SAINT JOSEPH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

WRITTEN REPORT
in
GEO 1: GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING
Friday (6:15pm-8:15pm)

CHAPTER 2: MINERALOGY

GROUP NO. 2
GROUP MEMBERS:
APOYON, JOSEPH JR R. BUNA, JENS L.
DAYA, SITTIE ASHIA C. FERNANDEZ, ANJEHLOU S.
LANDERO, ANGEL ROSE A. MERSULA, JASMINE ABEGAIL
OLVIDO, VALERIE ANN C. QUITA, GWYNETH A.
SULAPAS, JUPETER JESS N. TORREGOSA, LAURENCE C.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
MINERALOGY………………………………………………………………………....01
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEM…………………………………………………………...02
MINERAL…………………………………………………………………………….....04
CRYSTAL……………………………………………………………………………....05
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS…………...…………………………………….08
HOW TO IDENTIFY MINERAL ?..…………………………………………………...11
WHAT ARE THE ROCK FORMING MINERAL ?..........……………………………12
STUDY OF THE FOLLOWING ROCK FORMING MINERALS – QUARTZ FAMILY.
FELDSPAR FAMILY, AUGITE, HORNBLENDE, BIOTITE, MUSCOVITE, CALCITE,
GARNET…………………………………………………………..…………………………...13
IMPORTANCE OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS IN THE FORMATION……...24
FORMATION AND ALTERATION OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS……….….26
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS………………....28
PROPERTIES, PROCESS OF FORMATION OF ALL MINERALS – COAL AND
PETROLEUM – THEIR ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE……………………...…………….30
FORMATION FROM HOT MATERIAL AND FORMATION FROM SOLUTION...33
MINERALS FROM SALT WATER AND HOT UNDERGROUND…………………34
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION……………………………………………………….....35
REFERENCE...………………………………………………………………………………...37
QUESTIONS/PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTION........................................................…....39

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SCORE CARD

STUDENT A B C D TOTAL
APOYON, JOSEPH JR
BUNA, JENS
DAYA, SITTIE ASHIA
FERNANDEZ, ANJEHLOU
LANDERO, ANGEL ROSE
MERSULA, JASMINE ABEGAIL
OLVIDO, VALERIE ANN
QUITA, GWYNETH
SULAPAS, JUPETER JESS
TORREGOSA, LAURENCE

NOTE:
A. ORGANIZATION (Smooth flow of presentation)
B. CONTENT (Motor Control and Motor Learning Theory)
C. PRESENTATION (Delivery)
D. POWERPOINT PRESENTATION (Clear and readable, Creative)

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MINERALOGY

Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal

structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. So, basically, mineralogy
is all about the study of minerals.

Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation,
classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.

Mineralogy is divided into 3 parts:

1. Crystallography – the study of internal and external geometry of crystals.

2. Chemical Mineralogy – the study of chemical structure and properties of mineral.
3. Physical Mineralogy – the study of physical properties of mineral.

Why is mineralogy important?

• Mineralogy helps us understand how minerals are involved in geological processes

• Mineralogy helps us understand how minerals can be used in industry and society
• Mineralogy helps us understand the role of minerals in electronics,
semiconductors, and microchips

A mineralogist is a person who studies the formation, occurrence, properties,

composition, and classification of minerals.

Is it necessary for civil engineers to study mineralogy?

- Knowledge of mineralogy is necessary for a civil engineer because physical

properties of rocks are dependent upon the properties and composition of their
constituent minerals.

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Elementary knowledge on symmetry elements of crystallographic
systems.

Symmetry is a fundamental property of crystalline solids' atom arrangements used in

crystallography. On the other hand, the symmetry element is the location where the
symmetry operations occur such as a rotation axis, a mirror plane, an inversion center, or
a translation vector.

Crystallography is the branch of science concerned with the formation, structure, and
properties of crystals. It is also known as the study of crystals and crystal formation.
Crystallographic systems are a way to classify crystalline solids based on their
structure.

5 Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems.

1. Identity - Simplest symmetry element.

2. Proper Axis/Rotational axis of Symmetry - An imaginary line passing through
the center of mass around which a rotation by 360°/n leaves an object in an
orientation indistinguishable from the original. There are four types of rotational
axis of symmetry when considering crystallography.
a. Binary Symmetry (two-fold axis): This requires that a crystal be rotated
by an angle of 180° to bring the reference face to the same position.
Example: RECTANGLE AND RHUMBOS.
b. Trigonal Symmetry (three-fold axis): Objects that repeat themselves
upon rotation of 1200 are said to have a 3-fold axis of rotational symmetry
(360/120 =3), and they will repeat 3 times in a 3600 rotation. Example:
TRIANGLE
c. Tetragonal Symmetry (four-fold axis): If an object repeats itself after 90o
of rotation, it will repeat 4 times in a 360o rotation. Example: SQUARE
d. Hexagonal Symmetry (six-fold axis): If rotation of 60o about an axis
causes the object to repeat itself, then it has 6-fold axis of rotational
symmetry (360/60=6). Example: HEXAGON, SNOWFLAKE

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3. Plane Symmetry/Mirror Plane: An imaginary plane divides the crystal in two parts
in such a way that one part is mirror of the other, the crystal is said to have a plane
of symmetry. There are 2 types of plane symmetry
a. Rectangular Plane of Symmetry

b. Diagonal Plane of Symmetry

4. Center of Symmetry/Inversion Center: The Center of symmetry is such a point

that any line drawn through it touches the surface of the crystal at an equal distance
in both directions.

5. Rotoinversion: A combination of rotation with a center of inversion.

a. One-fold rotoinversion
b. Two-fold rotoinversion
c. Three-fold rotoinversion
d. Four-fold rotoinversion
e. Six-fold rotoinversion

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Mineral

What is Mineral?

-mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance which has a definite chemical

composition, normally uniform throughout its volume. There are over 4,900 known mineral
species; over 4,660 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical
Association (IMA). The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust. Minerals
are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.

Minerals are broadly grouped into:

1. The rock-forming minerals: There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet
the vast majority of rocks are formed from combinations of a few common minerals,
referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-forming minerals are: feldspars,
quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, and pyroxenes.
2. Ore-forming minerals: The ore-forming minerals are to be understood in detail
by the mining, Metallurgical, and Mineral Engineering professionals.

Why it is important to know the important rock-forming types during civil engineering
practice?

- Provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,

composition, durability, and other properties. Examples of such construction materials are
building stones, road materials, clays, limestone, and laterite.

-Civil engineers need to know the properties of rocks precisely to enable them to
consider different rocks for any required purpose, i.e., as foundation rocks, as road meta,
as concrete aggregate, as building stones, as flooring or roofing material.

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Crystal

What is Crystal?
-A crystal is a regular polyhedral form, bounded by smooth faces, which is
assumed by a chemical compound, due to the action of its interatomic forces, when
passing, under suitable conditions, from the state of a liquid or gas to that of a solid.

Crystal System

-is a set of axes or methods of classifying crystals according to their atomic

structures. The structure is an ordered array of atoms, ions or molecules. Crystal
Structure is obtained by attaching atoms, groups of atoms or molecules. This structure
occurs from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to produce symmetric patterns.

There are 7 crystals systems or groups:

1. Isometric (cubic): All three axes are equal in length and all are perpendicular to
one another.

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2. Tetragonal: Two of the three axes are equal in length and all three axes are
perpendicular to one another.

3. Orthorhombic: All three axes are unequal in length and all are perpendicular to
one another.

4. Hexagonal: Of four axes three are equal in length, are separated by equal angles,
and lie in the same plane. The fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane of the other
three axes. Hexagonal cells have lattice points in each of the two six-sided faces.

5. Triclinic: All three axes are unequal in length and none is perpendicular to
another.

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 6. Monoclinic: All three axes are unequal in length and two axes are perpendicular
to each other.

7. Rhombohedral (trigonal): All three axes are of equal length and none of the axes
is perpendicular to another but the crystal faces all have the same size and shape.

Importance of crystallography in Enginnering

- Crystallography is useful in phase identification. When manufacturing or using

a material, it is generally desirable to know what compounds and what phases
are present in the material, as their composition, structure and proportions will
influence the material's properties.
- Provide insights into the microscopic structure of construction materials,
allowing engineers to understand and predict their physical properties like
strength, durability, and behavior under stress, which is vital for designing safe
and efficient structures, particularly when dealing with concrete and other
cementitious materials.

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Physical properties of minerals

What is physical properties of minerals?

The physical properties of minerals are the measurable characteristics that

distinguish one mineral from another. There are 8 types of physical minerals.

1. COLOR: Color is often useful, but should not be relied upon. Different minerals
may be the same color. Real gold is very similar in color to the pyrite. Some
minerals come in many different colors. Quartz, for example, may be clear, white,
gray, brown, yellow, pink, red, or orange. So color can help but do not rely on color
as the determining property. These minerals are said to be allochromatic.
2. LUSTER: Luster describes the reflection of light off a minerals surface. Luster is
how the surface of a mineral reflects light. It is not the same things as color, so it
crucial to distinguish luster from color. One simple way to classify luster is based
on whether the mineral is metallic or non- metallic. Minerals that are opaque and
shiny, such as pyrite, have a metallic luster. Minerals such as quartz have a non-
metallic luster. Standard names for luster include metallic, glassy, pearly, silky,
greasy, and dull.
Two general types of luster are designated as follows:
• METALLIC – looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or
dark colored streak.
• NON-METALLIC- Nonmetallic lusters are referred to as:
➢ VITREOUS- looks glassy examples: clear quartz, tourmaline
➢ RESINOUS- looks resinous examples: sphalerite, sulfur.
➢ PEARLY- iridescent pearl-like example: apophyllite
➢ GREASY- appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil example:
nepheline
➢ SILKY- looks fibrous. Example- some gypsum, serpentine, malachite
➢ ADAMANTINE- brilliant luster like diamond.

3. STREAK: Streak is the color produced by a fine powder of the mineral when
scratched on a streak plate. Minerals that are the same color may have a different

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 colored streak. To check streak, scrape the mineral across an unglazed porcelain
plate.
4. DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY): Density refers to the mass per unit volume:
density mass/volume. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object.
The amount of space an object takes up is described by its volume. The density
of an object depends on its mass and its volume. The specific gravity of a
substance compares its density to that of water. Denser substances have higher
specific gravity. In general, if a mineral has a higher atomic number of cations it
has a higher specific gravity.
5. HARDNESS: Hardness is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface
being scraped or punctured. In working with hand samples without specialized
tools, mineral hardness is specified by the Mohs hardness scale. The Mohs
hardness scale is based 10 reference minerals , from talc the softest ( Mohs
hardness of 1), to diamond the hardest (Mohs hardness of 10). To compare the
hardness of two minerals, see which mineral scratches the surface of the other.
6. CLEAVAGE: Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes
to makes smooth surfaces. A mineral that naturally breaks into perfectly flat
surfaces is exhibiting cleavage. Not all minerals have cleavage. A cleavage
represents a direction of weakness in the crystal lattice. Cleavage surfaces can
be distinguished by how they consistently reflect light. As if polished, smooth, and
even.
7. FRACTURE: Fracture is a break in a mineral that is not along a cleavage plane.
Fracture is not always the same in the same mineral because fracture is not
determined by the structure of the mineral. Metals usually fracture into jagged
edges. If a mineral splinter like wood, it may be fibrous. Some minerals, such
quartz, form smooth, curved surfaces when they fracture.

Several different kinds of fracture patterns are observed:

• CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE – breaks along smooth curved surfaces.
• FIBROUS AND SPLINTERY- similar to the way wood breaks.
• HACKLY – jagged fractures with sharp edges.

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 • UNEVEN OR IRREGULAR – rough irregular surfaces.
8. CRYSTAL SHAPE: All minerals are crystalline, but only some have to exhibit the
shapes of their crystal, their crystal forms. The shape of a crystal follows the
symmetry of its crystal lattice. Quartz, for instance, forms, six-sided crystal
showing the hexagonal symmetry of its crystal lattice.

Some common crystal shapes are as follows:

• INDIVIDUAL CRYSTAL
➢ CUBIC – cube shapes
➢ OCTAHEDRAL – shaped like octahedral
➢ TABULAR – rectangular shapes
• GROUPS OF DISTINCT
➢ DENDRITIC – tree-like growths
➢ RETICULATED – lattice- like groups of slender crystals
➢ RADIATED – radiating groups of crystal
➢ FIBROUS – elongated clusters of fibers
➢ BOTRYOIDAL – smooth bulbous or globular shapes.
➢ GLOBULAR – radiating individual crystals that form spherical groups.
➢ DRUSY – small crystals that cover a surface
➢ STELLATED – radiating individuals that form a star-like shape
9. TENACITY
• DUCTILE – bends easily and does not return to its original shap
• FLEXIBLE – bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape
• ELASTIC – bends but does return to its original shape
10. MAGNETISM – Several minerals react when placed within a magnetic field. Some
minerals are strongly attracted to the magnet, others are weakly attracted, and
one mineral is actually repelled. There are also several minerals that are attracted
to magnetic fields only when heated. Magnetic properties of minerals are defined
as follows:
• FERROMAGNETISM – strong attraction to magnetic fields. This property
is exhibited in few minerals, notably Magnetite and Pyrrhotite
• PARAMAGNETISM – is weak attraction to magnetic fields
• DIAMAGNETISM – only one mineral, Bismuth, is diamagnetic, meaning it
is repelled from magnetic fields.

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How to identify mineral?

How are Minerals Identified?

Mineralogists are scientists who study minerals. One of the things mineralogist
must do is identify some minerals, most recognizable using physical properties. Minerals
can be identified based on a number of properties. The properties most commonly used
in identification of a mineral are colour, streak, lustre, hardness, crystal shape,
cleavage, specific gravity and habit. Most of these can be assessed relatively easily
even when geologist is out in the field. Many mineral names end in ‘ite’. This suffix is
derived from the Greek word lithos (from its adjectival form -ites), meaning rock or
stone. One of the best ways to identify a mineral is by examining its crystal form
(external shape). A crystal is defined as a homogeneous solid possessing a three -
dimensional internal order defined by the lattice structure. Crystals developed under
favorable conditions often exhibit characteristic geometric forms (which are outward
expressions of the internal arrangements of atoms), crystal class, and cleavage. Large,
well-developed crystals are not common because of unfavorable growth conditions, but
small crystals recognizable with a hand lens or microscope are common. Minerals that
show no external crystal form but possess an internal crystalline structure are said to
be massive. A few minerals, such as limonite and opal, have no orderly arrangement
of atoms and are said to be amorphous. Crystals are divided into six major classes
based on their geometric form: isometric, tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic,
monoclinic, and triclinic. The hexagonal system also has a rhomboidal subdivision,
which applies mainly to carbonates.

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What are the rock forming mineral?

What are the rock forming mineral?

-Scientists have identified over 4,000 different minerals. A small group of these
minerals make up almost 90% of the rocks of Earth’s crust. These minerals are known
as the common rock-forming minerals.

To be considered a common rock-forming mineral, a mineral must: A) be one of

the most abundant minerals in Earth’s crust; B) be one of the original minerals present
at the time of a crustal rock’s formation; and, C) be an important mineral in determining
a rock’s classification.

Minerals of the Oceanic Crust: As an example of the influence of just a few minerals,
let’s consider the rocks of the oceanic crust. The oceanic crust is mainly composed
of basalt and gabbro. These two rock types are made up of mainly of plagioclase
feldspar and pyroxenes, with smaller amounts of olivine, micas and amphiboles. This
small group of minerals makes up most of the rocks of the oceanic crust.

Minerals of the Continental Crust: As a second example, let’s consider the rocks of
the continental crust. The continental crust is made up mainly of rocks with
a granitic to andesitic composition. These rocks are composed mainly of alkali
feldspar, quartz, and plagioclase feldspar, with smaller amounts of amphiboles and
micas. This small number of minerals makes up most of the continental crust.

Minerals in the Sedimentary Cover: Both the oceanic and continental crusts are
partly covered with a thin layer of sedimentary rocks and sediments. These consist
mainly of clastic rocks such as sandstone, siltstone and shale, along with carbonate
rocks such as dolostone and limestone. These clastic rocks are composed of mainly
quartz, clay minerals, and a small amount of micas and feldspar minerals. The
carbonate rocks consist primarily of calcite and dolomite. A small number of materials,
composed of a small number of minerals, make up most of the sediment and
sedimentary rocks that cover the continents and ocean basins.

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Study of rock forming minerals – Quartz family. Feldspar family,
Augite, Hornblende, Biotite, Muscovite, Calcite, Garnet.

Quartz Family

Quartz crystals: Herkimer "Diamond" quartz crystals. A clear, "rock crystal" variety of quartz.

What is Quartz?
Quartz is a mineral composed of silicon and oxygen, with a chemical composition of SiO2.
It is the most abundant mineral in Earth's crust and is resistant to both chemical and
physical weathering. When rocks weather away, the residual material usually contains
quartz. This is why the sand at most of the world's beaches is quartz.
Where is Quartz Found?
Quartz is the most abundant and widely distributed mineral found at Earth's surface. It is
present and plentiful in all parts of the world. It forms at all temperatures. It is abundant in
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It is highly resistant to both mechanical
and chemical weathering. This durability makes it the dominant mineral of mountaintops
and the primary constituent of beach, river, and desert sand. Quartz is ubiquitous, plentiful
and durable. Minable deposits are found throughout the world.

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Physical Properties of Quartz

What are the Uses for Quartz?

Quartz is one of the most useful natural materials. Its usefulness can be linked to its
physical and chemical properties. It has a hardness of seven on the Mohs Scale which
makes it very durable. It is chemically inert in contact with most substances. It has
electrical properties and heat resistance that make it valuable in electronic products. Its
luster, color, and diaphaneity make it useful as a gemstone and also in the making of
glass.
Quartz: Macrocrystalline and Microcrystalline
Quartz is divided into two groups: macrocrystalline quartz, or visible crystals (individual
crystals visible to the unaided eye), such as rock crystal, amethyst, rose quartz, citrine,
etc., and microcrystalline, or cryptocrystalline, varieties, or hidden crystals (aggregates of
crystals visible only under high magnification), such as agate, onyx, chalcedony,
carnelian, etc.

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Feldspar Family

Feldspar minerals. Clockwise from top left: Orthoclase, Albite, Microcline, and an indeterminate
plagioclase

What is Feldspar?
Feldspar is the name of a large group of rock-forming silicate minerals that make up over
50% of Earth's crust. They are found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks in
all parts of the world. Feldspar minerals have very similar structures, chemical
compositions, and physical properties. Common feldspars include orthoclase (KAlSi3O8),
albite (NaAlSi3O8), and anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8).

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Properties of Feldspar Minerals

Uses of Feldspar Minerals

Feldspar minerals have many uses in industry. They are used to manufacture a wide
variety of glass and ceramic products. They are also widely used as fillers in paints,
plastics and rubber. Several popular gemstones are feldspar minerals. These include
moonstone, sunstone, labradorite, amazonite and spectrolite.

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Feldspar: Plagioclase and Alkali

Plagioclase Feldspars (NaAlSi3O8 or

CaAl2Si2O8) is the most common mineral
in igneous rocks. Most plagioclase
appears frosty white to dark gray. Using a
hand lens, one can often see the stair-step
like cleavage and possible striations or
parallel grooves.

Alkali Feldspars (NaAlSi3O8 and

KAlSi3O8) commonly occurs as slightly
pinkish grains. Unlike plagioclase, it does
not contain striations on its cleavage faces.
It also has two cleavage planes at 90°.

Augite
Augite is a rock-forming mineral that commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate
igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, andesite, and diorite. It is found in these rocks
throughout the world, wherever they occur. Augite is also found in ultramafic rocks and in
some metamorphic rocks that form under high temperatures.

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 Augite is the most common pyroxene mineral and a member of the clinopyroxene
group. Some people use the names "augite" and "pyroxene" interchangeably, but this
usage is strongly discouraged. There are a large number of pyroxene minerals, many of
which are distinctly different and easy to identify.
Augite is usually green, black, or brown in color with a translucent to opaque
diaphaneity. It usually exhibits two distinct cleavage directions that intersect at slightly
less than 90 degrees. A hand lens is often needed to properly observe the cleavage,
especially in fine-grained rocks.
Augite does not have any physical, optical, or chemical properties that make it
especially useful. It is therefore one of the few minerals that has no commercial use. The
calcium content of augite has been found to be of limited use in studies of the temperature
history of igneous rocks.

Hornblende
Hornblende is a field and classroom name used for a group of dark-colored
amphibole minerals found in many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks. These
minerals vary in chemical composition but are all double-chain inosilicates with very
similar physical properties.
Hornblende is a rock-forming mineral that is an important constituent in acidic and
intermediate igneous rocks such as granite, diorite, syenite, andesite, and rhyolite. It is
also found in metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schist.
A few rocks consist almost entirely of hornblende. Amphibolite is the name given to
metamorphic rocks that are mainly composed of amphibole minerals. Lamprophyre is an
igneous rock that is mainly composed of amphibole and biotite with a feldspar ground
mass.

Uses: The mineral hornblende has very few uses. Its primary use might be as a mineral
specimen. However, hornblende is the most abundant mineral in a rock known as
amphibolite which has a large number of uses. It is crushed and used for highway
construction and as railroad ballast. It is cut for use as dimension stone. The highest

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quality pieces are cut, polished, and sold under the name "black granite" for use as
building facing, floor tiles, countertops, and other architectural uses.

Muscovite
Muscovite is the most common mineral of the mica family. It is an important rock-
forming mineral present in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Like other
micas, it readily cleaves into thin transparent sheets. Muscovite sheets have a pearly to
vitreous luster on their surface. If they are held up to the light, they are transparent and
nearly colorless, but most have a slight brown, yellow, green, or rose-color tint.
muscovite (also known as common mica, isinglass, or potash mica)
Often called 'white mica', muscovite is the lightest colored mica mineral. Micas are
characterized by a crystal structure consisting of aluminum silicate sheets weakly bound
together by layers of positive ions (usually potassium, but sometimes sodium).
Muscovite is easily identified because its perfect cleavage allows it to be split into
thin, flexible, elastic, colorless, transparent sheets with a pearly to vitreous luster. It is the
only common mineral with these properties.
Uses: Used in the manufacturing of paint, joint compound, plastics rubber, asphalt
roofing, cosmetics, drilling mud.

Biotite

What is Biotite?
Sometimes referred as Black mica or Iron mica, it is a phyllosilicate mineral in the common
mica group. It is abundant in a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was

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named by Hausmann in 1847, after the French physicist Ican-Baptiste Biot, who did
extensive research on mica's in 1816.

How Biotite formed?

Biotite forms primarily through the cooling of magma in igneous rocks, or through
metamorphic processes where clay-rich rocks are subjected to high heat and pressure

What minerals are in Biotite?

It is regarded as a mixture composed of variable proportions of four basic aluminosilicates
of potassium, iron, magnesium, or aluminum

Biotite chemical formula:

K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(F,OH)2
potassium(K), magnesium(Mg) iron(Fe), aluminum(Al), silicon(Si), oxygen(O), and
hydrogen(H)

Characteristics of Biotite
Biotite is a thin platy crystals, color is typically brown to black and it has a perfect basal
cleavage because of it, it will produce thin flexible sheets or flakes.

The Used of Biotite

Biotite is used to determine the age of rock through the process of argon-argon dating or
potassium-argon dating. Biotite can be used to determine the minimum age of rock and
profile its temperature history. Sheet mica is important in the electronics industry as an
electrical and thermal insulator.

Other black mica minerals:

Annite
Phlogopite
Fluor phlogopite and many more.

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Calcite

What is Calcite?
A mineral substance made up of calcium carbonate. It is extremely common and found
throughout the world in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Some geologists
consider it to be a "ubiquitous mineral" - one that is found everywhere.

How Calcite formed?

It forms by precipitation from ground and surface waters. Calcite forms when calcium-rich
water evaporates or react to carbon dioxide. This process occurs when the water and
atmosphere are at moderate temperatures and carbon dioxide is present.

What is Calcite composed of?

Composed primarily of calcium carbonate. It is a key mineral in sedimentary rocks like
limestone and marble.

Calcite chemical formula

CaCO3 calcium (Ca), carbon(C), oxygen (O).

Characteristics of Calcite
Calcite has a trigonal crystal structure, belonging to the hexagonal crystal system. This
arrangement gives rise to calcite’s unique optical properties, including double refraction
and birefringence.

The used of Calcite

Calcite make it one of the most widely used minerals. It is used as a construction material,
abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction aggregate, pigment,
Pharmaceutical and more.

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Example of Calcite:
Limestone
Marble
Chalk
Birds Eggshells
Cave Formations

Garnet

What is Garnet?
A group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and
abrasives. Garnets are a set of closely related minerals that form a group, resulting in
gemstones in almost every color.

How Garnets are formed?

A process called metamorphism forms a Garnet. So when sedimentary rocks with high
aluminum content is metamorphosed it leads to create Garnets.

What is Garnet composed of?

Garnets are made up of different metal ions, such as aluminum, iron, magnesium,
chromium, and sometimes calcium.

Garnet chemical composition

X3Y2(SiO4)3.

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"X" can be calcium, magnesium, ferrous iron, or manganese
"Y" can be aluminum, ferric iron, or chromium

Characteristics of Garnets
It can transparent, translucent, or opaque, and are known for their hardness and
durability. Garnets can be red, orange, yellow, green, purple, brown, blue, black, pink, or
colorless. Garnets are most commonly found with reddish shades and Blue garnets are
very rare

Uses of Garnets
Garnets are used in jewelry, especially pink and red varieties. It can be abrasives: Garnets
are used in sandpaper, abrasive blasting, and waterjet cutting. Also, it are used in water
filtration systems to remove debris and sediment. Garnets are used by artists and
lapidaries to carve sculptures and intricate designs.

Different types of Garnets:

Almandine
Andradite
Grossular
Uvarovite
Knorringite

23
Importance of rock-forming minerals in the formation of rocks

Rock-forming minerals are of great importance in the formation of rocks as they are the
primary constituents that make up the different types of rocks found in the Earth’s crust.
Here are some key reasons why rock-forming minerals are important in the formation of
rocks:

1. Composition: Rock-forming minerals determine the composition of rocks. Different

minerals have unique chemical and physical properties that influence the overall
characteristics of rocks, such as their color, texture, hardness, and density. The
combination and arrangement of different minerals in a rock determine its
mineralogical composition and, in turn, its classification and characteristics.
2. Rock classification: Rock-forming minerals are used to classify rocks into different
types based on their mineralogical composition. For example, igneous rocks are
classified into different types such as basalt, granite, andesite, etc., based on the
types and proportions of minerals present. Similarly, sedimentary rocks like
sandstone, limestone, and shale are classified based on the mineral content and
texture of the rock. The presence or absence of certain rock-forming minerals can
provide insights into the origin, history, and geologic environment of rocks.
3. Rock formation processes: Rock-forming minerals are crucial in the formation of
rocks through various geologic processes. For example, in igneous rock formation,
minerals crystallize from molten magma or lava as they cool and solidify,
determining the mineral assemblage and texture of the resulting rock. In
sedimentary rock formation, minerals are deposited and lithified through processes
such as weathering, erosion, transportation, and diagenesis, forming sedimentary
rocks with specific mineralogical characteristics. In metamorphic rock formation,
existing minerals in a pre-existing rock can undergo mineralogical changes due to
heat, pressure, and chemical reactions, resulting in the formation of new minerals
and the transformation of the original rock into a metamorphic rock.
4. Properties and behavior of rocks: The properties and behavior of rocks, such as
their strength, durability, weathering resistance, and deformation, are influenced
by the mineralogical composition of rock-forming minerals. For example, rocks rich

24
 in hard and resistant minerals like quartz tend to be more durable and weathering
resistant compared to rocks composed of softer minerals like clay minerals. The
mineralogical composition also affects the mechanical behavior of rocks, such as
their response to stress, deformation, and failure.
5. Economic significance: Rock-forming minerals have significant economic
importance as they are used as raw materials in various industries. Minerals like
quartz, feldspars, and mica are used in ceramics, glassmaking, and electronics.
Minerals like calcite, dolomite, and gypsum are used in the production of cement,
plaster, and fertilizers. Minerals like hematite and magnetite are important sources
of iron, while minerals like bauxite are used for aluminum production.
Understanding the occurrence, distribution, and characteristics of rock-forming
minerals is crucial for resource exploration, extraction, and utilization.

In summary, rock-forming minerals are fundamental components in the formation of

rocks, playing a critical role in determining the composition, classification, formation
processes, properties, and economic significance of rocks. Studying rock-forming
minerals is essential for understanding the Earth’s geology, as well as for practical
applications in various industries.

25
Formation and alternation of rock-forming minerals

Formation of Rock-Forming Minerals: Rock-forming minerals can form through various

processes depending on the type of rock and the geological conditions. Some common
processes of mineral formation include:

1. Crystallization from Magma: Many rock-forming minerals form by crystallization

from a magma (molten rock) during the process of cooling and solidification. As
the magma cools, minerals with different melting points crystallize and solidify at
different temperatures, leading to the formation of distinct mineral assemblages.
For example, minerals like quartz, feldspars, and mica can form from the cooling
of a magma to form igneous rocks such as granite.
2. Precipitation from Solution: Minerals can also form through the precipitation of
dissolved ions from a solution. This process can occur in various environments,
such as lakes, seas, hot springs, and hydrothermal vents. As the concentration of
dissolved ions in the solution changes due to changes in temperature, pressure,
or chemical composition, minerals can precipitate and accumulate to form
sedimentary rocks such as limestone, halite, and gypsum.
3. Metamorphism: Metamorphism is the process by which existing rocks undergo
changes in mineralogical composition and/or texture due to high temperature,
pressure, and/or chemical alteration. During metamorphism, existing minerals in a
rock can recrystallize, react with other minerals, and/or undergo changes in their
mineralogy. For example, the mineral mica in a shale can transform into the
mineral chlorite during metamorphism, forming a new rock called a chlorite schist.

Alteration of Rock-Forming Minerals: Rock-forming minerals can also undergo alteration

or weathering due to various geological processes, such as chemical reactions,
dissolution, hydrolysis, oxidation, and reduction. Some common types of mineral
alteration include:

26
 1. Weathering: Weathering is the process by which rocks and minerals at or near the
Earth’s surface break down and undergo chemical and physical changes due to
exposure to air, water, and other environmental factors. This can result in the
alteration of rock-forming minerals, such as the breakdown of feldspars into clay
minerals during chemical weathering.
2. Diagenesis: Diagenesis is the process by which sedimentary rocks undergo
changes in mineralogical composition and texture due to compaction,
cementation, and other chemical reactions. This can result in the alteration of
minerals in sedimentary rocks, such as the formation of cementing minerals (e.g.,
silica, calcium carbonate) that bind sediment grains together.
3. Hydrothermal Alteration: Hydrothermal alteration occurs when rocks and minerals
come into contact with hot fluids, such as groundwater or magma, which can cause
chemical reactions and alteration of minerals. This process can lead to the
formation of new minerals and alteration of existing minerals, resulting in changes
in the mineralogy and texture of the rocks. For example, hydrothermal alteration
can form minerals like quartz, sericite, and chlorite in rocks such as hydrothermal
veins and altered volcanic rocks.
The formation and alteration of rock-forming minerals are important processes in the
geologic cycle and play a crucial role in the formation, composition, and characteristics of
rocks. They also have significant implications for various geologic processes, such as
mineral resource formation, soil formation, and environmental processes, and are studied
in detail in the field of mineralogy and petrology within geology.

27
Economic Importance of Rock-Forming Minerals

Rock-forming minerals have significant economic importance due to their role in the
formation of valuable mineral resources. Many minerals that make up rocks are used as
raw materials in various industrial and commercial applications, making them
economically valuable. Some of the economic importance of rock-forming minerals are:

1. Metal Ores: Several rock-forming minerals are important sources of metal ores.
For example, minerals like hematite, magnetite, chalcopyrite, galena, and
sphalerite are commonly found in rocks and are important sources of iron, copper,
lead, zinc, and other metals. These minerals are extracted through mining and
processed to obtain valuable metals that are used in various industries, including
manufacturing, construction, electronics, transportation, and energy production.
2. Construction Materials: Many rock-forming minerals, such as quartz, feldspars,
mica, and calcite, are used as construction materials. These minerals are
abundant and widely distributed, and they are used in the construction industry for
various purposes, including building stones, concrete aggregates, road
construction, and decorative stones.
3. Industrial Minerals: Rock-forming minerals also include a wide range of industrial
minerals that are used in various industrial processes. For example, minerals like
kaolinite, talc, gypsum, and halite are used in the production of ceramics, paints,
plastics, fertilizers, and other industrial products.
4. Gemstones: Some rock-forming minerals, such as diamond, ruby, emerald, and
sapphire, are prized for their beauty and rarity and are used as gemstones. These
minerals are used in jewelry, fashion accessories, and other luxury items, and they
have significant economic value in the gemstone trade.
5. Energy Resources: Rock-forming minerals are also important in the production of
energy resources. For example, coal, which is a sedimentary rock formed from the
remains of plant material, is a major source of energy for electricity generation and
industrial processes. Similarly, minerals like uranium, which is found in certain
rocks, are used as fuel in nuclear power plants.

28
 6. Fertilizers: Some rock-forming minerals, such as phosphate minerals, are used in
the production of fertilizers for agriculture. Phosphate minerals are a major source
of phosphorus, an essential nutrient for plant growth, and are used in fertilizers to
enhance crop yields.
7. Water Purification: Certain rock-forming minerals, such as zeolites, are used in
water purification processes. Zeolites have a unique structure that allows them to
adsorb and remove impurities from water, making them valuable in water treatment
and purification systems.

The economic importance of rock-forming minerals cannot be overstated, as they are

essential raw materials for various industries, sources of valuable minerals, and play a
crucial role in the global economy. The extraction, processing, and utilization of these
minerals contribute to economic development, job creation, and industrial production in
many regions around the world.

29
Properties, process of formation of all minerals – Coal and Petroleum
– Their origin and occurrence

Process of Formation of All Minerals

Introduction

Minerals are solid substances that are present in nature and can be made of one
element or more elements combined (chemical compounds). There are over 3,000 known
minerals, and the list is still growing. For a mineral crystal to grow, the elements needed
to make it must be present in the appropriate proportions, the physical and chemical
conditions must be favorable, and there must be sufficient time for the atoms to become
arranged.

Minerals are all around you. They are used to make your house, your computer,
even the buttons on your jeans. But, where do minerals come from? There are many
types of minerals, and they do not all form in the same way.

Process of Formation of All Minerals

Minerals form under a variety of conditions,including the cooling of lava or liquid

solutions, the evaporation of mineral-rich water and at high temperatures and pressures
found in the core of the Earth. They are inorganic.

The Origin and Occurrence of Coal and Petroleum

Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels which have been widely used as source of
energy since the time of industrial revolution. Although, there are many different types of
fuels, among which the two major types of fossil fuels are coal and petroleum. They were
formed many hundreds of millions of years ago. They are derived from the ancient organic
remains and hence known as fossil fuels. Coal meets a large part of our energy needs
and plays a very important role in the mineral industry. Petroleum is the key fuel of modern
times and is of immense value in the development of a country. In this unit, we will discuss
about origin, occurrence and distribution of coal and petroleum in India.

30
WHAT IS COAL?

Coal is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is combusted and used to generate

electricity. Mining techniques and combustion are both dangerous to miners and
hazardous to the environment; however, coal accounts for about half of the electricity
generation in the United States.

Some coal varieties are very rich in volatile matter. Such high volatile coal on
heating in ambient air is converted into coke.

Coke is a compact form of impure carbon obtained by heating in total absence of

air. Coke is mainly used for smelting metals, boiler installations, etc. It is used in the
manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many metals. The quality of coal depends
on its carbon and ash content, coking properties, gas yield, crushing strength, size of
particles, etc. Coal is used as a source of heat in a variety of ways. Throughout human
history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of
electricity and heat. It is one of the most essential raw materials in the extraction of metals.
It is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Thermal power stations
depend upon coal. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity
worldwide. Now, let us discuss about constitution of coal, varieties and rank, grade, origin
of coal and some Indian occurrences.

31
ORIGIN OF COAL

Coal originated as a result of long burial of vegetable matter formed by decay of

plant material under a thick cover of sediments. Coal deposits have been formed both in
fresh water and in brackish water. There exist different views regarding the mode of
accumulation of plant material which ultimately gave rise to coal seams. According to one
view, the coal forming materials was deposited and transformed where it grew, this theory
is known as the insitu theory. Another view is that the plant material has been
transported and deposited in suitable places to form coal, this theory is known as the drift
theory. Millions of years ago coals formed when the earth was covered with huge
swampy forests where plants grew. Over time as the plants grew, some of them died and
fell into the swamp waters. New plants grew up to take their place and then these died
and the process continued. Over a period of time, there formed thick layers of dead plants
decaying in the swamp. The surface and climate of the earth changed and water and dirt
washed in, stopping the decaying process. After millions of years many plant layers had
formed, one above other. The weight of the top layers and the water and dirt packed down
the lower layers of plant matter. Under heat and pressure these plants produced chemical
and physical changes in the plant layers which forced out oxygen and rich carbon deposits
are left. Over a period of time, thus the material once had been plants became coal.

WHAT IS PETROLEUM?

Petroleum popularly known as liquid gold, also called rock oil. It is a natural fuel
or a mineral fuel. The word petroleum is derived from the Latin word Petra means rock or
stone, and oleum means oil. Petroleum occurs widely in the Earth as gas, liquid,
semisolid, or solid, or in more than one of these states at a single place. It is a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons and some other compounds that occur in a liquid form,
entrapped within the rocks of the surface of the earth. It is the most important source of
energy today and is used mostly for producing fuel and gasoline. Due to its high energy
density, easy transportability and relative abundance, it has become the world’s most
important source of energy since the mid 1950s E.L. Drake drilled the first well for oil in
Pennsylvania in 1859.

32
Formation from Hot Material and Formation from Solution

Formation from Hot Material

• Melted rock inside the Earth is also called molten rock, or magma. Magma is a
molten mixture of substances that can be hotter than 1,000°C. When magma
erupts onto Earth's surface, it is known as lava. As lava flows from volcanoes, it
starts to cool. Minerals form when magma and lava cool. As the magma cools,
solid rocks form and rocks are mixtures of minerals.
• Granite contains the minerals quartz(clear), plagioclase feldspar (shiny white),
potassium feldspar(pink) and biotite (black). The different colored speckles in the
granite are the crystals of the different minerals.
• The magma mixture changes over time as different minerals crystallize out of the
magma. The last part of the magma to solidify contains more water than the
magma that first formed rocks. When magma cools very slowly, very large
crystals can grow and become a good source for jewelry making.
• Rhyolite rock is one type of rock that is formed when lava cools. It contains similar
minerals to granite. However, the mineral crystals are much smaller than the
crystals in the granite.

Formation from Solution

Water on Earth, such as the water in the oceans, contains chemical elements mixed
into a solution. Various processes can cause these elements to combine to form solid
mineral deposits.

Minerals form from the SALT WATER and the HOT UNDERGROUND WATER.

33
Minerals from Salt Water and Hot Undergrounds

Minerals from Salt Water

• After the water evaporates, the amount of mineral left is the same as was in the
water. Water can only hold a certain amount of dissolved minerals and salts. When
the amount is too great to stay dissolved in the water, the particles come together
to form mineral solids, which sink.

Minerals from Hot Underground

• The heat from the magma heats the nearby underground water and the water
moves through the cracks below Earth's surface. As the water flows through open
spaces in the rock and cools, it deposits solid minerals. The mineral deposits that
fills the cracks in rocks are called veins.
• When minerals are deposited in open spaces, large crystals form. Amethyst
formed when large crystals grew in open spaces inside the rock. These special
rocks are called geodes.

Summary

• Mineral crystals that form when magma cools slowly are larger than crystals that
form when lava cools rapidly.
• Minerals form when rocks are heated enough that atoms of different elements can
move around and join into different molecules.
• Minerals are deposited from salty water solutions on Earth's surface and
underground.

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Chemical Composition

Chemical Composition

Chemically petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon (i.e hydrogen and

carbon) compounds, with minor amount of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur as impurities.
Liquid petroleum is called crude oil. It consists chiefly of the liquid hydrocarbons, with
variable amount of dissolved gases, bitumen, and impurities. Bitumen are black viscous
mixture of hydrocarbons, obtained naturally or as a residue from petroleum distillation. In
some cases, traces of metallic elements like vanadium and nickel are also found in crude
oil. Crude oil is brownish black in colour with a greenish tinge. It is immiscible with water
and floats on it. But it is soluble in naphtha, carbon disulphide, ether, and benzene. It has
a characteristic odour typically petrol-like smell or rotten egg odour. Petroleum gas is
commonly called natural gas. It is often associated with the petroleum deposits.
Petroleum gas consists of lighter paraffin hydrocarbons, of which the most abundant is
the methane gas (CH4). The solid and semi-solid forms of petroleum consist of heavy
hydrocarbons and bitumen. Depending upon their individual characteristics, they are
called asphalt, tar, pitch, albertite, gilsonite, or grahamite.

ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

Petroleum and natural gas originate from organic material buried in marine muds.
It involves the reaction of carbides within the Earth to form acetylene and subsequently
produce natural hydrocarbons. Organic material buried in marine sediments underwent
chemical changes due to increased pressure and temperature generated by overlying
sediments to produce natural hydrocarbon. Such hydrocarbons subsequently moved into
porous sedimentary rocks known as reservoir rocks such as sandstone, coarse sands,
porous limestones, conglomerates, dolomites and other argillaceous rocks. They
accumulate to form oil pool. The source rock for petroleum are usually the finegrained
muddy sediments or marl (a mixture of mud and carbonate clay). They are rich in organic
matter derived from alteration of algae, bacteria or plant debris for their oxygen free

35
decomposition or conversion into petroleum. Slow oxygen free decomposition of remains
of plants and animals of microscopic nature is considered to be the original source of
petroleum. Conversion of organic matter into petroleum hydrocarbons is mainly due to
bacteria which flourish in the upper mud of the sea floor.

Uses of Petroleum

Petroleum is the key fuel of modern times and is of immense value in the
development of a country. Crude oil is refined and distilled in petroleum refineries to
separate a number of petroleum compounds such as petrol, diesel, kerosene, propane,
butane etc. Petroleum is used as a primary source of heat and energy, as a basic raw
material in the petro-chemical industries, automobiles and engine fuels, used to generate
electricity used in the manufacture of fertilisers, insecticides, explosives, perfumes,
chemicals, toilet products, synthetic rubber, resins, textiles, medicines etc. Crude oil is
condensed and fractionated to fluids, such as gasoline, kerosene, benzene etc.

OCCURRENCE OF COAL AND PETROLEUM

They are obtained in igneous and metamorphic rocks at the cracks, crevices,
faults, or joints. In sedimentary rocks, several minerals like Coal, petroleum, and some
forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of deposition. Accumulation, and
concentration for long periods under great heat and pressure.

36
 References

https://www.scribd.com/document/513824292/fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR3sKc
PvFn3jA2p3tDrgP_YTuenaTE9r0IT-
H3jlzj5I7lDCBuGG4nj0pgE_aem_rRylwWV2bW2z03Paj6oOqg

https://geology.com/minerals/rock-forming-minerals/

https://www.higp.hawaii.edu/~scott/GG101L/Jones2_minerals_chapters.pdf

https://www.scribd.com/document/513824292/fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR3sKc
PvFn3jA2p3tDrgP_YTuenaTE9r0IT-
H3jlzj5I7lDCBuGG4nj0pgE_aem_rRylwWV2bW2z03Paj6oOqg

https://geology.com/minerals/rock-forming-minerals/

https://www.higp.hawaii.edu/~scott/GG101L/Jones2_minerals_chapters.pdf

https://youtu.be/NkhWWMP-4-E

https://www.collegesidekick.com/study-docs/4567172

Grotzinger, J.P. & Jordan, T.H. (2014) Understanding Earth, 7th edn, Chapter 3.
Freeman.https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/rock-forming-minerals

Pellant, C. (2010) Rocks and Minerals. Dorling Kindersley.

https://geology.com/minerals/rock-forming-minerals/

Livingstone, A. (2003) Minerals of Scotland – Past and Present. National Museums

Scotland.https://geologyglasgow.org.uk/minerals-rocks-fossils/rock-forming-minerals/

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscien
ce%2Fisometric-
system&psig=AOvVaw1zSGqtUILiZvhd8YYKZEpq&ust=1738207479417000&source=i
mages&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBQQjhxqFwoTCOjd8M39mYsDFQAAAAAdAA
AAABAO

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https://www.scribd.com/document/513824292/fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR3sKc
PvFn3jA2p3tDrgP_YTuenaTE9r0IT-
H3jlzj5I7lDCBuGG4nj0pgE_aem_rRylwWV2bW2z03Paj6oOqg

https://geology.com/minerals/rock-forming-minerals/

https://www.higp.hawaii.edu/~scott/GG101L/Jones2_minerals_chapters.pdf

https://geologyglasgow.org.uk/minerals-rocks-fossils/rock-forming-minerals/
https://geology.com/minerals/feldspar.shtml
https://uwaterloo.ca/earth-sciences-museum/resources/detailed-rocks-and-
minerals-articles/feldspar
https://uwaterloo.ca/earth-sciences-museum/resources/detailed-rocks-and-
minerals-articles/quartz
https://geology.com/minerals/quartz.shtml
https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/rock-forming-minerals
file:///C:/Users/Asus/Downloads/Unit-15.pdf

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/nueva-ecija-university-of-science-and-
technology/bachelor-of-science-in-civil-engineering/the-origin-and-occurrence-of-coal-
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geology/45779780?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR2QRJoKYk5VMtuuIOVm0HfkhP
KFmSZsEs8_4ui3CfnpVBzzShiKf8uSWS4_aem_C4Q0bY89aRu-se5YzwWFgQ

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B-6E2sUSDC5qvWja_jbOiixfNxMfjRzdQ2rg76dJlR98MsH-4q1C-
ZI_aem__x3HjpdugRrmopGrNXN4lA&v=Aa6LLEuPnqI

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 Questions/Problems with Solution

1. What group of rock does Biotite belong to?

A. Quartz
B. Feldspars
C. Mica (ANSWER)
D. Calcite
2. What is the Structure of Calcite?
A. Platy Crystal
B. Trigonal Crystal (ANSWER)
C. Round Crystal
D. Cubic Crystal
3. What is the main type of mineral in a Garnet?
A. Silicate minerals (ANSWER)
B. B.Phyllosilicate minerals
C. C.Calcium carbonate
D. D.Water minerals
4. What minerals is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface being scraped or
punctured?
A. Cleavage (ANSWER)
B. Luster
C. streak
D. hardness
5. If minerals break along flat or even surfaces, it has?
A. Fracture
B. Hardness (ANSWER)
C. Tenacity
D. Luster
6. What does the mineral property of streak measure or describe?
A. The color of the mineral in powdered form (ANSWER)
B. Measures the density of the mineral
C. Describe how well a mineral reflects light
D. Describe how easy it is to scratch the surface of a mineral
7. 2D surface that when passed through the center of the crystal, it divides it into two
symmetrical parts that are mirror images.
A. Axis of Symmetry
B. Plane of Symmetry (ANSWER)
C. Center of Symmetry

39
8. An imaginary line through the center of the crystal around which the crystal may be
rotated so that after a definite angular revolution the crystal form appears the same as
before.
A. Plane of Symmetry
B. Axis of Symmetry (ANSWER)
C. Center of Symmetry
9. It passes an imaginary line from the surface of a crystal face through the center of the
crystal (axial cross) and it intersects a similar point on a face equidistant from the center.
A. Center of Symmetry (ANSWER)
B. Axis of Symmetry
C. Plane of Symmetry
10. Which of the following best explains the origin of coal and petroleum?
A. They are formed from volcanic eruptions.
B. B. They are made from the remains of dead plants and animals over millions
of years. (ANSWER)
C. They are directly extracted from seawater.
D. They are formed by chemical reactions between metals and water.
11. Where are petroleum and coal most commonly found?
A. Near riverbanks and lakes
B. In underground rock formations and sedimentary basins (ANSWER)
C. In the upper layers of the Earth's crust
D. In volcanic craters
12. What type of rock formations are most associated with the accumulation of
petroleum?
A. Igneous rocks
B. Metamorphic rocks
C. Sedimentary rocks (ANSWER)
D. Volcanic rocks
13. What is the chemical composition of quartz?
A. NaAlSi₃O₈
B. KAlSi₃O₈
C. SiO₂ (ANSWER)
D. CaAl₂Si₂O₈

40
14. What makes feldspar minerals important in industrial applications?
A. They are only used as gemstones.
B. They are used in glass, ceramics, and as fillers in paints and plastics.
(ANSWER)
C. They are the hardest minerals on the Mohs scale.
D. They have no significant industrial value.
15. What is the primary difference between macrocrystalline and microcrystalline quartz?
A. Macrocrystalline quartz is only found in sedimentary rocks, while
microcrystalline quartz is found in igneous rocks.
B. Macrocrystalline quartz has visible individual crystals, while microcrystalline
quartz consists of crystal aggregates only visible under magnification.
(ANSWER)
C. Macrocrystalline quartz is a synthetic material, while microcrystalline quartz
is natural.
D. Microcrystalline quartz is harder than macrocrystalline quartz.
16. It is the study of minerals
A. Crystallography
B. Crystal
C. Mineralogy (ANSWER)
17. This requires that a crystal be rotated by an angle of 180° to bring reference face to
the same position
A. Binary Symmetry (ANSWER)
B. Hexagonal Symmetry
C. Trigonal Symmetry
18. It is one of a symmetry elements of crystallographic system which an imaginary plane
divides the crystal in two parts in such a way that one part is mirror of the other.
A. Center Of Symmetry/ Inversion Center
B. Plane Symmetry/ Mirror Plane (ANSWER)
C. Proper Axis/ Rotational axis of Symmetry

41
19. It’s a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is combusted and used to generate electricity.
A. Petroleum
B. Insitu Theory
C. Coal (ANSWER)
D. Drift Theory
20. According to one view, the coal forming materials was deposited and transformed
where it grew, this theory is known as the
A. Drift Theory
B. Insitu Theory (ANSWER)
C. Coal
D. Petroleum
21. Another view is that the plant material has been transported and deposited in suitable
places to form coal, this theory is known as the
A. Drift Theory (ANSWER)
B. Insitu Theory
C. Petroleum
D. Coal
22. Petroleum is also known as?
A. Rock gas
B. B.Ground oil
C. C.Rock oil (ANSWER)
D. D.Black gold
23. Identify the gas that is generally produced when coal is burnt in the presence of a lot
of air.
A. Carbon monoxide
B. Sulphur dioxide
C. Nitrogen dioxide
D. Carbon dioxide (ANSWER)
24. High volatile coal on heating in ambient air is converted to?
A. Coal tar
B. Crude oil
C. Coal gas
D. Coke (ANSWER)

42
25. What is the physical property of minerals that describes its overall appearance, such
as shiny, dull, or metallic?
A. Luster (ANSWER)
B. Color
C. Streak
D. Cleavage
26. What is the physical property of minerals that describes the color of its powder when
scratched on a porcelain plate?
A. Streak(ANSWER)
B. Luster
C. Color
D. Hardness
27. What type of fracture occurs when a mineral breaks in a curved or irregular surface,
rather than along flat planes?
A. Conchoidal fracture(ANSWER)
B. Fibrous fracture
C. Earthy fracture
D. Hackly fracture
28. Which of the following properties best distinguishes muscovite from other rock-
forming minerals?
A. Dark green to black color
B. Perfect cleavage into thin, transparent, elastic sheets (ANSWER)
C. High density and opaque appearance
D. Lack of cleavage and granular texture
29. Which mineral is commonly found in basalt, gabbro, and andesite and belongs to the
pyroxene group?
A. Muscovite
B. Hornblende
C. Augite (ANSWER)
D. Quartz
30. What is the primary commercial use of hornblende?
A. Used as a pigment in paints
B. Crushed for highway construction and railroad ballast (ANSWER)
C. Mined for its potassium content
D. Used in the production of glass

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