Goods and Service Tax (GST)

1) Selling Price (Discounted Price)= List Price –Discount

2) List Price = price at which article is marked. Marked Price=Printed Price=Quoted Price
=List Price

3) Discount is always calculated on List Price

4) If there is no discount, Selling Price = List Price

5) Tax ie GST is calculated on the discounted price/sale price ie marked price minus
discount

6) Amount to be paid by the customer=Selling (Discounted Price) + Tax

7) Taxable Value = Selling (Discounted) Price

8) Invoice Value = Taxable Value + Tax (ie GST)

9) Tax deposited with the Govt = GST collected from Buyer – GST paid to supplier/seller
= GST on sale price – GST on purchase price [if GST
rate is different]
= GST on (Sale Price – Purchase Price) [If GST Rate is
same]
= GST on Value Addition.

10) CGST = SGST

11) Tax liability of the registered dealer = Output Tax – Input Tax

12) Input Tax Credit (ITC) = Tax on purchase of goods/services ie Input Tax
 Banking

1) Total Sum deposited = Sum deposited every month * Number of months

=P*n

2) Interest (I)
n(n+1) r
=P*{ }* ( )
2∗12 100

3) Maturity Value of the recurring deposit = Total Sum deposited + Interest

= [P*n] + I
n(n+1) r
=[P*n] + [P * * ]
2∗12 100
(n+1) r
=[P*n][1+{ * }]
2∗12 100

4) Based on the above formula, any data can be found if other data is made available.

5) Unitary Method – assuming deposit amount per month is Rs.100

6) Algebraic Method – applying the above formula.

7) Interest Paid = Maturity Value – Total Sum deposited

 Shares and Dividends

1) At par, Market Value(MV) = Nominal Value (NV)

2) At premium, MV > NV

3) At discount, MV < NV

4) Sum Invested = No. of shares bought * MV of one share

5) No. of shares bought = Sum invested / MV of one share

= Total Dividend/Dividend of one share
= Total Income (Profit)/Income (Profit) of one share.

6) Total Dividend earned = No. of shares * rate of dividend * NV of a share

7) Dividend is always expressed as a percentage of NV (Not on MV)

8) Return % = Income % = Profit %

Income
=
Investment
* 100

9) For a shareholder, Income = Return = Profit = Dividend paid by the company

Dividend per Share

10) Income % =
MV per S hare

( NV∗% of Dividend)
=
MV per Share

Total Dividend
11) Dividend per Share =
No . of Shares

12) Rate of Dividend * NV = Profit (Return) % * MV (derived from 10 above).

 Linear Inequalities

1) Rules:

 Rule -1: If a positive term is transferred from one side to other, the sign of that
positive term will become negative

 Rule-2: If a negative term is transferred from one side to other, the sign of that
negative term will become positive

 Rule-3: If each term of an inequation is multiplied or divided by the same positive

number, the sign of inequality remains same (i.e., > remains > OR < remains <)

 Rule-4: If each term of an inequation is multiplied or divided by the same

negative number, the sign of inequality reverses (i.e., > remains < OR < remains
>)

 Rule-5: If sign of each term on both sides of an inequation is changed, the sign of
inequality gets reversed. Ex: -x<5 .Multiplied by -1 on both sides, -x*-1>5*-1 ,
then x>-5.

 Rule-6: If both the sides of an inequation are positive or both are negative, the
sign of inequality reverses if all the terms are written in reciprocals

2) Replacement Set – The set from which the value of the variable x is to be chosen i.e, set
of Natural Numbers, set of Whole numbers, set of integers, set of real numbers, etc

3) Solution Set – Subset, whose elements, after giving to Variable x and satisfy the the
given inequation.

4) If the Replacement Set is the set of Real Numbers, the solution set shall be written in set-
builder form only i.e., {x:x ε R and x<3} or {x:x<3 and x ε R}
 Quadratic Equations

1) If the highest power of the variable is 2, it is quadratic equation

2) Standard Form : ax2+bx+c=0 where a,b & c are all real numbrs and a≠0.

3) ax2+bx=0 type equations are called adfected quadratic equation

4) ax2=c or ax2+c=0 type equations are called pure quadratic equation.

5) If the given equation can be expressed as ax 2+bx+c=0 or ax2+bx=0 or ax2+c=0, such

equation is a quadratic equation.

6) Zero Product Rule: whenever the product of two expressions is zero; atleast one of the
expression is zero. If (x+3)(x-2)=0  x+3=0 or x+2=0  x= -3 or x=2.

7) Factorisation method:
 Multiply a by c i.e. ac
 Find factors for “ac”
 Select the factors with adequate sign in such a way getting by adding/subtracting
to get “b” and by multiplying those factors to get the product “ac”
 Write equation by expanding the term “bx” with the selected factors
 Find the factors for the equation and apply Zero Product Rule o find the value of
variable.

−b ± √ b 2−4 ac
8) Mathematical Formula: x = where a≠0.
2a

9) b2- 4ac is called discriminant and denoted by “D”

10) Examining the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation:

A. If ax2+bx+c=0; where a,b, and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0, then discriminant D:
a) b2- 4ac = 0  the roots are real and equal
b) b2- 4ac > 0  the roots are real and unequal
c) b2- 4ac < 0  the roots are imaginary (not real)

B. Every rational and irrational number are real number

C. Square root of a negative number is an imaginary number.

11) Equations reducible to quadratic equations: Since the highest power of a quadratic
equation is 2, if the given question is in any other power, either by taking the square root
 of the variable or by substituting the variable with other variable, convert to quadratic
equation and then solve.

Ratio and Proportion

a
1) If a and b are two quantities of the same kind and in the same units, then quotient is
b
called the ratio between a and b where b ≠ 0.

a
2) Ratio has no unit and written as a : b.
b

3) a is called first term or antecedent and b is called second term or consequent of the ratio

4) second term of a ratio cannot be zero . a : b where b ≠0 or b : a where a ≠ 0

5) if both the terms are multiplied / divided by the same non-zero number, the ratio will
8
=2
1 1∗2=2 8 4
remain unchanged. Ex: = or =
2 2∗2=4 12 12
=3
4

6) A ratio must always be expressed in its lowest terms

7) If the HCF of both terms is 1, then ratio is in its lowest terms.

8) a : b ≠ b : a ; unless a = b

9) Increase (or decrease) in a ratio:

5
Old Number : New Number, say Old is 20 & New is 24, then ratio = 20 : 24 = 5 : 6 =
6
6
New Number = Old Number * Reciprocal of the Ratio = 20 * = 24
5

10) If the ratio between any two quantities of the same kind and same unit can be expressed
exactly by the ratio of two integers, such quantities are commensurable; otherwise
1 1
incommensurable. Say, 2 and 3 7/3 : 7/2 =(7/3)/(7/2) = (7/3)*(2/7)=2/3 =
3 2
1 1
2:3,which is the ratio between two integers 2 & 3. So , 2 and 3 are commensurable
3 2
quantities.

Ratio between √3 & 5 is √3 : 5, which are not a ratio between two integers, so √3 & 5 are
incommensurable quantities.

11) Composition of Ratios:

  Compound Ratio – ratio between the product of antecedents to the product of
consequents. For example:
a : b & c : d  a*c : b*d
a : b, c : d, e : f  a*c*e : b*d*f

 Duplicate Ratio – Compound ratio of two equal ratios. For example:

Duplicate Ratio of a : b = Compound ratio of a : b & a : b
= (a*a) : (b*b) = a2 : b2
 Triplicate Ratio – Compound ratio of three equal ratios. For example:
Triplicate Ratio of a : b = Compound ratio of a : b , a : b & a : b
= (a*a*a) : (b*b*b) = a3 : b3.

 Sub – duplicate ratio – For any ratio a : b, its sub-duplicate ratio is √a : √b

 Sub-triplicate ratio – For any ratio a : b, its sub-triplicate ratio is 3√a : 3√b.

1 1
 Reciprocal Ratio – For any ratio a : b; where a,b ≠0, its reciprocal ratio = :
a b
=b:a
12) Proportion – If a : b = c: d, these non-zero quantities a,b,c & d are said to be in
proportion. Expressed as a : b :: c : d

 In a:b=c:d, a,b,c,d are called terms of proportion, where a = first term, b= second
term and so on. a and d are extremes (end terms), where as b & c are means
(middle terms)

a c
 a:b=c:d  =  a*d = b*c  product of extremes = product of means
b d

 In a:b=c:d, fourth term d is called the fourth proportional

 In a:b=c:d, a& b must be of the same kind with same units whereas c&d can be
different from a&b ex: 5kg : 15kg = Rs.75 : Rs.225 5/15 =75/225=1/3

13) Continued Proportion: If a:b=b:c ; a,b&c are in continued proportion (same kind and
a b c d
same units). If = = = ……….; a,b,c,d,e, etc are in continued proportion
b c d e

14) If a, b, & c are in continued proportion, the second quantity i.e., b is men proportional
between a & c whereas the third quantity c is third proportional to a & b.

15) Some important properties of proportion: If four quantities a,b,c & d form a proportion
i.e., if a : b :: c : d,
 b d
a) Invertendo: b:a = d:c  =
a c

a b
b) Alternendo: a:c = b:d  =
c d

a+b c+ d
c) Componendo: a+b : b = c+d : d  =
b d

a−b c−d
d) Dividendo: a-b : b = c-d : d  =
b d

a+b c +d
e) Componendo & Dividendo: a+b: a-b = c+d : c-d  =
a−b c−d
Remainder and Factor Theorems

1) ∫ (x) = 2x2-5x-7, ∫ (x) is said to be a function of variable x as the value of ∫ (x)

depends on the value of x.

2) The method of finding the remainder without actually performing the process of division
is called Remainder Theorem.

3) Remainder Theorem: If ∫ (x) , a polynomial in x, is divided by (x-a), the remainder =

∫ (a) . Ex: If ∫ (x) is divided by (x-3), the remainder is ∫ (3) .
Note: Give (x-a) = 0 & solve. So x = 0+a = a.

4) Factor Theorem: If the remainder is zero, then (x-a) is a factor of the polynomial ∫ ( x).
It means if the remainder ∫ (a) = 0; (x –a) is a factor of the polynomial ∫ (x).

5) Factorise the given polynomial with Factor Theroem: If for the polynomial ∫ ( x),
∫ (a) =0;  (x-a) is a factor of polynomial ∫ (x).
Note: If one factor is found based on the above theorem, then by using division method
another factor can be found. Ex: ∫ (x) ÷ (x-a) = Another Factor.
 Matrices

1) Order of a matrix is m * n (read as m by n) wherein m represents no. of rows and n

represents no. of columns

2) Number of elements = m*n = mn

3) Types of Matrices:

 Row Matrix (Row vector) - Only one row. So 1*n order

 Column Matrix (Column vector) – Only one Column. So m*1 order
 Square Matrix – Rows =Columns. So m*n order where m=n
 Rectangular Matrix – Rows ≠Columns. So m*n order where m≠n.
 Zero or Null Matrix – Each element in a matrix is zero
 Diagonal Matrix – Square matrix having all elements zero except principal
diagonal elements
 Unit or Identity Matrix – Diagonal Matrix having principal diagonal elements are
1

4) Transpose of a Matrix –In case of transpose, rows will become columns and columns
will become rows. If A is a matrix, its transpose is At

5) Equality of Matrices – If order and elements of both matrices are same

6) Addition/Subtraction of Matrices – If order of both matrices are same, it can be added

or subtracted.

7) If A, B & C are the matrices of the same order,

 A + B = B + A (ie addition of matrices is cumulative)
 A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (ie addition of matrices is associative)
  A + X = B  X =B – A

8) Zero is additive identity in numbers. Similarly, Null Matrix is additive identity in

matrices. It means if Null Matrix is added to another Matrix of same order or another
matrix is added to Null Matrix of same order, the another matrix will always remains
unaltered.

9) Additive Inverse – If A & B are same order matrices and A + B = B + A = Null Matrix,
then A is said to be additive inverse of B and B is additive inverse of A. Additive Inverse
of A is negative of Matrix A & denoted as –A. So A + (-A) = Null Matrix =0

10) Solving Matrix Equations – If A & B are same order matrices and A + X = B where X is
an unknown same order matrix, then X = B – A.

11) Multiplication of a Matrix by a scaler (real number) – Multiply each element by the
scaler
12) Multiplication of Matrices – If A & B are two matrices, the product matrix (i.e., AB) is
possible only if number of columns in A ( 1st Matrix) = number of rows in B (i/e/, 2nd
Matrix)

A= [ wy xz ] B= [ mo np] ; AB = [ wy xz ] [ mo np]
== [ w∗m+ x∗o
y∗m+ z∗o
w∗n+ x∗p
y∗n+ z∗p ]
Note -1: AB ≠ BA, hence matrix multiplication is not cumulative.

Note-2: AB=AC Matrices B & C are not equal and Matrix A is not a Zero Matrix. If
AB = AC, it does not imply that B =C by cancelling Matrix A from both sides.

So, cancellation law is not applicable in matrix multiplication

13) Identity Matrix for Multiplication: If I is the unit matrix, and A & I are matrix of the
same order, then A * I = I * A = A

14) Am*n * Bn*p = Cm*p

15) If A≠0 and AB = AC, then it is not necessary that B=C

16) If AB=0, then it is not necessary that A=0 or B=0

17) If A=0 or B=0, then AB=BA=0

18) A(B+C) = AB + AC ; (A+B)C=AC+BC i.e, in matrices, multiplication is distributive
over addition

19) A(B-C)=AB – AC ; (A – B)C=AC – BC i.e, in matrices, multiplication is distributive

over subtraction

Arithmetic Progression

1) A group of numbers arranged in a definite order with a certain rule – sequence

2) Such numbers – elements or terms

3) A series/sequence written in a definite order with certain rule – Progression

4) Sequence of numbers in which each term obtained by adding a certain quantity to

preceding term – Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

5) Common difference – difference between 2 consecutive terms & denoted by “ d “.

6) For an AP, tn = a+(n-1)d, where a = first term, d= common diff & tn = nth term.

 if d > 0, AP is increasing
if d < 0, AP is decreasing
if d = 0, all the terms of AP are same

7) If first term=a, d =common diff & n= number of terms, then r th term from its end = (n-
r+1)th term from the beginning

8) t1=a; t2=a+d; t3=a+2d; t4=a+3d and so on

9) For an A.P., if:

m times the mth term = n times the nth term
 its (m+n)th term = 0.

10) Sum of n terms of an AP:

 n
S = (a + tn ) ; if a, n & tn are known.
2

n
S= [2a + (n – 1)d] ; if a, n & d are known.
2

11) Three or more terms in AP

 If sum of 3 consecutive terms of an AP is given, the terms are (a-d), a & (a+d)
 If sum of 4 consecutive terms of an AP is given, the terms are (a-3d), (a-d), (a+d)
& (a+3d)
 If sum of 5 consecutive terms of an AP is given, the terms are (a-2d), (a-d), a,
(a+d) & (a+2d)
 If sum of 6 consecutive terms of an AP is given, the terms are (a-5d), (a-3d), (a-
d), (a+d), (a+3d) & (a+5d)

Note: If it is even number, the terms will be without “a”

If it is odd number, the terms will be with “a”

12) Arithmetic Mean: If a, A & b are in AP, then A is Arithmetic Mean between a & b.

A–a=b–A
a+b
 2A = a + b and A =
2
a+b
 Arithmetic between a & b =
2

13) Properties of an AP:

 Property 1: If same fixed non-zero number is added or subtracted from each term
of an AP, the resulting sequence is also an AP and d will be the Number added.

 Property 2: If each term of a given AP is multiplied or divided by a given non-

zero fixed number, the resulting sequence is an AP.
 Geometric Progression

1) A sequence, in which a term is arrived by multiplying/dividing previous term by a fixed

quantity – Geometric Progression. Fixed Quantity – Common Ratio, denoted by “ r “.

t3 t4 tn
2) r = = =
t2 t 3 t (n−1)
3) Last term, tn = ar(n-1)
4) Properties of GP:

 Ratio between consecutive terms of a GP is always same

 a, b & c are in GP  b2 = ac. Conversely, b2 = ac  a,b & c are in GP.
 If each terms are multiplied/divided by the same non-zero number, the resulting
series is also a GP
 The series obtained by taking the reciprocals of the terms of a GP is also a GP.
 If each term of a GP is raised to the same non-zero number, the resulting series is
also a GP.
 If the corresponding terms of 2 different GPs are multiplied together, the resulting
series is also a GP
 If the corresponding terms of 2 different GPs are divided together, the resulting
series is also a GP.

5) Sum of n terms of a GP

 Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ……..+ arn-1

  Sn = na ; where r =1.
n
a(1−r )
 Sn = ; where |r| <1
1−r
n
a(r −1)
 Sn = ; where |r| >1
r−1

6) Geometric Mean between a and b:

If a and b are two positive numbers then a, G , b are in GP

 Geometric Mean , G = √ ab .

Reflection

1) Co-ordinate Axes – The two mutually perpendicular number lines intersecting each
other at their zeroes. Also known as rectangular axes or axes of reference. Horizontal
number line XOX’ is x-axis. The vertical number line YOY’ is y-axis. Point of
intersection, O is origin.

2) Co-ordinates – The position of a point in a plane is expressed by a pair of two numbers

by representing x-axis & y-axis.

3) Consider Point P (x,y):

 The first number x of the pair (x,y) is the distance of the point P from y-axis and
is called x – co-ordinate or abscissa.
 The second number y of the pair (x,y) is the distance of the point P from x-axis
and is called y – co-ordinate or ordinate.

4) Reflection:
 Point P’ is the image of point P inline AB; and line AB is perpendicular bisector
of PP’ is said to be the mirror line or mediator of segment PP’.
 The transformation which maps a point P to P’ is called reflection
 Reflection is denoted by Ml , where M denotes reflection and l is the line or point in which
the reflection takes place.
 Mx represents reflection in the x-axis
 My represents reflection in the y-axis
 Mo represents reflection in the origin.

5) Reflection in the line y = 0 i.e. in the x-axis:

 The line y = 0 means the x-axis.

P(x,y) in the x-axis, then P’ is the image of P in the x-axis such that P’ = (x, -y).

 Mx (x,y) = (x,-y)

Note: when a point is reflected in the x-axis, the sign of its ordinate changes.

6) Reflection in the line x = 0 i.e. in the y-axis:

The line x = 0 means the y-axis.

P(x,y) in the y-axis, then P’ is the image of P in the y-axis such that P’ = (-x, y).

 My (x,y) = (-x,y)

Note: when a point is reflected in the y-axis, the sign of its abscissa changes.

7) Reflection in the origin:

P(x,y) in the origin, the signs of its abscissa and ordinate both change i.e. if P’ is the
image of P(x,y) in the origin, then P’ = (-x, -y).

 Mo (x,y) = (-x,-y)

8) Invariant Point –any point that remains unaltered under a given transformation is called
an invariant.

Example:

 A (5,0) is invariant under reflection in the x-axis

 B (0,5) is invariant under reflection in the y-axis
 O (0,0) is invariant under reflection in the x-axis, y-axis and origin
 C (-3,0) is invariant under reflection in the x-axis, and so on.

Note:

 In case of an invariant, the point is its own image i.e. reflection of the point is the
point itself. Such transformation (reflection) is called invariant transformation.

 Similarly, reflection of any point is invariant under reflection in a line, if the point
lies in the same line.
 Section and Mid-Point Formula

1) Section Formula – To find the co-ordinates of a point which divides the line segment
joining two given points in a given ratio.

2) If a point P lies in a line segment joining the points A & B, then P divides AB in the ratio
AP : PB

Let AB be a line joining the points A = (x 1,y1) and B = (x2,y2) and point P divides the line
segment AB in the ratio m1 : m2
AP m1
i.e =
PB m2

m1 x 2+ m2 x 1 m1 y 2 +m2 y 1
⸫ Co-ordinates of P = ( , m +m )
m1+ m2 1 2

3) To find the ratio in which the join of two given points is divided by a third point, take
m1 : m2 = k : 1,

k x 2+ x 1 k y 2+ y 1
x= and y =
k +1 k +1

4) Points of Trisection: Let points P and Q lie on line segment AB and divide it into three
equal parts i.e. AP = PQ = QB; then P & Q are points of trisection of AB.

For P: m1 : m2 = AP : PB = 1 : 2;
 m 1 x 2+ m 2 x 1
⸫x= m1+ m2

m1 y 2 +m2 y 1
⸫y= m1 +m2

For Q: m1 : m2 = AQ : QB = 2 : 1;

m 1 x 2+ m 2 x 1
⸫x= m1+ m2

m1 y 2 +m2 y 1
⸫y= m1 +m2

5) If a point P divides a line AB in the ratio of 1 : 2 or 2 : 1, then P will be a point of

trisection of AB.

6) Mid-Point Formula: If a point P divides a line AB in the ratio of 1 : 1, then P will be a

mid-point of AB.

x1 + x 2 y +y
Mid-point of the join of A (x1,y1) and B (x2,y2) = ( , 1 2)
2 2

7) Length of the Line Segment:

If A (x1,y1) and B (x2,y2), length of line segment AB

= √ (x 2−x 1 )2 +( y 2− y 1 )2

8) Centroid of a triangle: Point of intersection of its medians and it (centroid) divides each
median in the ratio 2 : 1.

x1 + x 2 + x 3 y + y +y
Centroid = ( , 1 2 3)
3 3
 Equation of a Line

1) Every straight line can be represented by a linear equation.

2) Any point, which satisfies the equation of a line, lies on that line.

3) Any point, through which a line passes, will always satisfy the equation of that line.

4) The inclination of a line is the angle θ which the part of the line (above x-axis) makes
with x-axis.

5) If measured in anti-clockwise direction, the inclination θ is positive inclination and if

measured in clockwise direction, the inclination θ is negative inclination.

6) Inclination (θ) of the x-axis and every line parallel to the x-axis is 00

7) Inclination (θ) of the y-axis and every line parallel to the y-axis is 900

8) Concept of Slope (or, gradient): The slope of any inclined plane is the ratio between
vertical rise and horizontal distance.

Vertical rise
Slope of Inclined Plane = = tan θ (where θ is the angle which the
h orizontal dista nce
plane
makes with the horizontal)
9) Slope (or gradient) of a straight line:
The slope of a straight line is the tangent of its inclination and is denoted by “m”.
i.e. if the inclination of a line is θ, its slope m = tan θ.

Note:
 Slope of the x-axis is m = tan 00 = 0 [ since , θ = 00]
 Slope of the y-axis is m = tan 900 = ∞ i.e. not defined [ since , θ = 900]
 The slope of a line is positive, if it makes an acute angle in the anti-clockwise
direction with x-axis.
 The slope of a line is negative, if it makes an obtuse angle in the anti-clockwise
direction with x-axis or an acute angle in the clockwise direction with the x-axis

10) The slope of a straight line passing through two given fixed points:

Let P(x1,y1) and Q (x2,y2) be any two fixed points,

The slope of the line through P & Q is

y 2− y 1 y 1− y 2
m = tan θ = x −x or, x −x
2 1 1 2

Diff ∈ordinates
= Diff of abscissae

11) Parallel Lines: Let AB & CD be two straight lines parallel to each other and having
inclinations θ and α respectively.

Since the lines are parallel to each other, the corresponding angles are equal,

i.e. θ = α  tan θ = tan α

i.e. slope of AB = Slope of CD.

Note: 1) If two lines are parallel, their slopes are equal.

2) If the slopes of two lines are equal, the lines are parallel to each other

12) Perpendicular Lines: Let AB and CD be two mutually perpendicular lines, and their
inclinations be α and θ respectively,

m1 * m2 = -1 [ where m1 = slope of AB = tan α and m2 = slope of CD = tan θ]

Note:
 If two lines are mutually perpendicular, the product of their slopes is -1.
 If the product of the slopes of two lines is -1; the lines are mutually perpendicular.

Remarks:
  If the slope of a line is 2,
 the slope of its parallel line is also 2 [ so that : m1 = m2]
1 1
 the slope of its perpendicular is - . [ so that : m1 * m2 = 2 * - =−1]
2 2
3
 If the slope of a line is - ,
4
3
 the slope of its parallel line is -
4
4
 the slope of its perpendicular is -
3
 Since the slope of the x-axis is zero, the slope of every line parallel to the x-axis is
also zero.

 Since the slope of the y-axis is not defined, the slope of every line parallel to the
y-axis is also not defined.

13) Condition for Collinearity of three points: If three points A, B and C are collinear, i.e.
they lie on the same straight line, then:

Slope of AB = Slope of BC

14) X-intercept: If a line meets the x-axis at point A, then the distance of point A from the
origin O (i.e OA) is called x-intercept.

i.e. x-intercept = intercept made by the line on the x-axis = OA.

15) Y-intercept: : If a line meets the y-axis at point B, then the distance of point B from the
origin O (i.e OB) is called y-intercept.

i.e. y-intercept = intercept made by the line on the y-axis = OB.

16) Equation of a line:

 Type 1 : Slope – Intercept Form: Slope –intercept form of the equation of a line
is y = mx + c.

 Type 2 : Point – Slope Form: The required equation of line, say AB

 y – y1 = m(x – x1)

 Type 3 : Two – Points Form: The required equation is :

y –y1 = m(x – x1)

17) Equally Inclined Lines: means the lines which make equal angles with both the co-
ordinate axes. Let two equally inclined lines AB and CD,

For AB : Inclination θ = 450,

⸫ Slope = tan 450 = 1
 For CD : Inclination θ = - 450,
⸫ Slope = tan (- 450) = -1

18) To find the slope and y-intercept of a given line:

 Convert the given equation of the line in the form y = mx + c.

 Then, the coefficient of x is slope (m) and the constant term with its proper sign is
y-intercept (c).

Similarity

1) Similarity of Figures : If they have the same shape but may differ in size

2) Congruency of Figures: If they have the same shape and the same size

3) Congruent figures are always similar, whereas similar figures are not necessarily
congruent.

4) Similar Triangles: If corresponding angles are equal and corresponding sides are
proportional (ie ratios between the lengths of corresponding sides are equal). Symbol ~
read as “is similar to”.

5) Corresponding Sides and Corresponding Angles:

 In similar triangles, the sides opposite to equal angles are corresponding sides.
 In similar triangles, the angles opposite to proportional sides are corresponding
angles, hence they are equal.
 In congruent triangles, the corresponding sides are equal, whereas in similar
triangles, the corresponding sides are in proportion.
  Triangles which are similar to the same triangle, are similar to each other also.

6) Conditions for similarity of two triangles:

 If one angle of a triangle is equal to any angle of the other triangle and the sides
including the equal angles of both triangles are in proportion, then the triangles
are similar (SAS postulate).

 If two triangles have atleast two pairs of corresponding angles equal, the triangles
are similar (AA or AAA postulate).

Note: Since, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 1800 and if two angles of one
triangle are equal to two angles of another triangle each to each, their third angles
are also equal.

 If two triangles have their three pairs of corresponding sides proportional, then the
triangles are similar (SSS postulate).

Important: While writing similar triangles, the order of the vertices must be written
in such a manner that the corresponding vertices occupy the same position.

Example: ∠A=∠ F ; ∠ C=∠ E ; ∠ B=∠ D . ∴ ⊿ ABC ⊿ FDE (Not

⊿ ABC ⊿≝¿).

7) Theorem 1: Basic Proportionality Theorem with Applications:

A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two sides
proportionately.

If a line divides any two sides of a triangle proportionately, the line is parallel to
the third side.

8) Theorem 2: Relation between the areas of two triangles:

The areas of two similar triangles are proportional to the squares on their
corresponding sides.

Remember:

 Median divides the triangle into two triangles of equal areas.

 If two or many triangles have the common vertex and their bases are along the
same straight line, the ratio between their areas is equal to the ratio between
the lengths of their bases.
9) Similarity as a Size Transformation:

 In a size transformation, a given figure is enlarged or reduced by a scale factor k,

such that the resulting figure (the image) is similar to the given figure (the object
or the pre-image).

 In a size transformation:
o the image of a line is a line
o the image of a triangle is a triangle
o the image of a quadrilateral is a quadrilateral and so on.

10) Applications to Maps and Models:

Height of the model Length of the model

=
Height of the object Length of the object

=
Width of the model
Width of the object

= scale factor (k).

Important: If the scale factor is k, then :

each side of the resulting figure (the image) is k times the

corresponding side of the given figure (the object or the


pre-image)

the area of the resulting figure is k2 times the area of the

given figure


in the case of solids, the volume of the resulting figure is

k3 times the volume of the given figure


k > 1  the transformation is enlargement

k < 1  the transformation is a reduction, and


k = 1 the transformation is an identity transformation

 Loci

1) Locus is a latin word from which location,locality etc are derived. The plural of locus is
loci (pronounced as losai)

2) Theorems based on symmetry:

 Theorem 3: The locus of a point equidistant from two intersecting lines is the
bisector of the angles between the lines

 Theorem 4: The locus of a point equidistant from two given points is the
perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two points.

3) Summary – Please see Para 16.5 (page no.238)

4) Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from its centre.

5) Remember:
 To describe the locus of a moving point, state the kind of geometrical figure
obtained and its position.
 Every point satisfying the given condition(s) lies on the locus
 Every point on the locus satisfies the given condition(s)
 The locus can be a straight or a curved line (or lines).

6) Important:

 A triangle has 3 medians which intersect each other at one point only. This point
of intersection is called centroid of the triangle. Centroid of a triangle always
divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.

 In a triangle, the bisectors of the interior angles meet at a point. This point of
intersection is called incentre of the triangle and is equidistant from the sides of
the triangle.

 The perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of a triangle are concurrent (i.e.
they intersect each other at the same point). This point of intersection is called
circumcentre of the triangle and is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.

 Perpendiculars drawn from the vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides (i.e.
altitudes), are concurrent and the point of concurrency is called orthocenter of the
triangle.

 In case of an isosceles triangle ABC, if AD is median, then it is bisector of angle

A, perpendicular bisector of BC and altitude corresponding to BC

i.e. median AD = bisector of angle A

= perpendicular bisector of opposite side BC
= altitude corresponding to BC

 If ABC is an equilateral triangle, then

median AD = bisector of angle A

= perpendicular bisector of opposite side BC
= altitude corresponding to BC

median BE = bisector of angle B

= perpendicular bisector of opposite side AC
 = altitude corresponding to AC
And the same is true for median CF also.

Again, if G is centroid of equilateral triangle ABC then,

G = centroid of the ⊿ ABC = its incentre = its circumcentre = its orthocentre

Circles

1) The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the constant distance is called the
radius of the circle

2) The perimeter of the circle is called its circumference

3) Concentric circles: Two or more circles are said to be concentric if they have same centre
and different radii

4) Equal Circles (or Congruent) : If circles have equal radii.

5) Circumscribed Circle: A circle that passes through all the vertices of a polygon. The
centre of circumscribed circle is called circumcentre and the polygon is called inscribed
polygon.
6) Inscribed Circle: A circle that touches all the sides of a polygon is called the inscribed
circle (or, in-circle) of the polygon. The centre of inscribed circle is called incentre and
the polygon is called circumscribed polygon.

7) Chord: The line segment, joining any two points on the circumference of the circle. A
chord,which passes through the centre of the circle is called diameter, and is the largest
chord of the circle.

8) A straight line drawn from the centre of a circle to bisect a chord, which is not a diameter,
is at right angles to the chord

9) The perpendicular to a chord, from the centre of the circle,bisects the chord.

Remember: Greater is the size of a chord, smaller is its distance from the centre and vice
versa.

10) There is one circle, and only one, which passes through three given points not in a
straight line.

11) Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre

12) Chords of a circle, equidistant from the centre of the circle, are equal.

13) An arc is a part of the circumference of a circle.

14) A chord divides the circumference of a circle into two parts and each part is called an arc.

15) Minor arc – arc which is less than the semi-circle. Major arc – the arc which is greater
than the semi-circle.

16) A segment is the part of a circle bounded by an arc and a chord

17) Theorem 5 : The angle which, an arc of a circle subtends at the centre is double that
which it subtends at any point on the remaining part of the circumference.

18) Theorem 6: Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

19) Theorem 7: The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

20) When a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle i.e. the vertices of the quadrilateral lie on the
circumference of a circle; the quadrilateral is called a cyclic quadrilateral.

21) Theorem 8: The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral(quadrilateral inscribed in a

circle) are supplementary.

Remember:
  If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, the quadrilateral is
cyclic.
 Angle of a major segment is acute and angle of minor segment is obtuse.

22) Theorem 9: The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite
angle.

23) Some important results:

 In a circle, equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.

 ABC is an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle with centre O,

Since, AB = BC = AC
0
360
∠ AOB=∠ BOC=∠ AOC = =1200.
3

 O is the centre of a circle. AB is the side of a square, CD is the side of a regular

pentagon and EF is the side of a regular hexagon, then
0 0 0
360 360 360
∠ AOB = =900 , ∠ COD = =720, ∠ EOF = = 600
4 5 6

 If chord AB : chord CD = 7 : 5,

∠ AOB : ∠ COD = 7 : 5,

And, if AB = 2CD  ∠ AOB = 2∠ COD

Tangents and Intersecting Chords

1) If a circle and straight line are drawn in a plane, w.r.t. each other, they may have one of
the following positions:

 First Position – The line does not meet (cut) the circle

 Second Position – The line cuts the circle at two points

 Third Position – The line meets (touches) the circle at one point only.

2) Secant of the Circle – The straight line which cuts a circle at two points.

3) Tangent of the Circle – The line which touches a circle at one point only
4) Point of contact – The point at which a tangent touches the circle.

5) Theorem 10 : The tangent at any point of a circle and the radius through this point are
perpendicular to each other.

Remember:
 Out of all the line segments drawn from a given point to a given line; the
perpendicular is the shortest.
 No tangent can be drawn to a circle through a point inside the circle
 One and only one tangent can be drawn through a point on the circumference of
the circle
 Only two tangents can be drawn to a circle through a point outside the circle.

6) Theorem 11 : If two circles touch each other, the point of contact lies on the straight line
through the centres.

Remember:
 If r1 and r2 be radii of two circles touching each other at a point and d be the
distance between their centres then :

 d = r1 + r2 when circles touch each other externally

 d = r1 ~ r2 when circles touch each other internally
i.e. d = r1 - r2 when r1 is greater and d = r2 – r1 when r2 is greater

 If AB and CD are tangents to the same circle at points P and Q such that AB is
parallel to CD, then PQ is always the diameter of that circle
 Concentric circles means circles with the same centre.

7) Theorem 12: If two chords of a circle intersect internally or externally then the product
of the lengths of their segment is equal.

8) Theorem 13: The angle between a tangent and a chord through the point of contact is
equal to an angle in the alternate segment.

9) Theorem 14: If a chord and a tangent intersect externally, then the product of the lengths
of the segments of the chord is equal to the square of the length of the tangent from the
point of contact to the point of intersection.
 Constructions (Circles)

1) Construction of Tangents to a given Circle:

 Construction 1 : To construct a tangent to a given circle through a point on its

circumference

Remember: Angle between the radius and the tangent at the point of contact is 900
 Construction 2: To construct tangents to a given circle from an exterior point.

2) Construction of Circumscribed and inscribed Circles of a Triangle:

 Construction 3: To construct a circumscribing circle of a triangle

 Construction 4: To construct an inscribed circle of a triangle

3) Circumscribing and inscribing a Circle on a Regular Hexagon:

 Construction 5: To construct a circumscribing circle of a given regular hexagon

Remember:

(2 n−x)
 Each interior angle of the regular hexagon = * 900,
n

where, n = number of size of hexagon and x = length of each size.

 Whenever a circle circumscribes a given regular hexagon, its radius is

always equal to the length of the side of the regular hexagon

 Construction 6: To construct an inscribing circle of a given regular hexagon

Cylinder, Cone and Sphere

(Surface Area and Volume)

1) Cylinder: A solid which has uniform circular cross-section, is called a Cylinder (or a
Circular Cylinder)

Let r be the radius of circular cross-section and h the height of the cylinder, then:

 Area of cross-section = π r2
 Perimeter (circumference) of cross section = 2 π r
 Curved Surface Area = Perimeter of cross-section * height
= 2 π rh
 Total Surface Area = Curved Surface Area + 2 (Area of Cross-section)
= 2 π rh + 2 ( π r2) = 2 π r (h + r)
 Volume = Area of cross-section * height (or, length)
 = π r2h

2) Hollow Cylinder:

Let R be the external radius of a hollow cylinder, r its internal radius and h its height or
length, then:

 Thickness of its wall = R – r

 Area of cross-section = π R2 - π r2 = π ¿R2 – r2)
 External Curved surface = 2 πRh
 Internal Curved surface = 2 πrh
 Total Surface Area = External curved surface area + Internal curved surface area
+ 2(Area of cross-section)

= 2 πRh + 2 πrh + 2 π ¿ R2 – r2)

 Volume of material = External volume – Internal Volume

= π R2h - π r2h = π ¿R2 - r2)h.

3) Cone : The solid obtained on revolving a right-angled triangle about one of its sides
(other than hypotenuse) is called a cone or a right circular cone.

Let h the height of the cone formed, r the radius of its base and l the slant height, then

 l2 = h2 + r2 [using Pythagoras Theorem] ⸫ l = = √ h2 +r 2

1 2
 Volume = πr h
3
 Curved or lateral surface area = π rl
 Total surface area = curved surface area + base area
= π rl + π r2 = π r(l + r)

4) Sphere : Solid obtained on revolving a circle about any diameter of it.

If radius of the circle involved is r, then radius of the sphere is also r.

4 3
 Volume of a sphere = πr
3
= Volume of the material in the sphere
 Surface Area of a sphere = 4 π r2

5) Spherical Shell: solid enclosed between two concentric spheres.

Let R be the external radius and r be the internal radius of a spherical shell,
 4
Volume = π ¿ r3)
3
= Volume of material in the spherical shell.

6) Hemisphere : when a solid sphere is cut through its centre into two equal (identical)
pieces; each piece is called a Hemisphere.

1
 Volume of a hemisphere = (volume of sphere)
2
1 4 2
= * π r3 = π r3
2 3 3

1
 Total Surface area = (surface ar ea of sphere) + π r2
2
1
= *4 π r2 + π r2 = 3 π r2
2
7) π = 3.14

8) Conversion of solids – see text book

9) Combination of solids - see text book.

10) Volume of the conical-shell = Its external volume – Its internal volume
1 1
= π R2H - π r2h
3 3

Trigonometrical Identities

1) Trigonometry – science of measurements of triangles.

2) Trigonometrical Ratios:

Perpendicular
 Sine (sin) θ =
Hypotenuse
 Base
 Cosine (cos) θ =
Hypotenuse

Perpendicular
 Tangent (tan) θ =
Base

Base
 Cotangent (cot) θ =
Perpendicular

Hypotenuse
 Secant (sec) θ =
Base

Hypotenuse
 Cosecant (cosec) θ =
Perpendicular

Remember:
 Each trigonometrical ratio is a real number and has no unit
 The values of trigonometrical ratios are always the same for the same
angle.
3) Relation between different trigonometrical ratios:

 Reciprocal Relations:

1
 Sin θ =
Cosec θ

1
 Cosec θ =
sin θ

1
 Cos θ =
Sec θ

1
 Sec θ =
cos θ

1
 Tan θ =
cot θ

1
 Cot θ =
tan θ

 Quotient Relations:
 sin θ
 Tan θ =
cos θ

cos θ
 Cot θ =
sin θ

 Square Relations:

 Sin2 θ + Cos2 θ = 1  Sin2 θ = 1 - Cos2 θ & Cos2 θ = 1 - Sin2 θ

 1 + Tan2 θ = Sec2 θ  Sec2 θ - Tan2 θ = 1 & Sec2 θ - 1 = Tan2 θ

 1 + Cot2 θ = Cosec2 θ  Cosec2 θ - Cot2 θ = 1 & Cosec2 θ - 1 = Cot2 θ

4) Trigonometrical Identities: when an equation, involving trigonometrical ratios of an

angle A, is true for all values of A: the equation is called a trigonometrical identity.

5) Trigonometrical Ratios of Complimentary Angles:

 Sin (900 – θ ¿ = Cos θ

 Cos (900 – θ ¿ = Sin θ

 Tan (900 – θ ¿ = Cot θ

 Cot (900 – θ ¿ = Tan θ

 Sec (900 – θ ¿ = Cosec θ

 Cosec (900 – θ ¿ = Sec θ

6) Value of Sin θ & Cos θ :

Trigonometry Ratio Table

Angles (in
degrees) 0 30 45 60 90 180 270 360
Angles (in
radians) 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
Sin 0 1/2 1/√2 √3/2 1 0 -1 0
Cos 1 √3/2 1/√2 1/2 0 -1 0 1

Note: Based on the value of Sin & Cos, by using the formula of above (5), value of sec,
cosec, tan and cot also been found.

7) Using the Trigonometrical Tables:

 (i.e. to find the trigonometrical ratios of acute angles other than 00,300,450 and 600)

The trigonometrical tables give the values of natural sines, cosines and tangents to four
decimal places. A trigonometrical table consists of three parts:

 a column on the extreme left which contains degrees from 00 to 890

 ten columns headed by 0’, 6’, 12’, 18’, 24’,30’,36’,42’,48’, and 54’ respectively.
 five columns headed by 1’,2’,3’,4’, and 5’ respectively

Note: when one degree (10) is divided into sixty equal parts, each part is called one
minute (1’)

⸫ One degree = 60 minute i.e. 10 = 60’

Heights and Distances

1) Angles of elevation and depression:

Let AB be a tower(or pillar or minar,etc) standing on a level ground and a man, standing
at any point C on the level ground, is viewing an object at A.

The line CA ,joining his eye to the object is called the line of sight.

The angle, which the line of sight makes with the horizontal is called the angle of
elevation.

In the given above figure, angle ACB is the angle of elevation.

Similarly, if the man is at A and is viewing an object C on the level ground, then the angle,which
the line of sight (AC) makes with horizontal, is called the angle of depression.

In the given above figure, angle DAC is angle of depression.

Note: Angle of elevation of point A as seen from point C is equal to the angle of depression of
point C as seen from point A i.e. ∠ ACB = ∠ DAC .
 Graphical Representation

1) Histogram – a two dimensional graphical representation of continuous frequency

distribution.

2) Histogram for continuous grouped data:

 Convert the data in the exclusive form, if it is in inclusive form

 Mark class intervals on x-axis and frequencies on y-axis (The scales chosen for
both the axes need not be the same)
 Construct rectangles with class intervals as bases and frequencies as height

3) Histogram for discontinuous grouped data:

 The class interval will be in inclusive form, hence to be converted into exclusive
form.
 Find adjustment factor .

Upper Limit of a class – Lower limit of next class

Adjustment factor =
2

 Subtract adjustment factor from the lower limit and add to the upper limit of each
class to make it in exclusive form.

4) When Class Marks are given:

 Convert class marks into class intervals

Next class marks – Previous class marks

Adjustment factor =
2

 Subtract Adjustment factor from the first class marks (to get lower limit) and add
adjustment factor to the same first class marks (to get upper limit). So first class
interval is arrived
 Repeat the same for other class marks also to get next class intervals

5) Cumulative Frequency and Cumulative Frequency Table:

The cumulative frequency of a class interval is the sum of frequencies of all the classes
up to this class interval.
 Format of Cumulative Frequency Table:

Class Cumulative
Interval Frequency Frequency
(C.I) (f) (c.f)
x x
y x+y
z x+y+z
k x+y+z+k
c.f = Previous
c.f. + current f
& so on

6) Cumulative Frequency Curve or an Ogive:

 Construct a cumulative frequency table

 Mark the actual class limits along x-axis
 Mark the cumulative frequencies along y-axis
 Plot the points corresponding to cumulative frequency at each upper limit point
i.e. X-Axis is upper limit of the class interval and Y-Axis is cumulative frequency
of the same class interval.
 Join the points plotted by a free hand curve

7) Remarks:

 An ogive is always started from a point on x-axis representing the lower limit of
the first class and is terminated at the upper limit of the last class

 The ogive is also called a less than ogive. Such an ogive is always a rising curve.

 The ogive of the type drawn alongside is a less than ogive.

 Measures of Central Tendency

1) Arithmetical Average or Mean

AM ( x̅ ) =
x1 + x 2 + x 3+ … … … .+ x n
=
∑x
n n

2) Arithmetic Mean of Tabulated Data:

A. Direct Method:

A.M. =
∑ fx
∑f
Prepare a frequency table with 3 columns

x f fx = x*f

Σf =*** Σfx = ***

B. Short-cut Method:

A.M. =A +
∑ fd ; where A = Assumed Mean & d = x – A.
∑f
Prepare a frequency table with 4 columns
x f d=x-A fd =f*d

Σf =*** Σfd = ***

Note: Circle any x- values and write as "A".

C. Step –deviation Method:

A.M. =A +
∑ ft ∗i ; where A = Assumed Mean & d = x – A & t = d , where i =
∑f i
 largest number which can divide each value of d.
Prepare a frequency table with 5 columns

x f d=x-A t = d/A ft =f*t

Σf =*** Σft = ***

3) To find Mean for Grouped Data (both continuous and discontinuous) :

 Find the mean (mid-value) of each class interval

 Represent the mean value by x and find the arithmetic mean using:
 Direct Method, or,
 Short-cut Method, or
 Step-deviation Method.

Note: For easier, Assumed Mean should be taken from the middle of the

value of x.

Note: In case of step-deviation Method, i = largest number which can divide

each value of d = class-size (i.e. upper class limit – lower class limit)

4) Median : value of middle term of a set of variables when the variables are arranged in
ascending or descending order.

5) Median for Raw Data:

n+1
 If n is odd, the median = ( 2 )th term.

 If n is even, the median =

n
( )
n
( )t h term+ +1 t h term
2 2
2

6) Median for Grouped Data (both continuous and discontinuous):

 Draw a cumulative frequency curve (Ogive)

n n+1
 If there is n terms , then use the Ogive to find the value of ( )th term or ( )th
2 2
term which is the median of the distribution.
7) Quartiles – those values of the variate which divide the total set of data in 4 equal parts.
For finding quartiles, the given terms (data) are always arranged in ascending order of
their magnitudes.

 Middle Quartile (Q2): is same as median for the same set of data.

 Lower Quartile (Q1): when the lower half, before the median, is divided into two
equal parts, the value of the dividing variate is called Lower Quartile.

n+1
Lower Quartile (Q1) = ( )th term; if n is odd.
4

n
Lower Quartile (Q1) = ( )th term; if n is even.
4

 Upper Quartile (Q3): when the upper half, after the median, is divided into two
equal parts, the value of the dividing variate is called Upper Quartile.

3(n+1)
Upper Quartile (Q3) = th term; if n is odd.
4

3n
Upper Quartile (Q3) = ( )th term; if n is even.
4

 Inter-Quartile Range: the difference between the upper quartile (Q 3) and the
lower quartile (Q1) is called inter-quartile range.

Inter-quartile range = Q3 – Q1, which is always positive as Q3 > Q1

8) Mode: the value which occurs most frequently in a set of observations. It is the point of
maximum frequency.

 Mode for raw data – Mode will be the data which occurs at maximum

 Mode for tabulated data – Mode will be the data which has highest frequency

 Mode for grouped data –

Steps:

 Draw a histogram
 Find the highest rectangle (which will be having highest frequency). Draw
a line inside the rectangle from the top corner to the upper corners of the
adjacent rectangles of left & right sides.
 Mark the point where intersect the above 2 lines
 Draw a line perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
  Point on the horizontal axis will be the value of Mode.
 The class interval, to which the value of mode for the given data belongs,
is called the modal-class.

Probability

1) The measure of uncertainty is called the theory of probability.

2) Some Basic Terms and Concepts:

 Experiment: A process which results in some well-defined outcome is known as

an experiment. Ex: when a coin is tossed, we may get either Head or Tail, which
is well-defined.

 Random Experiment: all the outcomes of the experiment are known in advance,
but any specific outcome of the experiment is not known in advance. Ex: Tossing
a coin is a random experiment because there are only two possible outcomes, head
& tail, and these outcomes are known well in advance. But the specific outcome
of the experiment ie whether a head or tail is not known in advance.

 Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called a

sample space and denoted by “S”.

 Equally Likely Outcomes: If each outcome has equal chance, then it is equally
likely. Otherwise, not equally likely.

 An Event: An outcome of a random experiment is called an event. In other words,

an event is something that happens. While tossing a coin, getting a head or tail is
an event of the experiment.

3) Measurement of Probability: The probability of an event denotes the likelyhood of

its happening.

m
P(E) = Probability of the happening of Event E =
n
= Number of events ¿ ¿

 Empirical (or, experimental) Probability: When the probability is based on

an actual experiment , it is called empirical probability

 Classical (or, theoretical) Probability: When a repetition of an experiment

can be avoided for calculating the exact probability, the probability so
 obtained is called classical probability.In this, we make certain assumptions
and one of them is that the outcomes are equally likely.

Note: In this chapter, the probability means theoretical or classical probability.

4) Notes:
 If the event of getting an outcome is denoted by E, then the event of not
getting that outcome is denoted by not E or E

 E and E (not E) are complementary events i.e., for any event E, the event of
non-occurrence of E is called its complementary event and is denote by E .

 The sum of probabilities of an event and its complementary event is always 1.

 P(E) + P( E ) = 1 ∴ P(not E) or P( E ) = 1 – P(E)

5) Impossible Event and Sure Event:

 If the probability of an event = 0; the event is called an impossible event

 If the probability of an event = 1; the event is called a certain event or a sure
event
 Probability of any event can never be less than 0 or more than 1

If E be any event, then 0≤ P ( E ) ≤ 1

6) Important:
 In tossing a coin once:
The total number of possible outcomes = 21 = 2

 In tossing a coin two times or in tossing of two coins simultaneously:

The total number of possible outcomes = 22 = 4

 In tossing a coin three times or in tossing of three coins simultaneously

The total number of possible outcomes = 23 = 8

 In throwing (rolling) a dice once:

The total number of possible outcomes = 61 = 6

 In rolling (throwing) two dice simultaneously or one dice two times:

The total number of possible outcomes = 62 = 36
 Note-1: If a coin is tossed n times or n coins are tossed simultaneously,
the number of all possible outcomes = 2n

 Note-2: If a dice is rolled n times or n dice are rolled simultaneously,

the number of all possible outcomes = 6n