CROP SCIENCE

A. Nature and Importance of Agriculture

1. Overview and Development of Agriculture

1.1 Define Agriculture on various context (Remembering) - 1

1.2 Examine the current Philippine agriculture in relation to sustainable production (Applying) – 1

The Philippines is shifting towards sustainable agriculture practices to ensure a food-secure future.
The Department of Agriculture (DA) is leading this initiative, promoting sustainable agricultural
practices, and supporting farmers through various programs and projects ¹.

Sustainable Agriculture Initiatives:

- Organic Farming: The DA encourages farmers to adopt organic farming practices, reducing chemical
use and promoting environmentally friendly methods.

- Crop Diversification: Farmers are incentivized to grow diverse crops, reducing dependence on
single crops and promoting biodiversity.

- Irrigation Management: Efficient irrigation systems are being implemented to conserve water and
reduce waste.

- Soil Conservation: Techniques like contour farming and terracing are promoted to prevent soil
erosion and maintain soil health.

Support for Farmers:

- Training and Education: The DA provides training and education programs for farmers, focusing on
sustainable agriculture practices and technology adoption.

- Financial Assistance: Farmers receive financial support through loans, grants, and insurance
programs.

- Market Access: The DA helps farmers access local and international markets, ensuring fair prices for
their produce.

Key Projects:

- Rice Self-Sufficiency Program: Aims to increase rice production and reduce imports.

- High-Value Crops Development Program: Focuses on developing high-value crops like fruits,
vegetables, and flowers.

- Livestock and Poultry Development Program: Enhances livestock and poultry production, ensuring
meat security. These initiatives demonstrate the Philippines' commitment to sustainable agriculture,
supporting farmers, and ensuring a food-secure future
1.3 Illustrate the development of Agriculture, the scope, history and present situation of Philippine
Agriculture (Applying) – 1

Philippine agriculture has a rich history and plays a significant role in

the country's economy. It accounts for around 20% of the Gross Domestic
Product and employs approximately 40% of the Filipino workforce ¹. The main
agricultural products include rice, coconuts, corn, sugarcane, bananas,
pineapples, and mangoes.
History of Philippine Agriculture
The agriculture sector has experienced significant challenges over the
years, including decreased productivity, high production costs, and low
government support ¹. Despite these challenges, the sector remains a vital
part of the economy.
Scope of Philippine Agriculture
The scope of Philippine agriculture is diverse, with various sectors
contributing to the industry's growth. Some of the key sectors include:
- Crop Production: Major crops include rice, coconuts, corn, sugarcane,
bananas, pineapples, and mangoes.
- Livestock Production: Common livestock raised include broiler chickens,
carabao, cattle, ducks, goats, and swine.
- Fisheries: The fisheries sector provides substantial employment and income
for many Filipinos.
- Forestry: The forestry sector plays a crucial role in maintaining the country's
ecosystem.
Present Situation of Philippine Agriculture
Currently, the agriculture sector faces numerous challenges, including:
- Climate change and its impact on agricultural productivity
- Limited access to credit and financial services for farmers - Inadequate
infrastructure and transportation systems
- Competition from imported agricultural products
To address these challenges, the government has implemented various
initiatives, such as:
- Sustainable Agriculture Programs: Aimed at promoting environmentally
friendly farming practices.
- Agricultural Modernization Programs: Focus on improving agricultural
productivity and efficiency.
- Support Services for Farmers: Provide access to credit, training, and other
support services for farmers.
Overall, Philippine agriculture has a rich history and remains a vital part of
the country's economy. Addressing the current challenges and implementing
sustainable practices will be crucial for the sector's future growth and
development

1.4 Apply the present innovations of Agriculture to the challenges in food production (Applying) –
2 items

Here are some innovations in Philippine agriculture addressing challenges in

food production:
Crop Improvement
1. Genetically Modified (GM) crops: IRRI's Golden Rice, pest-resistant
corn, and disease-resistant bananas.
2. Hybrid crops: High-yielding rice, corn, and vegetable varieties.
3. Drought-tolerant crops: Developed by UP Los Baños and PhilRice.
Precision Agriculture
1. Precision Farming: Uses drones, satellite imaging, and sensors for
efficient farming.
2. Smart Farming: Integrates IoT, AI, and data analytics for optimized crop
management. 3. Precision Irrigation: Optimizes water usage using sensors
and automation.
Livestock and Aquaculture
1. Genetic improvement: Breeding programs for indigenous livestock and
aquatic species.
2. Feed supplementation: Enhances nutritional content of animal feed.
3. Aquaculture innovations: Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) and
integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA).
Farm Mechanization
1. Automated farming systems: Increases efficiency and reduces labor
costs.
2. Tractorization: Enhances crop production and reduces post-harvest
losses.
3. Precision planting: Optimizes seed placement and reduces waste.
Digital Agriculture
1. Farm management software: Tracks crop health, weather, and market
trends.
2. E-extension services: Provides online advisory services for farmers.
3. Digital marketplaces: Connects farmers to buyers and improves market
access.
Climate-Smart Agriculture
1. Climate-resilient crops: Developed by PhilRice and IRRI.
2. Agroforestry: Integrates trees into farming systems for climate resilience.
3. Soil conservation: Uses conservation agriculture practices to reduce soil
erosion.
Innovative Farming Systems
1. Vertical farming: Increases crop yields in small spaces.
2. Urban agriculture: Promotes urban food production and reduces
transportation costs. 3. Organic farming: Encourages sustainable and
chemical-free farming practices.
Government Initiatives
1. Department of Agriculture's (DA) "New Thinking": Focuses on
modernization, industrialization, and export-oriented agriculture.
2. Philippine Rural Development Program (PRDP): Supports rural
development and agriculture modernization.
3. Agricultural Training Institute (ATI): Provides training and capacity-
building programs for farmers.
These innovations address challenges in food production, such as:
1. Climate change
2. Soil degradation
3. Water scarcity
4. Pest and disease management
5. Post-harvest losses
6. Limited access to markets and finance

2. Importance of Agriculture

2.1 Compare the current government programs with that of the traditional practices to address
food security and sustainability (Analyzing) - 1

Here's a comparison of traditional and current agriculture programs in the

Philippines:
Traditional Practices:
1. Crop rotation and intercropping
2. Organic farming using natural fertilizers and pest control
3. Rainfed agriculture
4. Small-scale farming
5. Family-based labor
6. Limited use of technology
Current Agriculture Programs:
1. Sustainable Agriculture Programs:
- Organic farming promotion
- Agroforestry
- Conservation agriculture
2. Agricultural Modernization Programs: - Mechanization and automation
- Irrigation systems –
High-yielding crop varieties
- Precision agriculture
3. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA):
- Climate-resilient crop and animal varieties
- Agro-insurance programs
- Weather-based crop monitoring
4. Support Services for Farmers:
- Training and education
- Credit and financial assistance
- Market access and linkages
5. Digital Agriculture:
- Precision farming using drones and satellite imaging
- Mobile apps for farm management and market access
Comparison: Similarities:
1. Emphasis on sustainability and environmental conservation
2. Focus on improving crop yields and productivity
3. Importance of farmer training and education
Differences:
1. Technology adoption: Current programs incorporate modern technology,
whereas traditional practices rely on manual labor.
2. Scale of production: Current programs aim for large-scale production,
whereas traditional practices focus on small-scale farming.
3. Market orientation: Current programs prioritize market access and
linkages, whereas traditional practices focus on local consumption.
4. Government support: Current programs receive significant government
funding and support, whereas traditional practices often lack formal support.
Challenges and Opportunities:
1. Balancing modernization with traditional practices' benefits
2. Addressing climate change and its impact on agriculture
3. Ensuring equitable access to resources and support services
4. Promoting sustainable agriculture practices among small-scale farmers
5. Encouraging youth participation in agriculture
Recommendations:
1. Integrate traditional practices with modern technology
2. Support small-scale farmers' access to resources and markets
3. Promote climate-resilient agriculture practices
4. Foster public-private partnerships for agricultural development
5. Encourage policy support for sustainable agriculture initiatives
By understanding the strengths and weaknesses of both traditional and
current agriculture programs, the Philippines can develop a more inclusive
and sustainable approach to addressing food production and sustainability
challenges.

2.2 Appraise present Agriculture innovations to improve food production (Evaluating) – 1

The Philippines is embracing innovative technologies to boost food production

and sustainability in agriculture. One notable initiative is the adoption of
Agriculture 4.0 (Agri 4.0), which harnesses digital technologies like the
Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and big data to enhance
farming practices ¹.

Digital Agriculture Initiatives:

- e-Kadiwa and data analytics are being leveraged to improve farm
productivity and reduce waste ².
- Digital databases monitor crop production, strengthening the digitization of
farming and agribusiness activities.
- Precision agriculture and smart farming approaches optimize input use,
reduce costs, and promote sustainable practices.
Key Features of Agri 4.0:
- IoT and Automation: Enhance coordination between machines and
humans, increasing efficiency.
- Artificial Intelligence (AI): Simulates human intelligence, enabling data-
driven decision-making.
- Big Data: Analyzes large quantities of information to inform decision-
making.
- Genomics: Develops new hybrid strains, improves disease resistance, and
enhances crop yields.
Benefits and Challenges: Agri 4.0 offers strong potential for driving
economic growth, improving incomes, and increasing food security. However,
it also poses challenges, such as social inequality, job displacement, and
concerns over data ownership and cybersecurity ¹. Overall, the Philippines'
agriculture sector is poised for transformation through innovative
technologies, promoting sustainable growth, and improving food production.

2.3 Explain the principles and applications of Biotechnology, Patents and other directions in
Agriculture (Applying) – 2

Principles of Biotechnology in Agriculture:

1. Genetic engineering: Manipulating DNA to introduce desirable traits.
2. Gene expression: Controlling gene function to modify plant characteristics.
3. Cell culture: Growing plant cells in controlled environments.
4. Tissue culture: Regenerating plants from tissue samples.
5. Molecular markers: Identifying genetic traits using DNA sequences.
Applications in Agriculture:
1. Crop improvement: Enhancing yields, disease resistance, and drought
tolerance.
2. Pest management: Developing pest-resistant crops or biopesticides.
3. Nutrition enhancement: Improving nutritional content of crops.
4. Vaccine production: Using plants as vaccine production platforms.
5. Bioremediation: Using plants to clean pollutants.
Parental and Other Directions: Parental Lines:
1. Elite breeding lines: High-performing lines for crop improvement.
2. Mutant lines: Lines with induced mutations for trait development.
3. Wild relatives: Using wild species to introduce desirable traits.
Other Directions:
1. Gene editing (CRISPR/Cas9): Precise gene modification.
2. Synthetic biology: Designing new biological systems.
3. Epigenetics: Studying gene expression regulation.
4. Microbiome research: Understanding plant-microbe interactions.
5. Precision agriculture: Integrating biotechnology with precision farming.
Emerging Trends:
1. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) technology: Silencing pest genes.
2. RNA interference (RNAi): Suppressing pest gene expression.
3. Gene silencing: Controlling gene function.
4. Plant-based vaccines: Using plants as vaccine production platforms.
5. Biofortification: Enhancing nutrient content of crops.
Challenges and Future Perspectives:
1. Regulatory frameworks: Ensuring biosafety and biosecurity.
2. Public acceptance: Addressing concerns and misconceptions.
3. Intellectual property: Managing patent rights and ownership.
4. Climate change: Developing climate-resilient crops.
5. Sustainable agriculture: Integrating biotechnology with sustainable
practices.
Key Players:
1. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
2. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
3. World Agriculture Forum (WAF)
4. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
5. National agricultural research institutions

B. Classification of Crops. Botanical and Agricultural system of classification

1. Classification of Crops and their Geographical Distribution

1.1 Identify major and minor agricultural crops grown in the Philippines (Remembering) – 1
Major Crops
- Rice (Oryza sativa) - a staple food in the Philippines, accounting for a
significant portion of agricultural land use ¹
- Corn (Zea mays) - widely cultivated, especially in Mindanao and Luzon
regions
- Coconut (Cocos nucifera) - a major export crop, with the Philippines being
one of the world's largest producers
- Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarum) - primarily grown in Negros Occidental
and other provinces
- Banana (Musa acuminata) - a significant export crop, particularly in
Mindanao
- Pineapple (Ananas comosus) - widely cultivated, especially in Mindanao and
the Visayas
Minor Crops
- Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) - grown mainly in Northern Luzon
- Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) - cultivated in various regions, including Luzon
and Mindanao
- Coffee (Coffea arabica) - grown in high-altitude areas, such as Benguet and
Mountain Province
- Cacao (Theobroma cacao) - cultivated in various regions, including
Mindanao and the Visayas
- Mango (Mangifera indica) - widely grown, especially in Guimaras and other
provinces
Other Crops
- Abaca (Musa textilis) - a fiber crop grown mainly in Bicol and Eastern
Visayas
- Lanzones (Lansium domesticum) - a fruit tree cultivated in various regions
- Papaya (Carica papaya) - widely grown, especially in Mindanao and the
Visayas
- Garlic (Allium sativum) - cultivated mainly in Ilocos and other regions
These crops play a vital role in the Philippine economy and food security. The
country's agricultural sector continues to evolve, with efforts to promote crop
diversification and sustainable farming practices

1.2 Compare the origin and geographic distribution of different high value crops (Analyzing) - 1

1.3 Discriminate crops based on their agricultural classification (Evaluating) - 1

1.4 Determine the different methods used in classifying crops (Applying) - 2

1.5 Differentiate crops based on their binomial nomenclature and taxonomy (Understanding and
Applying) - 2

1.6 Illustrate the importance of classifying crops (Applying) - 1

1.7 Apply the different systems of plant classification based on use and functionality (Evaluating) –
1 item

Here are different systems of plant classification based on use and

functionality:
Economic Classification
1. Food crops (e.g., rice, wheat, maize)
2. Cash crops (e.g., coffee, cocoa, sugarcane)
3. Fiber crops (e.g., cotton, abaca, hemp)
4. Timber crops (e.g., teak, mahogany, pine)
5. Medicinal crops (e.g., ginger, turmeric, ginseng)
Culinary Classification
1. Vegetables (e.g., lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers)
2. Fruits (e.g., apples, bananas, berries)
3. Herbs (e.g., basil, rosemary, thyme)
4. Spices (e.g., pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg)
5. Beverages (e.g., tea, coffee, cocoa)
Medicinal Classification
1. Antibacterial plants (e.g., garlic, onion, turmeric)
2. Anti-inflammatory plants (e.g., ginger, willow bark, meadowsweet)
3. Antiviral plants (e.g., echinacea, garlic, olive leaf)
4. Antifungal plants (e.g., tea tree, lavender, chamomile)
5. Adaptogenic plants (e.g., ginseng, ashwagandha, rhodiola)
Ecological Classification
1. Timber trees (e.g., oak, pine, spruce)
2. Shade trees (e.g., mango, fig, pomegranate)
3. Ornamental plants (e.g., roses, lilies, sunflowers)
4. Wildlife-friendly plants (e.g., bird-friendly trees, pollinator plants)
5. Soil conservation plants (e.g., legumes, grasses, clover)
Taxonomic Classification
1. Monocots (e.g., grasses, lilies, orchids)
2. Dicots (e.g., roses, daisies, sunflowers)
3. Gymnosperms (e.g., conifers, cycads, ginkgo)
4. Angiosperms (e.g., flowering plants, including most crops)
5. Pteridophytes (e.g., ferns, horsetails, club mosses)
Functional Classification
1. Nitrogen-fixing plants (e.g., legumes, beans, peas)
2. Pollinator plants (e.g., flowers, herbs, trees)
3. Soil stabilizers (e.g., grasses, clover, alfalfa)
4. Shade providers (e.g., trees, shrubs, vines)
5. Windbreaks (e.g., trees, shrubs, grasses)
Ethnobotanical Classification
1. Traditional medicine plants (e.g., ginseng, turmeric, ginger)
2. Food plants (e.g., maize, rice, wheat)
3. Fiber plants (e.g., cotton, hemp, abaca)
4. Dye plants (e.g., indigo, madder, weld)
5. Ritual plants (e.g., sacred trees, ceremonial herbs)
These classification systems help us understand the diverse uses and
functions of plants in various contexts.

C. Nature and Composition of Crop Plants

1. Plant Cells, Tissues Organs and Systems

1.1 Identify the different plant parts (Remembering) - 1

1.2 Relate the major parts of the plants (leaf, stem, shoot flower and fruit) to their functions
(Understanding) - 2

1.3. Classify major plant parts and their importance in agriculture (Applying) – 3

I. Roots
1. Function: Anchor, absorb water and nutrients
2. Importance: - Nutrient uptake and transport - Soil stabilization - Storage of
food and water
3. Agricultural significance: - Root crops (e.g., potatoes, carrots, beets) - Soil
erosion control
II. Stems
1. Function: Support, transport water and nutrients
2. Importance: - Plant structure and stability - Vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem) - Storage of food and water
3. Agricultural significance: - Stem crops (e.g., sugarcane, bamboo) - Plant
breeding for improved stem strength
III. Leaves
1. Function: Photosynthesis, transpiration
2. Importance: - Food production through photosynthesis - Water regulation -
Gas exchange
3. Agricultural significance: - Leafy greens (e.g., lettuce, spinach, kale) -
Forage crops (e.g., alfalfa, clover)
IV. Flowers
1. Function: Reproduction, pollination
2. Importance: - Seed production - Fruit and vegetable production - Pollinator
attraction 3. Agricultural significance: - Fruit and vegetable crops (e.g.,
tomatoes, apples, berries) - Seed production for crop improvement
V. Fruits
1. Function: Seed dispersal, reproduction
2. Importance: - Seed production and dispersal - Nutrient storage - Attracting
pollinators and dispersers
3. Agricultural significance: - Fruit crops (e.g., apples, bananas, citrus) -
Nutrient-rich foods
VI. Seeds
1. Function: Reproduction, dispersal
2. Importance: - Genetic material storage - Germination and seedling
establishment - Food storage
3. Agricultural significance: - Seed production for crop improvement - Grain
crops (e.g., wheat, rice, maize)
Importance in Agriculture
1. Food security: Plants provide staple foods, fruits, and vegetables.
2. Economic benefits: Plant-based industries contribute significantly to GDP.
3. Environmental sustainability: Plants help maintain ecosystem balance.
4. Animal feed: Plants provide fodder for livestock.
5. Biofuels and bioproducts: Plants serve as renewable resources.
Agricultural Practices
1. Crop selection and breeding
2. Irrigation and water management
3. Fertilization and nutrient management
4. Pest and disease management
5. Harvesting and post-harvest handling
1.4 Establish the role of plant parts in growth and development (Applying) - 1

1.5 Compare the role of each plant part according to their functions (Analyzing) - 1

1.6 Asses the importance of classifying crops by economic purpose (Evaluating) – 1

D. Plant Growth and Development

1. Plant Growth

1.1 Evaluate the concept and phases of plant growth and development as it affects crop
production – 2 items

Plant growth and development refer to the stages a plant undergoes from
seed germination to maturity. This process is influenced by genetic,
environmental, and hormonal factors.
Phases of Plant Growth and Development
1. Seed Germination: Seed absorption, sprouting, and root development.
2. Seedling Establishment: Leaf development, photosynthesis, and root
growth.
3. Vegetative Growth: Stem elongation, leaf expansion, and root
development.
4. Reproductive Growth: Flowering, pollination, and fruit/seed formation.
5. Maturation: Fruit/seed ripening, senescence, and dormancy.
Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development
1. Light
2. Temperature
3. Water
4. Nutrients
5. Hormones (auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene)
6. Genetics
7. Pruning and training
Impact on Crop Production
1. Yield: Proper growth and development stages ensure optimal yield.
2. Quality: Fruit/seed quality is influenced by growth stages.
3. Disease and Pest Management: Understanding growth stages helps
target management strategies.
4. Water and Nutrient Use Efficiency: Optimizing growth stages reduces
waste.
5. Climate Resilience: Adaptation to climate change requires understanding
growth stages.

1.2 Relate the physiological phases of plant growth and development to optimum crop yield
(Analyzing) 1 item

1.3 Identify the major processes involved in plant development (Remembering) – 1

I. Cell Division and Expansion

1. Mitosis: Cell division and replication
2. Cytokinesis: Cell wall formation
3. Cell expansion: Cell growth and enlargement
II. Cell Differentiation
1. Determination: Cell fate specification
2. Differentiation: Cell specialization
3. Morphogenesis: Tissue and organ formation
III. Pattern Formation
1. Auxin transport: Hormone-mediated patterning
2. Gene expression: Regulatory networks
3. Cell-cell interactions: Signaling and communication
IV. Organogenesis
1. Meristem formation: Stem cell maintenance
2. Organ initiation: Leaf, flower, and root development
3. Organ growth and patterning: Shape and structure formation
V. Tissue Formation
1. Cell-cell adhesion: Tissue cohesion
2. Cell wall deposition: Tissue structure and strength
3. Tissue differentiation: Specialized tissue formation
VI. Hormone Regulation
1. Auxin: Cell elongation and cell division
2. Ethylene: Fruit ripening and senescence
3. Cytokinin: Cell division and differentiation
4. Gibberellin: Stem elongation and germination
VII. Environmental Interactions
1. Light response: Phototropism and photomorphogenesis
2. Temperature response: Thermomorphogenesis
3. Water response: Hydrotropism and drought tolerance
VIII. Genetic Control
1. Gene expression: Transcriptional regulation
2. Epigenetic regulation: Chromatin modification
3. Signal transduction: Hormone and environmental signaling
IX. Plant Growth and Development Stages
1. Embryogenesis: Seed development
2. Seedling establishment: Germination and seedling growth
3. Vegetative growth: Stem and leaf development
4. Reproductive growth: Flowering and fruiting
5. Senescence: Aging and dormancy
X. Plant Developmental Biology Tools
1. Mutant analysis: Genetic studies
2. Gene editing: CRISPR/Cas9 and other tools
3. Live cell imaging: Microscopy and imaging techniques
4. Computational modeling: Simulation and prediction
 1.4 Relate the physiological processes with various factors affecting crop production (Applying) –
3

1.5 Indicate the different factors affecting each physiological process in plants (Understanding) - 1

1.6 Demonstrate the relationship of each physiological process with various factors affecting each
process (Applying) – 1

E. Factors affecting crop production

1. Abiotic factors

1.1 Identify the different abiotic factors affecting crop product (Remembering) - 1

1.2 Evaluate the effect of abiotic factors in crop yield and production (Evaluating) – 2

Positive Effects:
1. Light: Essential for photosynthesis, promoting growth and yield.
2. Temperature: Optimal temperatures enhance growth, flowering, and
fruiting.
3. Water: Adequate water supply supports growth, pollination, and fruit
development.
4. Nutrients: Balanced fertilization promotes healthy growth and yield.
5. CO2: Increased CO2 levels enhance photosynthesis and yield.
Negative Effects:
1. Lack of Water (Drought): Water stress reduces growth, yield, and quality.
2. Extreme temperatures: Frost, heatwaves, and chilling damage crops.
3. Flooding: Excess water causes root rot, nutrient deficiencies, and reduced
yield.
4. Salinity: High salt levels reduce growth, yield, and plant survival.
5. Air pollution: Ozone, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide damage crops.
1.3 Explain the importance of the various environmental factors affecting growth, development
and yield of crops – (Understanding) - 1

1.4 Analyze the influence of each climatic element on the production and yield of crops (Analyzing)
– 1 item

1.5 Determine critical growth stages of major crops (Analyzing) – 1

Critical growth stages of major crops in the Philippines vary depending on the
crop type. Here are some key stages:
Grain Crops
- Corn: Tasseling, silk stage until grain is fully formed. Adequate water is
crucial from germination to dent stage for maximum production ¹.
- Rice: Panicle initiation, flowering, and grain filling stages.
- Wheat: Germination, tillering, flowering, and grain filling stages.
Legume Crops
- Beans: Bloom and fruit set stages. Water stress during these stages reduces
yields ¹.
- Soybeans: Flowering, pod formation, and seed filling stages.
Root Crops
- Potatoes: Tuber formation to harvest. Water stress may cause cracking of
tubers ¹.
- Sweet Potatoes: Vine establishment, tuber formation, and maturation
stages.
Fruit Crops
- Tomatoes: Fruit set to harvest. Water stress affects fruit quality and yield.
- Citrus: Flowering, fruit set, and fruit development stages.
1.6 Explain the interaction of biotic and abiotic factors in the overall performance of crops
(Understanding) - 1

1.7 Analyze the importance of biotic and abiotic factors in crop production (Analyzing) - 1

Biotic and abiotic factors significantly impact crop production. Understanding

these factors helps farmers and agricultural professionals optimize crop
management.
Biotic Factors:
1. Insects (pests)
2. Diseases (fungal, bacterial, viral)
3. Weeds
4. Nematodes
5. Rodents and other animals
6. Microorganisms (beneficial and harmful)
7. Pollinators (bees, butterflies, etc.)
Abiotic Factors:
1. Light (intensity, duration, quality)
2. Temperature (extremes, fluctuations)
3. Water (drought, flooding, quality)
4. Soil (texture, pH, nutrient availability)
5. Wind
6. Salinity
7. Air pollution (ozone, sulfur dioxide, etc.)
8. Climate change (rising CO2, temperature increases)
Interactions between Biotic and Abiotic Factors:
1. Drought-stressed plants are more susceptible to pests and diseases.
2. High temperatures increase insect metabolism and activity.
3. Soil degradation affects microbial communities and nutrient cycling.
4. Climate change alters pollinator distributions and effectiveness.
Managing Biotic and Abiotic Factors:
1. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
2. Crop rotation and diversification
3. Irrigation management
4. Soil conservation and amendment
5. Weather monitoring and forecasting
6. Climate-smart agriculture
7. Precision agriculture
8. Breeding for stress tolerance and resistance
Impact on Crop Production:
1. Yield reduction
2. Quality degradation
3. Economic losses
4. Food insecurity
5. Environmental degradation
Future Directions:
1. Developing climate-resilient crops
2. Improving precision agriculture
3. Enhancing soil health
4. Integrating beneficial microorganisms
5. Implementing sustainable agriculture practices

2. Biotic and Genetic Factors

2.1 Enumerate the different biotic and genetic factors affecting crop yield and production
(Remembering) – 1

2.2 Determine the relationship between and among the biotic and abiotic factors affecting crop
production and yield (Applying) – 2

2.3 Demonstrate the importance of varietal selection for crop production (Applying) – 3 items

2.4 Evaluate the biotic and abiotic factors affecting crop yield – 1 item