COURSE TITTLE: PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

COURSE CODE: AGT 111

SCHOOL OF AGRIC (AGRIC TECH)

BY
MAHMUD AHMAD DAN’IYA

FEB, 2024

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INTRODUCTION
Crop production is both a science and an art. It involves good understanding of the fundamentals
of climate, soil and plant sciences and their judicious combined application. The art of successful
crop production also involves acquiring skills in agricultural practices that are followed; no
amount of scientific knowledge can substitute for this.

The Scope of Crop Production

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The scope of crop production encompasses a wide range of activities related to cultivating plants
for food, fiber, and other purposes. This multifaceted field involves various stages from pre-
planting to post-harvest, contributing significantly to global agriculture and economies. Key
aspects of the scope of crop production include:

Pre-planting Activities:
i. Land Preparation: Clearing, plowing, and leveling the land to create a suitable
environment for crop growth.
ii. Seed Selection: Choosing appropriate seeds based on factors like climate, soil type, and
desired yield.
iii. Crop Planning: Deciding on the type and quantity of crops to be planted, considering
market demand and crop rotation principles.

Planting and Cultivation:

i. Sowing: Planting seeds in the prepared soil, Ensuring proper spacing and depth.
ii. Fertilization: Applying nutrients to enhance soil fertility and promote healthy plant
growth.
iii. Irrigation: Providing sufficient water to the crops through various methods like drip
irrigation or sprinklers.
iv. Pest and Disease Management: Implementing strategies to control pests and diseases,
including the use of pesticides or organic alternatives.

Crop Maintenance:
i. Weed Control: Managing weed growth to prevent competition for nutrients and sunlight.
ii. Pruning and Thinning: Trimming plants for optimal spacing and removing excess
growth.
iii. Monitoring: Regularly assessing crop health, identifying issues, and taking corrective
measures.

Harvesting:
i. Timing: Harvesting crops at the right stage of maturity to ensure quality and maximum
yield.
ii. Mechanization: Using machinery for efficient and timely harvesting, which is crucial for
large-scale production

Post-harvest Activities:
i. Processing: Cleaning, sorting, and packaging crops for distribution and consumption.
ii. Transportation: Moving crops from the farm to distribution centers or markets, often
involving logistical considerations.
iii. Storage: Properly storing harvested crops to maintain quality and prevent spoilage.

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Market Considerations:
i. Market Analysis: Understanding market trends and demands to guide crop selection and
production.
ii. Economic Impact: Crop production significantly influences the economy by providing
livelihoods for farmers and contributing to national and global trade.

Environmental Sustainability:
i. Crop Rotation: Implementing practices that maintain soil fertility and reduce the risk of
pests and diseases.
ii. Conservation Agriculture: Adopting techniques that minimize soil erosion and enhance
long-term sustainability.

Classification of crops based on the life cycle of a plant

i. Annual crops
 Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year.
 They produce seed and die within the season. e.g., Wheat, rice, maize, mustard.

ii. Biennial crops

 Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years.
 First year/Season these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette
of leaves.
 The tap root is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ.
 During the second year/season, they produce flower stocks from the crown and after
producing seeds the plants die. E.g., sugar beet, beet root, cabbage, radish, carrot,
cassava, etc.

iii. Perennial crops

 They live for three or more years.
 They may be seed bearing or non-seed bearing. e.g., sugarcane, Napier grass.
 In general, perennial crops occupy land for more than 30 months.

Objectives of Crop Production

1. Ensuring food security
2. Maximizing yield
3. Optimizing resource use
4. Enhancing crop quality and

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 5. Promoting sustainability in agriculture

Importance of crop production to Agriculture

1. Food Security: Crop production is the primary source of food for human consumption. A
steady and diverse crop yield ensures a stable food supply, reducing the risk of hunger
and malnutrition.
2. Economic Impact: Agriculture, driven by crop production, is a significant contributor to
the economy. It provides employment opportunities, supports rural development, and
generates income for farmers and those involved in the agricultural value chain.
3. Livelihoods: Many people depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Crop production
sustains the livelihoods of farmers, farmworkers, and those engaged in related industries
such as food processing, transportation, and marketing.
4. Raw Materials for Industries: Crops are a source of raw materials for various
industries. Industries like textiles, pharmaceuticals, and biofuel production rely on crops
as inputs for their manufacturing processes.
5. Trade and Commerce: Crop production is a key driver of international trade. Many
countries export and import agricultural products, fostering economic relationships and
global interdependence.
6. Employment generation: Majority of population is working & depends on agriculture
And allied activities. The rural population earns its livelihood from agriculture and other
Occupation allied to agriculture. In cities also, a considerable part of labor force is
engaged in jobs depending on processing & marketing of agricultural products.

Factors Affecting Crop Production

i. Environmental factors
ii. Economic factors
iii. Social factors

i. Environmental factors

1. Climate Change: Shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, and increased frequency

of extreme weather events due to climate change can significantly impact crop production
by altering growing seasons, water availability, and creating new challenges for pest and
disease management.
2. Water Availability and Quality: Changes in precipitation patterns, droughts, and water
scarcity can affect irrigation and impact crop growth. Contaminated water sources can
introduce pollutants that harm crops.
3. Soil Erosion: Erosion, often exacerbated by deforestation or improper land management,
can lead to loss of topsoil, reducing soil fertility and affecting the ability of crops to
anchor and access nutrients.

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 4. Temperature Extremes: Heat waves or unseasonable cold spells can disrupt plant
development, affecting flowering, fruiting, and overall crop yields.
5. Soil Contamination: Agricultural runoff, industrial pollutants, and improper disposal of
chemicals can contaminate soil, impacting crop quality and safety.
6. Pest and Disease Dynamics: Changes in temperature and humidity can influence the
prevalence and distribution of pests and diseases, affecting crops negatively.
7. Deforestation: Clearing of forests for agriculture can disrupt local climates, lead to
changes in precipitation patterns, and contribute to the loss of biodiversity, all of which
can impact crop production.
8. Global Warming: Rising global temperatures can affect the distribution of crops,
shifting optimal growing regions and influencing the types of crops that can thrive in
certain areas.

ii. Economic Factors

1. Market Prices: Fluctuations in market prices for crops can influence farmers' decisions
regarding what to plant and when to sell, impacting overall crop production.
2. Input Costs: The costs of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery
directly affect a farmer's budget and can influence decisions on crop selection and
production practices.
3. Government Policies and Subsidies: Agricultural policies, subsidies, and support
programs can significantly impact crop production. Changes in these policies can
influence farmers' incentives and decisions.
4. Trade Policies: International trade agreements, tariffs, and export/import restrictions can
affect market access and prices for agricultural products, influencing farmers' choices.
5. Access to Credit: Farmers' ability to access credit for purchasing inputs or investing in
technology can impact crop production. Lack of credit may limit the adoption of
improved farming practices.
6. Labor Costs and Availability: The availability and cost of labor for planting,
cultivating, and harvesting can influence production decisions. Labor shortages or high
labor costs may impact farming practices.
7. Transportation Infrastructure: The efficiency of transportation systems affects the cost
of getting crops to markets. Poor infrastructure can lead to higher transportation costs and
impact profitability.
8. Technology Adoption: The adoption of modern agricultural technologies, such as
precision farming and mechanization, can influence productivity and overall crop yields.
9. Currency Exchange Rates: Changes in currency exchange rates can affect the
competitiveness of agricultural exports and imports, influencing farmers' income.
10. Land Tenure System: The type of land ownership and tenure arrangements can
influence long-term investments in soil conservation and sustainable farming practices.
11. Economic Conditions: Broader economic conditions, such as inflation and economic
stability, can impact farmers' financial well-being and influence decisions related to crop
production.

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iii. Social Factors

1. Cultural Practices: Cultural norms and traditions can influence farming practices, crop
choices, and the adoption of new technologies in agriculture.
2. Education and Knowledge: the level of education and knowledge among farmers can
impact their ability to adopt modern and sustainable farming practices, ultimately
affecting crop productivity.
3. Gender Roles: Traditional gender roles may influence the division of labor on farms,
access to resources, and decision-making, thereby affecting crop production outcomes.
4. Access to Resources: Social disparities in access to resources such as land, credit, and
extension services can influence the ability of farmers to invest in and adopt improved
crop production practices.
5. Land Ownership and Tenure: Social structures and practices related to land ownership
and tenure can influence long-term investments in soil conservation and sustainable
farming practices.
6. Local Markets and Consumer Behavior: Social factors influencing local markets and
consumer behavior can impact the demand for specific crops, influencing farmers'
planting decisions.
7. Government Programs and Policies: Social welfare programs and policies
implemented by the government can influence the well-being of farming communities
and impact decisions related to crop production.

Cropping systems
Cropping systems refer to the practices and techniques employed in agricultural cultivation to
grow and manage crops. These systems encompass various elements, including
1. Mixed cropping is an agricultural practice where two or more crops with different
growth patterns are cultivated together in the same field. This method helps maximize
land use, reduce risk, and enhance overall productivity.
2. Crop rotation is a farming technique where different crops are planted in a specific order
over several growing seasons. It helps improve soil fertility, reduce pests and diseases,
and promote sustainable agriculture by avoiding continuous cultivation of the same crop
on the same land.
3. Monoculture refers to the agricultural practice of cultivating a single crop species on a
large scale within a given area. While it can simplify farming operations, monoculture is
associated with potential risks such as increased susceptibility to pests, diseases, and soil
degradation.
4. Relay cropping is a farming technique where a second crop is planted before the first
one is harvested. This allows for more efficient use of resources and can enhance overall
yield by optimizing space and time in the growing season.

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Tillage:
After harvest of the crop, soil becomes hard and compact. Beating action of rain drops,
Irrigation and subsequent drying, movement of inter-cultivation implements and labour cause
Soil compaction. Field contains weed and stubbles after the harvest of the crop. Seeds need
loose, friable soil with sufficient air and water for good germination. The field should be free
From weed and stubbles to avoid competition with crop and to facilitate easy and smooth
movement of sowing implements.

Definitions
Tillage is the physical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements for obtaining
conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops. The term
tilth is used to describe qualitative characteristics of a loose friable (mellow) and crumby
conditions of the soil favorable for crop production. In other words, tilth is a physical
condition of the soil resulting from tillage. A soil with good tilth is quite porous and has free
drainage up to water table. The capillary and non-capillary pores should be in equal
proportion so that sufficient amount of water is retained in the soil as well as free air.

Tillage also refers to the preparation of soil for planting or seeding by mechanical means. It
involves various practices such as plowing, harrowing, and cultivating, which aim to create a
suitable seedbed, control weeds, and improve soil structure.

Objectives
The important objectives of tillage for crop production are:
⇒ To prepare a suitable seedbed
⇒ To destruct the weeds, insect pests and pathogen
⇒ To conserve soil and moisture
⇒ To improve soil physical properties (soil structure, soil aeration, pore space, etc)
⇒ To encourage the root penetration
⇒ To mix the applied manures and fertilizers
⇒ To remove the hard pan

Seed bed preparation: Good seedbed is necessary for early seed germination and initial
good stand of the crop. The seedbed should be fine for small seeded crops and moderate for bold
seeded crops. Intimate contact between the soil particles is necessary to facilitate movement
of water for quicker germination.

Manures and fertilizers

Soil is the important source of plant nutrients. When the crop requirements are higher than

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the soil supplying power, nutrients are applied as manures/fertilizers.

Manures
Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as sources of plant nutrients. They release
nutrients after their decomposition.

Classification of manures
Manures have been classified into two groups i.e. bulky organic and concentrated organic
manures.

a. Bulky organic manures: They contain small percentage of nutrients and are applied
in large quantities. FYM, compost, green manure, night soil, sewage and sludge,
vermicompost, sheep and goat manures and poultry manures are important examples of
bulky organic manures. They are as under:

i. Farm yard manure: Decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals plus
litter over materials from roughages of fodder fed to the cattle. It contains 0.5, 0.2
and 0.5% of N, P₂Os and K₂O, respectively.

ii. Compost: A mass of rotted organic materials made from waste is called compost. It
contains 0.5, 0.15 and 0.5 % of N, P2O5 and K₂O, respectively.

iii. Vermi-compost: It is prepared with the help of earthworms. Earthworms consume

large quantities of organic matter and excrete soil as caste. It contains 3.0, 1.0 and
1.5% of N, P₂O5 and K₂O, respectively.

iv. Green manure: Green un-decomposed plant material is known as green manure.
Night soil: Human excreta, both solid and liquid, are known as night soil. It
contains 5.5, 4.0 and 2.0 % of N, P₂Os and K₂O, respectively.

v. Sewage and sludge: In the modern system of sanitation adopted in cities/towns,

human excreta are flushed out with water which is called sewage. The solid portion
is known as sludge while liquid portion is known as sewage water.

vi. Sheep and goat manures: The droppings of sheep and goats contain higher FYM and
compost. It contains 3.0, 1.0 and 2.0 % of N, P₂O, and K₂O, respectively.

b. Fertilizers
The chemicals which are industrially manufactured and contain plant nutrients are known as
fertilizers. Nutrient content is higher in fertilizers than in organic manures and nutrients are
released immediately just after its application in the soils.

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Classification of fertilizers
According to its manufacturing and primary plant nutrients present in it

i. Straight fertilizers: The chemicals which supply only one primary plant nutrient,
namely nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium are known as straight fertilizers. Urea
(46% N), Ammonium Sulphate (20.5%N, 23.4 % S), Potassium Chloride (58-60%
Kz0), Potassium Sulphate (48-50% KO) and Single Super Phosphate (16-22%
P;Os) are the examples of straight fertilizers.
ii. Complex fertilizers: The chemicals which supply two or three primary plant
nutrients of which two primary nutrients are in chemical combination are known as
complex fertilizers. Theses fertilizers are produced in granular form. Diammonium
Phosphate (18% N, 46% P;O:), Nitro-phosphate Suphala (1I8:18:9; 20:20:2),
Ammonium Phosphate (20% POs, 20% N), Ammoniun phosphate Sulphate (16%
N, 20% P;Os) are some of the examples of complex fertilizers.
iii. Mixed fertilizers: Physical mixture of straight fertilizers is known as mixed
fertilizers. They contain 2 or 3 primary plant nutrients. These are made by
thoroughly mixing the ingredients either mechanically or manually. 12:32:16 and
15:15:15 are the examples of mixed fertilizers.

Characteristics of fertilizer based on physical form

a. Solid fertilizers: Most of the fertilizers’ are in solid form. These are found in several
forms like powder (SSP), crystal (AS), pills (urea, DAP, Super phosphate), granules
(Holland granules), super-granules (Super granule urea) and biquettes (urea biquettes).

b. Liquid fertilizers: Some of the fertilizers are available in liquid form

(Anhydrous Ammonia, 82% N, Urea-Ammonium Nitrate, 28-32% N)

Seed Requirements for Germination and Survival:

1. Soil Conditions:
- Concept: Seeds require a well-prepared seedbed with suitable soil structure for proper
germination. Soil should provide adequate aeration, drainage, and moisture retention.
2. Moisture:

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 - Concept: Seeds need sufficient moisture for germination. The seedbed should have the
right moisture content to support initial growth. Insufficient or excessive moisture can
hinder germination.

3. Temperature:
- Concept: Seeds have specific temperature requirements for germination. The seedbed
should provide a favorable temperature range to promote successful germination and
early growth.

4. Depth of Planting:
- Concept: Different seeds have specific planting depth requirements. The seedbed
should be prepared to accommodate the optimal planting depth for each seed type.

5. Weed and Debris Control:

- Concept: Clearing the seedbed of weeds, debris, and competing vegetation is crucial.
Weeds can compete with emerging seedlings for nutrients, water, and sunlight.

6. Nutrient Availability:
- Concept: Seeds need access to essential nutrients for germination and early growth. A
well-prepared seedbed should have adequate nutrient levels or be supplemented with
fertilizers.

Sexual Propagation:
Sexual propagation involves reproduction by seed which can either be planted directly or sowed
in the nursery and later transplanted to the field. Seeds are said to be descendants of many
generations of plants and tends to resemble their parents. But due to variability which result from
different crossing, they could be different from their parents.

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In order to keep the lives of plants going, farmers should select viable seeds for planting. During
selection there are certain characteristics that must be considered for good result.
1. Ability of such seeds to resist diseases
2. Are they early maturing or late maturing seed?
3. Are they high yielding or not?
4. Are they drought resistant or not?

During selection, farmers should discard seeds that are of inferior quality. Crops that can be
propagated by seeds include:

 Vegetables - tomatoes, spinach, okra etc.

 Grain crops - maize, rice, sorghum, mullet
 Tree crops- oil palm coconut etc.

In recent years, there has been tremendous achievement in the field of breeding by plant
breeders, in order to make more and better quality of seeds
available to farmers.
Breeders have produced new varieties of seeds by cross pollinating several
varieties of the plant. Such achievement have been made in crops like maize,
sorghum, cowpea, rice, tobacco etc.

Asexual Propagation:
Definition: Asexual propagation, also known as vegetative propagation or cloning, involves the
reproduction of plants without the involvement of seeds or spores. It produces offspring that are
genetically identical to the parent plant.
In practice, both methods are often used depending on the specific goals, characteristics
of the plant species, and the context of cultivation or breeding programs.

Emphasizing the Quality of Planting Materials:

1. Genetic Purity: refers to how genetically pure a seed sample is in terms of seed variety or
species and how true the phenotype is to its mother at all stages of reproduction.
2. Health and Disease-Free: Quality planting materials must be free from diseases, pests, and
pathogens to ensure vigorous and healthy crop development.
3. Vigorous Growth Characteristics: let the plant be strong, robust and ability to grow well as
well as to grow quickly in a very short time.
4. Uniformity: Uniform planting materials ensure consistent growth, maturity, and harvest,
facilitating efficient management and harvest operations.

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6. Proper Age and Maturity: Planting materials should be at the appropriate age and maturity for
optimal establishment and growth after planting.
7. High Germination Rates: Seeds used as planting materials should exhibit high germination
rates to ensure a successful establishment of crops.
8. Adaptability: Quality planting materials should be well-adapted to the local climate, soil
conditions, and other environmental factors.
9. Traceability: Keeping track of the origin, handling, and treatment of planting materials is
crucial for quality control and management practices.
10. Resistance to Stresses: Quality planting materials should exhibit resistance to environmental
stresses, such as drought, salinity, or extreme temperatures.
11. Certification and Accreditation: Planting materials from certified sources ensure adherence to
quality standards and protocols.

Different Planting Methods:

1. Direct Seeding:
- Description: Seeds are sown directly into the soil where the plants will grow to maturity.
- Applicability: Common for crops like grains, vegetables, and flowers.
- Advantages: Cost-effective, suitable for large areas, and minimizes transplant shock.
- Disadvantages: Risk of seedling loss due to weather conditions, pests, or diseases.

2. Transplanting:
- Description: Seedlings grown in nurseries are transplanted into the field.
- Applicability: Common for vegetables, fruits, and ornamental plants.
- Advantages: Allows controlled growth conditions, early harvest, and efficient space
utilization.
- Disadvantages: Requires additional labor, infrastructure, and care during transplanting.

3. Broadcasting:
- Description: Seeds are scattered evenly over the soil surface without row formation.
- Applicability: Suitable for crops like grasses, cover crops, or densely planted crops.
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 - Advantages: Simple and quick, requires less precision, and can cover large areas rapidly.
- Disadvantages: Lack of precise spacing can lead to competition among plants, making
thinning necessary.

4. Drilling:
- Description: Seeds are planted in rows or furrows at specific depths using specialized
equipment.
- Applicability: Common for crops like grains, oilseeds, and some vegetables.
- Advantages: Precise seed placement, efficient use of space, and reduced seed wastage.
- Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment, may be slower than broadcasting.

5. Hill Planting:
- Description: Seeds or seedlings are planted in mounds or hills, often used for vining crops.
- Applicability: Suitable for crops like cucumbers, melons, or squash.
- Advantages: Improved drainage, warmer soil, and better pest control.
- Disadvantages: Requires more space compared to row planting.

6. Ridge Planting:
- Description: Planting on elevated ridges or raised beds.
- Applicability: Common in areas with excess rainfall to improve drainage.
- Advantages: Enhanced drainage, reduced soil erosion, and better root aeration.
- Disadvantages: May require additional labor for ridge formation.

7. Pit Planting:
- Description: Seeds or seedlings are planted in pits or holes in the soil.
- Applicability: Suitable for arid regions where water conservation is crucial.
- Advantages: Water conservation, improved seedling establishment.
- Disadvantages: Labor-intensive, requires careful pit spacing.

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8. Container Planting:
- Description: Plants are grown in containers (pots, bags, or other containers) before being
transplanted into the field.
- Applicability: Common for nursery production and ornamental plants.
- Advantages: Controlled environment, easy transport, and reduced transplant shock.
- Disadvantages: Requires additional resources for container production.

9. Floating Seedling Method:

- Description: Seedlings are raised on floating trays, and when ready, they are transferred
directly to the flooded paddy field.
- Applicability: Common in rice cultivation.
- Advantages: Reduces transplanting shock, saves labor, and ensures uniform spacing.
- Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment, not applicable to all crops.
The choice of planting method depends on factors such as the type of crop, local climate,
available resources, and specific goals of the farming system. Farmers often use a combination of
these methods based on their needs and the characteristics of the crops they are cultivating.

SEEDS GERMINATION
Germination is the quickening of the growth of embryo, resulting in the emergence of first the
radical of the seeds and then the plumule from the seeds coat. The radical develops into the root
while the permule grows into the shoot.

During germination wares is absorbed by the seeds, enzymes and hormones are secreted
and stored food materials hydrolyze to generate soluble substances which are carried to the
growing points. The stored food in the cotyledon(s) is used by the new plant to grow as soon as
leaves are formed. The plant uses water from the soil and carbon (iv) oxide from the air, to
manufacture its food by a process known as photosynthesis.

TYPES OF SEED GERMINATION

There are two types of germination. These are epigeal germination and hypogeal germination.

1. Epigeal germination is defined as the type of germination in which the cotyledons or seed
leaves are carried above the soil surface. Epigeal germination associated with
dicotyledonous plants germination at groundnut, melon and mango.

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 2. Hypogeal germination: is defined as the type of germination in which the cotyledons,
seed leave or endosperm remains below the soil surface. hypogeal germination is
associated with monocotyledonous plants germination of maize, oil palm, guinea corn,
millet and wheat.

CONDITION NECESSARY FOR SEED GERMINATION

The conditions which are necessary for the germination of the seed include water or moisture, air
or oxygen, warmth or surface temperature, enzymes, energy or food and viable seed.

1. Water or moisture: the seed needs water to activate the cell. It is also needed to soften the
testa or seed coat so that the radical and plumule can come out of the seed with ease.

2. Air or Oxygen: the seed is a living organ. It needs oxygen to carry out respiration. During
respiration, energy is released and it is used by the seed to grow

3. Warmth or suitable temperature: Some seeds require certain range or temperature to

germinate. This range in temperature is called optimum temperature. Below or above this
temperature, the seed may or will not germinate or may even die
4. Enzymes: enzymes are organic catalyst which speeds up the rate or reaction with the cells
in the seed. Enzymes are required in the breaking down of food to release energy

5. Energy or food: there must be food within the seed from which it feeds. In
dicotyledonous seed, the food is stored in the cotyledons or seed leaves while in
monocotyledonous seed, the food or energy source is stored in the endo sperm

6. Viable seed: for a seed to germinate, it must be viable or alive. Damaged seeds by
insects, birds, and man cannot germinate hence such seeds are not viable.

Intercropping
Intercropping is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a
definite row pattern. Multiple cropping in the form of intercropping is predominant in the regions
of dry, humid and semi-arid tropics.

Objectives
⇒ Insurance against total crop failure under aberrant weather conditions or pest epidemics.
⇒ Increase in total productivity per unit land area
⇒ Judicious utilization of resources such as land, labour and inputs.

Intercropping was originally practiced as an insurance against crop failure under rainfall
conditions. At present the main objective of intercropping is higher productivity per unit area
in addition to stability in production. Intercropping system utilizes resources sufficiently and
their productivity is increased.
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Important requirements for successful intercropping
⇒ The time of peak nutrient demand of component crops should not overlap. In maize + green
gram intercropping system, the peak nutrient demand period for green gram is around 35 DAS
while it is 50 days for maize.
⇒ Competition for light should be minimum among the component crops.
⇒ Complementary should exist between the component crops.
⇒ The differences in maturity of component crops should be at least 30 days.

Advantages of intercropping

i. Intercropping gives additional yield income/unit area than sole cropping.

ii. It acts as an insurance against failure of crops in abnormal year.
iii. Inter-crops maintain the soil fertility as the nutrient uptake is made from both layers of
soil.
iv. Reduction in soil runoff and controls weeds.
v. Intercrops provide shade and support to the other crop.
vi. Inter cropping system utilizes resources efficiently and their productivity is increased
(Reddy and Redid, 1992).
vii. Intercropping with cash crops is higher profitable.
viii. It helps to avoid inter-crop competition and thus a higher number of crop plants are
grown per unit area.

Harvesting, threshing and storage

Removal of entire plants or economical parts after maturity from the fields is said to be
harvesting.

When to harvest the crops?

Crops should be harvested at right time of maturity to get quality grains and higher yield.
Early harvesting results in high moisture in the produce, more immature grains, low yield due
to unfilled grains, difficult to store the produce with high moisture due to infestation of pests,
poor quality and reduction in germination etc. Late harvesting results in shattering of grains,
germination even before harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing.
Crops can be harvested either at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity.
a. Physiological maturity: It means when the translocation of photosynthates is stopped to
economic part. In other way, it refers to a developmental stage after which no further
increase in dry matter occurs in the economic part.
b. Harvest maturity: It generally occurs seven days after physiological maturity. The
important process during this period is stopped due to loss of moisture from the plants.

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Crops are harvested at physiological maturity when there is need to vacate the field for sowing
another crop. Under all other situations, it is advisable to follow harvest maturity. The general
symptoms of harvest maturity are yellowing of leaves, drying of grains or pods.

Method of harvesting
Harvesting is done either manually or by mechanical means.

a. Manual harvesting: In manual harvesting, sickle is the most important tool. It has to be
sharp, curved and serrated for efficient harvesting. The other tools used for harvesting is
knife especially for harvesting of plants with woody stems.
b. Mechanical means/methods: When there is labour shortage or in periods of peak labour
demand when planting and harvesting coincides or for quicker harvesting, mechanical
methods are adopted. Combine harvester or simply combines are used for harvesting.
Combines perform several operations: cut the crop, separates the grains from straw,
cleans it from chaff and transports grains to the storage tank.

Threshing and winnowing

Separating fruits or seeds from the plants or ears is called threshing. In cereals, straw and
grain are separated and in pulses, seeds are separated from the pods. Separating grains or seed
from chaff is known as winnowing. Wind power is used to separate husk and grain since husk is
lighter than grain or seed.

Crop protection

INSECT PESTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE IN CROP PRODUCTION

Meaning of crop Pests: A pest can be described as any organism capable of causing damage to
crop plants.

Classification of Insect Pests

Insect pests can be classified into various groups based on their made of feeding (feeding habits)
as follows:
a. Biting and chewing insects
b. Piercing and sucking insects
c. Boring insects

a. Biting and chewing insects

These possess strong mandible and maxillae (mouth parts) which enable them to bite and chew.
Examples are: termites, grasshoppers, leaf worms, army worms, mantids, locusts, crickets and
beetles
b. Piercing and sucking insects
The insects possess strong mouth parts called proboscis which enable them to pierce through
plants and suck liquid materials from plant tissues. Examples are:

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aphids, cotton stainers, mealy bugs, scale insects, white flies, minds and capsids.
c. Boring insects
These bore into plant parts and destroy the tissues of the plants or fruit or seeds. Examples
include:
bean beetle, stem boners, maize weevils, rice weevils.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS PESTS

1. Insects pests destroy crops in the field through their biting, chewing, boring sucking and
defoliation activities.
2. They cause reduction in viability of stored produce.
3. Spot of injuries by insects may predispose crops to disease attack.
4. They increase the cost of production during the cause of controlling them.
5. They render vegetables and fruits unattractive and unmarketable.
6. Some are carriers or vectors of diseases.
7. The profits of farmers are reduced.
8. They reduce the quantity of produce either in store or in the field
9. They generally reduce the yield of crops..
10. They can also cause total death of crop plants.

Prevention and control of Pests

Pests of crops can be prevented or controlled through the following methods
1. Physical control
2. Cultural control
3. Biological control
4. Chemical control
5. Integrated control

1. Physical control
i. This involves the physical removal of pests by hand picking of insects and larva
ii. Setting of traps to catch rodents
iii. Shooting rodents with guns
iv. Fencing round the farm with wire nets

2. Cultural control
i. This involves the use of farm practices to prevent or control pests especially on the field.
Examples of cultural control
ii. Practice of crop rotation.
iii. Use of pest resistant varieties of crops.
iv. Appropriate tillage operation
v. Use of insect traps
vi. Hand-picking and destruction of insects
vii. Burning crop residues
viii. Timely planting of crops

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 ix. Proper weeding or sanitation
x. Timely harvesting
xi. Close season practices especially in cotton

3. Biological control
i. This involves the introduction of the natural enemies of pest to control or keep the pests
population under control. Such enemies eat up or feed on these pests e.g Epidinocarsis
lopezi

4. Chemical control
This involves the use of chemicals called pesticides to control pests of crop plants. Examples of
chemicals used to control pests:
i. Pesticides-chemicals to control pests
ii. insecticides-chemicals to control insects
iii. Rodenticicles-chemicals to rodents
iv. Avicides-chemicals to control birds
v. Nematicides- chemicals to control nematodes

5. Integrated control
i. Early death of plant
ii. Reduction in yield

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