a hydrocarbon
feedstock with strict control of the oxygen supply is a more
controllable method.
• The fullerenes can be separated from coproduced soot
(“amorphous carbon”) by dissolving them out.
• Kratschmer and his colleagues developed a contact arc discharge
method for macroscopic production and is known as Kratschmer–
Huffman method.
• Here, Electrodes are Graphite rods and Inert atmosphere is Helium.
• Optimizing current, helium pressure and flow rate leads to yield of
up to 15% with this method.

46
 Nano materials: Fullerenes - Properties
Physical Properties
• It is temperature dependent and on increase the temperature
fullerene-C60 gets converted into C70.
• The structure of fullerenes can change under different pressures.
• Fullerene has an ionization enthalpy of 7.61 eV and Its electron
affinity is 2.6 to 2.8 eVs.
Chemical Properties
• Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive.
• In chemical reactions, fullerene can act as an electrophile and acts
as an oxidizing agent.
• Fullerenes showcases superconductivity properties on doped or
crystallized with alkali or alkaline earth metals.
• Fullerene is ferromagnetic.
• Some fullerenes are inherently chiral.
• It is soluble in organic solvents such as toluene, chlorobenzene,
and 1,2,3-trichloropropane. 47
Nano materials: Fullerenes – Applications/Uses
• light-activated antimicrobial agents in the medical field.
• Design of high-performance MRI contrast agents, X-ray imaging
contrast agents, photodynamic therapy and drug and gene
delivery in biomedical.
• As a catalyst in lubricants.
• As a conductor.
• As an absorbent for gases.
• Making cosmetic products.
• C60 based films are used for photovoltaic applications.
• Fullerenes are used in making carbon nanotubes-based fabrics
and fibers.
• In Nano electronics
• Hydrogen Energy storage. 48
Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes
• When the Japanese scientist Sumio Iijima in
1991 observed hollow carbon tubules by high-
resolution electron microscopy formed by a
high current arc discharge process to evaporate
graphite, a novel carbon allotrope was
discovered.
• The small tubules consisted of concentrically
nested tube-like graphene structures, each
successive outer shell having a larger diameter.
• Because of their nanometer-scale diameters
and their consisting of up to dozens of
concentric tubes, these tubules were called
multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs).

49
Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes

Two years later,

• With the same arc process and in the presence of catalytic
particles, single-shelled nanotubes, made up of just one single
layer of carbon atoms, were synthesized and consequently called
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs).

50
 Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes - Synthesis
Arc discharge: CNTs Can be found in the carbon soot of graphite
electrodes during an arc discharge involving high current.
This process yields CNTs with lengths up to 50 microns.
Laser Ablation: A pulsed laser vaporizes a graphite target in a high-
temperature reactor while an inert gas is inserted into the reactor.
Nanotubes develop on the cooler surfaces of the reactor as the
vaporized carbon condenses.
Other methods for CNT Synthesis:
• Chemical Vapor Decomposition.
• Natural, incidental, and controlled flame environments.
 Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
• The schematic diagram of experimental set-up used for CNT growth
by Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) method is its simplest form.
• The process involves passing a hydrocarbon vapour (typically 15-60
min) through a tubular reactor in which a catalyst (Co, Fe or Ni)
material is present at sufficiently high temperature (600-1200 0C) to
decompose the hydrocarbon.
• CNTs grow on the catalyst in the reactor, which are collected upon
cooling the system to room temperature.
Catalyst
Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
• In the case of a liquid hydrocarbon (benzene, alcohol, etc.), the
liquid is heated in a flask and an inert gas is purged through it,
which in turn carries the hydrocarbon vapour into the reaction
zone.
• If a solid hydrocarbon is to be used as the CNT precursor, it can be
directly kept in the low-temperature zone of the reaction tube.
• Volatile materials (camphor, naphthalene, ferrocene etc.) directly
turn from solid to vapor, and perform CVD while passing over the
catalyst kept in the high-temperature zone.
Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
• Like the CNT precursors, also the catalyst precursors in CVD may
be used in any form: solid, liquid or gas, which may be suitably
placed inside the reactor or fed from outside.
• Pyrolysis of the catalyst vapor at a suitable temperature liberates
metal nanoparticles in-situ (such a process is known as floating
catalyst method).
• Alternatively, catalyst coated substrates can be placed in the hot
zone of the furnace to catalyse the CNT growth.
• CNT growth mechanism has been debatable right from its
discovery.
• Based on the reaction conditions and post deposition product
analyses, several groups have proposed several possibilities which
are often contradicting.
• Therefore, no single CNT growth mechanism is well established till
date.
Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
• Nevertheless, widely-accepted most general mechanism can be
outlined as follows.
• Hydrocarbon vapor when comes into contact with the “hot” metal
nanoparticles, first decomposes into carbon and hydrogen
species; hydrogen flies away and carbon gets dissolved into the
metal.
• After reaching the carbon-solubility limit in the metal at that
temperature, as-dissolved carbon precipitates out and crystallizes
in the form of a cylindrical network having no dangling bonds and
hence energetically stable.
• Hydrocarbon decomposition releases some heat to the metal’s
exposed zone, while carbon crystallization absorbs some heat
from the metal’s precipitation zone.
• This precise thermal gradient inside the metal particle keeps the
process on.
Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
Now there are two general mechanisms for the Deposition of CNTs.
a. Tip Growth Method
• When the catalyst-substrate interaction is weak (metal has an
acute contact angle with the substrate), hydrocarbon
decomposes on the top surface of the metal, carbon diffuses
down through the metal, and CNT precipitates out across the
metal bottom, pushing the whole metal particle off the
substrate (as depicted in step (i)).

Step (i) Step (ii) Step (iii)

Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
• As long as the metal’s top is open for fresh hydrocarbon
decomposition (concentration gradient exists in the metal
allowing carbon diffusion), CNT continues to grow longer and
longer (step (ii)).
• Once the metal is fully covered with excess carbon, its catalytic
activity ceases and the CNT growth is stopped (step (iii)). This is
known as “tip-growth model”.
b. Base Growth Method
• In the other case, when the catalyst-substrate interaction is
strong (metal has an obtuse contact angle with the substrate),
initial hydrocarbon decomposition and carbon diffusion take
place similar to that in the tip-growth case.
• But the CNT precipitation fails to push the metal particle up; So,
the precipitation is compelled to emerge out from the metal’s
apex (farthest from the substrate, having minimum interaction
with the substrate).
Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
Base-Growth Method

Step (i) Step (ii)

• First, carbon crystallizes out as a hemispherical dome (the most

favourable closed-carbon network on a spherical nanoparticle)
which then extends up in the form of seamless graphitic cylinder.
• Subséquent hydrocarbon déposition takes place on the lower
peripheral surface of the metal, and as dissolved carbon diffuses
upward.
• Thus, CNT grows up with the catalyst particle rooted on its base;
hence, this is known as “base-growth model”.
 Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Chemical Vapour Deposition
• Formation of single- or multi-wall CNT (SWCNT or MWCNT,
respectively) is governed by the size of the catalyst particle.
• Broadly speaking, when the particle size is a few nm, SWCNT forms;
whereas particles size is in few tens' nm wide favour MWCNT
formation.
• CNT synthesis involves many parameters such as hydrocarbon,
catalyst, temperature, pressure, gas-flow rate, deposition time,
reactor geometry.

Schematic representation of the basic steps of SWCN growth on Fe catalyst.

single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)

 Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Properties
CNTs Electrical Conductivity
• Conductivity in multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) is
somewhat intricate and interwall reactions within MWNTs
have been found non-uniformly.
• CNTs can be either semi-conducting or metallic in their electrical
behavior.
• The resistivity of the SWNT ropes was in the order of 10–4 Ω-cm at
27 °C. This shows that SWNT ropes are the most conductive
carbon fibers known.
• CNTs have been
established to be an
outstanding additive to
impart electrical
conductivity in plastics.
https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4842
 Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Properties
CNTs Strength and Elasticity
• CNTs are expected to be the ultimate high-strength
fibers due to their strongly bonded basal-plane elastic
modulus of graphite and planar honeycomb lattice
structure.
• SWNTs are stiffer compared to steel and are extremely
resistant to damage from physical forces and Hence,
CNTs are very useful as probe tips for very high-
resolution scanning probe microscopy.
CNTs Thermal Conductivity and Expansion
• Ultra-small SWNTs have been shown to exhibit
superconductivity even below 20 K.
• CNTs show very high thermal conductivity.

https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4842
 Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Properties
CNTs Field Emission
• The high aspect ratio and small diameter of CNTs are
very suitable for field emission.
• A strong electric field is developed at the free end of
supported CNTs even for moderate voltages due to their
sharpness.
CNTs High Aspect Ratio
• CNTs represent a very small, high-aspect-ratio
conductive additive for all kinds of plastics.
• Their high aspect ratio means that a lower loading
(concentration) of CNTs is required to realize the same
electrical conductivity when compared to other
conductive additives.

https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4842
 Nano materials: Carbon Nanotubes – Applications
• Carbon nanotubes are utilized in energy storage, device
modelling, automotive parts, boat hulls, sporting goods, water
filters, thin-film electronics, coatings, actuators, and
electromagnetic shields.
• Because of their large surface area, CNTs have been successfully
used in pharmacy and medicine to adsorb or conjugate a wide
range of medicinal and diagnostic substances.
• CNTs used as drug delivery and biosensing platforms for the
treatment of a variety of diseases and noninvasive monitoring of
blood levels.
• Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique qualities, such as high
surface-to-volume ratios, increased conductivity and strength,
biocompatibility, ease of functionalization, optical properties, and
so on.

https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4842
Nano materials: Graphene

• Graphene is an allotrope of
carbon that exists as a two-
dimensional planar sheet.
• One way to think of graphene is
as a single atomic graphite layer.
• Technically a non-metal but referred as a quasi-metal due to its
properties being like that of a semi-conducting metal.
• Each carbon atom is covalently bonded (sp2 hybridized) to three
other carbon atoms in a hexagonal array, leaving one free electron
per each carbon atom.
• Efficient conduction of electricity.
• High thermal conductivity.
• Graphene doesn’t have an electronic band-gap and the electrons
act as massless relativistic particles.
 Nano materials: Graphene - Synthesis

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9658785/
 Nano materials: Graphene - Synthesis
• There are Three main ways to synthesize graphene, they are:
• Chemical Vapor Deposition
• Chemical or Plasma Exfoliation from natural Graphite
• Mechanical cleavage from natural Graphite
• Graphene can also be fully synthetic, but those methods haven’t
proven to be commercially viable.
• Graphene films can be produced by varying methods, which
include mechanical and thermal exfoliation, chemical reduction
and epitaxial growth;
• The most common method used in production today is chemical
vapor deposition (CVD).
• CVD produces graphene films of high quality and purity, but the by-
products produced can be toxic.

https://www.cheaptubes.com/graphene-synthesis-properties-and-applications/#introduction
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211715621000680
 Nano materials: Graphene - Synthesis
• CVD works by combining and depositing volatile gas molecules
onto a substrate. The process takes place in a reaction chamber,
where the material is formed on the surface of the substrate and
the waste gases are pumped out.
• Temperature dependence plays a vital role and can affect the type
of reaction that occurs.
• The graphene film is created by CVD in two steps.
1. The pyrolysis of a precursor material to form carbon atoms on
a substrate material.
2. A heat intensive step which assembles the dissociated
carbon atoms onto a substrate, in the presence of a
catalyst, which forms a single layer structure.

Monolayer Graphene Film On Wafer

https://www.cheaptubes.com/graphene-synthesis-properties-and-applications/#introduction
 Nano materials: Graphene
One atom thick single crystals of graphene:
• Graphene was discovered
in 2004 by Andre Geim
and Konstantin Novoselov,
who received the Nobel
Prize in Physics for this in
2010.
• It is a material made of a
single layer of carbon
atoms arranged in a
hexagonal lattice.

a)Graphene visualized by AFM @ height of 4A0

b) Graphite sheet freely suspended on a 𝜇 size
metallic scaffold.
c) SEM of a relatively large graphene crystal

DOI: 10.1515/msp-2015-0079
 Nano materials: Graphene - Properties
HIGH CONDUCTIVITY
• Using graphene, the life of batteries
could be increased by 10 times, as
well as charging in less time.
LIGHTNESS
• Suitable for manufacturing batteries
for drones, as these would be lighter
and tougher.
TRANSPARENCY AND FLEXIBILITY
• Transparent & absorbs 2% light only.
• Flexible screens could be
manufactured for all types of devices
like cellphones, televisions, vehicles,
etc.
DOI: 10.1515/msp-2015-0079
 Nano materials: Graphene - Properties
HIGH RESISTANCE
• An excellent electric conductor and a
high resistant material
• Big advances in the lighting sector are expected due to
Graphene’s excellent electric conductivity and a high
resistant material.
• For example, Graphene light bulbs could increase the
useful life of each globe and consume less energy than
the LED lights
MECHANICAL that we currently have.
STRENGTH
• The strongest materials with tensile
strength of 1.3 x 1011 Pa.
• Very lightweight (0.77 mgm-2).
• Significantly enhance strength in
many composite materials.
https://www.cheaptubes.com/graphene-synthesis-properties-and-applications
Nano materials: Graphene - Properties

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 Nano materials: Graphene - Applications
SENSORS
• Graphene to effectively detect changes in its surroundings
at micrometer dimensions, providing a high degree of
sensitivity.
• Graphene is able to detect a single molecule in a large
volume.
• Graphene could be used in sensors in various fields
including bio-sensors, diagnostics, field effect transistors,
DNA sensors and gas sensors, etc.,

https://www.cheaptubes.com/graphene-synthesis-properties-and-applications/#introduction
 Nano materials: Graphene - Applications
BATTERIES
• Graphene can be incorporated into both the anode or the
cathode in various battery systems to increase the
efficiency of the battery and improve the charge/discharge
• cycle
Due rate.
to its versatile nature,
graphene has been incorporated
into lithium-ion batteries,
lithium - sulphur batteries,
supercapacitors and fuel cells.

Lithium Reduced Graphene Oxide Battery

https://www.ctimaterials.com/graphene-batteries-an-insiders-guide/lithium-reduced-graphene-oxide-battery/
https://www.cheaptubes.com/graphene-synthesis-properties-and-applications/#introduction
 Nano materials: Graphene - Applications
Electron Emission Displays
• Graphene is an ideal material for use in electron emission
displays as it exhibits a high aspect ratio and the dangling
bonds at either end of the sheet allow for efficient
• electron
The lineartunneling.
dispersity that the
graphene surface provides
produces massless Dirac
Fermions.
• When exposed to an electric
field, the field emission liberated
electrons avoid all back-
scattering because their escape Graphene Displays
velocity is independent to their
energy.

https://www.cheaptubes.com/graphene-synthesis-properties-and-applications/#introduction
 Nano materials: Graphene - Applications
CATALYST SUPPORTS
• Catalysts in the form of metal ions can sit in these cavities
and be supported. In addition to providing mechanical
support, the excellent charge carrier ability of graphene
assists the charge transfer reactions involving the catalyst.

Graphene Catalyst Supports

https://www.cheaptubes.com/graphene-synthesis-properties-and-applications/#introduction
 Nano materials: Graphene - Applications

Industrial and biological applications of graphene-based materials

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Industrial-and-biological-applications-of-graphene-based-materials_fig1_329373591
1. Write down the difference between top down and bottom up approach
method.
2. Explain the optical properties of nanomaterials
3. What are the applications of nanomaterials

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