ENGINEERING GEOLOGY MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, WARANGAL
TELANGANA STATE
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Crystallography is the study of crystals. Crystallography is a division of the entire study

of mineralogy.

 A Crystal is a regular polyhedral form, bounded by smooth faces, which is assumed

by a chemical compound, due to the action of its interatomic forces, when passing
from the state of a liquid or gas to that of a solid.
 Polyhedral form: solid bounded by flat planes (crystal faces).
 Very slow cooling of a liquid allows atoms to arrange themselves into an ordered
pattern, which may extend of a long range (millions of atoms). This kind of solid is
called crystalline.
 During the process of crystallization, crystals assume various geometric shapes
dependent on the ordering of their atomic structure and the physical and chemical
conditions under which they grow.
 These forms may be subdivided, using geometry, into six systems.

A form is a group of crystal faces, all having the same relationship to the elements
of symmetry of a given crystal system. These crystal faces display the same physical
and chemical properties because the atomic arrangement (internal geometrical
relationships) of the atoms composing them is the same.

Elements of symmetry:

• Plane of Symmetry: any two dimensional surface that, when passed through the
center of the crystal, divides it into two symmetrical parts that are mirror images is
a plane of symmetry

 Center of Symmetry: Any line through the center of the crystal around which the
crystal may be rotated so that after a definite angular revolution the crystal form
appears the same as before is termed an axis of symmetry.

 Center of Symmetry: Most crystals have a center of symmetry, even though they
may not possess either planes of symmetry or axes of symmetry. Triclinic crystals
usually only have a center of symmetry. If you can pass an imaginary line from the
surface of a crystal face through the center of the crystal (the axial cross) and it
intersects a similar point on a face equidistance from the center, then the crystal has
a center of symmetry.

 Crystal systems are classified in to 32 classes based on the number of symmetry

elements. The class that possess maximum symmetry elements is called normal
class of the system.
Crystals are divided into six crystal systems, according to their optical properties (how light bends within the crystal), plane of symmetry,
axis of symmetry, center of symmetry, crystallographic axis. Within each of the systems, the crystals can mineralize into different crystal
habits (form). The six crystal systems are:

Axis of Symmetry
Mineral
Name Disposition of Crystallographic axis Class
Example
Planes Axes Centre

3 crystallographic
axis of 4 fold
Diamond - C
3 crystal 4 diagonal axis of 3 Normal /
Isometric Present Garnet –
6 diagonal fold Galena
Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
6 diagonal axis of 2
The three crystallographic axes a, b, c are all fold
equal in length and intersect at right angles (90
degrees) to each other
a = b = c: a┴ b ┴ c

1 vertical
crystallographic
axis of 4 fold
Rutile - TiO2
3 crystal 2 horizontal Normal /
Tetragonal Present
2 diagonal crystallographic Zircon Zircon
axis of 2 fold ZrSiO4
Three axes, all at right angles, two of which are 2 diagonal axis of 2
equal in length (a and b) and one (c) which is fold
different in length (shorter or longer).
a = b ≠ c: a┴ b ┴ c
 Axis of Symmetry
Mineral
Name Disposition of Crystallographic axis Class
Example
Planes Axes Centre

3 crystallographic
3 crystal Normal / Barite –
Orthorhombic axis of 2 fold Present
Barite BaSO4

3 crystallographic axes of different lengths at

right angles to each other
a ≠ b ≠ c: a ┴ b ┴ c

1 crystal 1 crystallographic Normal / Gypsum –

Monoclinic Present
(ac plane) axis of 2 fold Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O

Three axes, all unequal in length, two of which

(a and c) intersect at an oblique angle (not 90
degrees), the third axis (b) is perpendicular to
the other two axes.

a ≠ b ≠ c , a is inclined to c
 Axis of Symmetry
Mineral
Name Disposition of Crystallographic axis Class
Example
Planes Axes Centre

Axinite-
No planes No axis Normal /
Triclinic Present
Axinite Kyanite –
Al2SiO5
3 crystallographic axes of different lengths,
all axis are inclined (intersect at different
angles).

a≠ b ≠ c all axis are inclined

1 vertical
crystallographic
axis of 6 fold
Beryl
Four axes, three of the axes fall in the same
Be3Al2(SiO3)6
plane and intersect at the axial cross at 120 4 crystal 3 horizontal Normal /
Hexagonal Present
degrees between the positive ends. These 3 3 diagonal crystallographic Beryl
Apatite
axes, labeled a1, a2, and a3, are the same axis of 2 fold
Ca5F2(PO4)3
length. The fourth axis, termed c, may be
longer or shorter than the horizontal axes. The 3 diagonal axis of 2
c axis also passes through the intersection of fold
the horizontal axes at right angle to the plane
formed by the a set.
a1 = a2 =a3 ≠ c: a1 ^ a2 ^a3 = 1200,
a1 , a2 ,a3 ┴ c
 1 vertical
crystallographic
axis of 6 fold
Four axes, three of the axes fall in the same
plane and intersect at the axial cross at 120 4 crystal 3 horizontal Calcite
Hexagonal degrees between the positive ends. These 3 Present Rhombohedral
3 diagonal crystallographic CaCO3
axes, labeled a1, a2, and a3, are the same axis of 2 fold
length. The fourth axis, termed c, may be
longer or shorter than the horizontal axes. The 3 diagonal axis of 2
c axis also passes through the intersection of fold
the horizontal axes at right angle to the plane
formed by the a set.
a1 = a2 =a3 ≠ c: a1 ^ a2 ^a3 = 1200,
a1, a2 ,a3 ┴ c
 Experiment 1- Identification of Crystal Systems

S.No

Model No.

Disposition of Crystallographic axis

Name of the Crystal System

Plane of
Symmetry

Axis of
Symmetry Elements
Symmetry

Centre of
Symmetry

Class

Mineral Example
 Mineralogy
Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Mineral is a homogeneous, naturally formed, inorganic, solid substance
having definite chemical composition and set of physical properties.

Mineral can be identified by their physical, chemical and optical properties.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Based on physical and chemical traits
Initially classified using one or more of the following physical properties
1. Color 5. Specific gravity
2. Luster 6. Cleavage
3. Hardness 7. Fracture
4. Streak 8. Crystallanity

The physical properties, which help in identifying minerals, are described below:

COLOUR: Minerals show a great variety of colours very often the colour of minerals is its most striking
property. Minerals can be identified by their colour, colour wise the minerals are of two types - Dark
coloured minerals and light coloured minerals. The dark coloured minerals absorb white light completely and
uniformly. Light coloured minerals reflect white light completely and uniformly. Minerals colours are
generally related to the gross chemical composition or the spatial arrangement of the constituent atoms, or
to the impurities present in the minerals, or all of these. For example
(i) The colour related to spatial arrangement of constituent atoms : Diamond is colourless and
transparent whereas graphite is black and opaque. Even though both contain only carbon;
(ii) Generally pure quartz colourless or transparent. But commonly due to impurities it shows colours
such as pink, purple.
You have to look at fresh surface when you are describing the property ‘colour’. Though colour is a
striking property but do not rely upon it completely for diagnostic purposes.
STREAK: The streak of a mineral is the colour of its powder. The powder of the mineral is obtained either
by scratching the mineral with a rubbing it across a unglazed porcelain plate called ‘streak plate’.
Most transparent and light coloured minerals exhibit a white or colourless streak. Dark colour
minerals with non-metallic luster show a streak that is lighter that the colour of the minerals. Sometimes
the streak is altogether different in colour from the colour of the mineral (metallic minerals).
Quartz – colourless
Baryte – White
Magnetite – Black
Hematite – Cherry red

FRACTURE: The minerals will break in different fashions. The nature of the broken surface is fracture. In
order to describe the different types of fractures the following terms are used:
1. Conchodial The broken surface (i) smooth and curved (Concave shaped)
2. Even The broken surface is smooth and flat.
3. Uneven If broken surface is rough with minute irregularities
LUSTER: Luster is the appearance of the surface of the mineral under reflected light. It varies considerably
depending upon the amount and the type of light reflected. Two main classes of luster are recognized in ore
minerals. There are (1) Metallic Luster (2) Non-Metallic Luster.
(1) Metallic Luster: If a mineral reflects light like a metal the luster termed Metallic.
Ex: Galena, Gold, Silver
(2) Non-Metallic Luster: This luster includes several varieties. They are (1) Vitreous luster (like
that of glass) (2) Greasy luster (like that of thin layer of oil) (3) Pearly
luster (like that of pearl) (4) Silky luster (like that of silk) and (5)
adamantine luster (like that of diamond).

CELAVAGE: Cleavage is the tendency of minerals to break with least resistance in certain known directions
giving more or less smooth faces according to internal structure of minerals. It is an important property of
minerals. Depending upon the number of such directions minerals may have one set of cleavages (mica),
two sets ( Feldspar) or three sets (galena). The quality of cleavage in minerals is described in relative terms
as perfect, good, distinct, indistinct etc.
At the initial stage you may have some difficulties in identifying the cleavage. But in due course of
your practical training you may identify it easily by your experience.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY: The specific gravity of a mineral is the ratio of weight in air to the weight in water. It
is mainly a laboratory test of one by special equipment. But for rough relative value is obtained by feeling
the weight of a mineral sample in the hand as light, medium or heavy. This is useful property of minerals.

HARDNESS: Hardness is the ability of a mineral to resist to abrasion or scratching. We use the Mohs'
hardness scale for the hardness of minerals:

1. Talc 4. Fluorite 7. Quartz

2. Gypsum 5. Apatite 8. Topaz
3. Calcite 6. Orthoclase 9. Corundum
10. Diamond

CRYATALLANITY: The mineral is identified as crystalline of amorphous.

Quartz : Crystalline and amorphous
Calcite : Crystalline
DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTIES:
Some minerals exhibit certain rare special physical properties which serve as diagnostic properties in
the identification of ore minerals.
Ex: (1) Barite - Heavy specific gravity
(2) Calcite - Three sets of Cleavage
(3) Mica - Perfect basal cleavage.
(4) Beryl - Hexagonal form.
 MINERAL SPECIMAN NO.

1. Crystallanity :
2. Colour :
3. Streak :
4. Luster :
5. Cleavage :
6. Fracture :
7. Hardness :
8. Specific Gravity :
9. Diagnostic Properties :
10. Name of the mineral :
11. Chemical Composition :
12. Crystal System :
13. Special Properties if any :
14. Occurrence :
15. Uses :
 Physical Properties of Minerals

S.No

Tray No

Crystallanity

Colour

Streak

Fracture

Luster

Hardness

Cleavage

Specific Gravity

Name of the
mineral
Chemical
Composition

Crystal System

Occurrence

Uses

Diagnostic
Properties
IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are directly derived from magma. They are considered as primary rocks formed by the
processes of crystallization and solidification of magma. When the magma is erupted at the surface of the earth,
under favourable circumstances, through the volcanic vents, fissures, and fractures it is termed as lava.

Mode of formation
Igneous rocks are divided into three main groups on the basis of depth of crystallization of magma or lava.
The rocks can be classified as
a) Plutonic rocks are formed at great depths, where the magma crystallized at high pressure and temperature
conditions, low viscosity and slow rate of cooling, are favorable for the development of coarse grained textures in
these rocks.
b) Hypabasal rocks are at shallow depths, where the magma crystallized at moderate pressure, temperature,
viscosity and cooling condition, and exhibit medium grained textures.
c) Volcanic rocks are formed at the surface of the earth by the eruption and solidification of lava under low
pressure and temperature conditions, high viscosity and fast cooling, and exhibit fine grained textures. These
volcanic rocks are characterised by vesicular and amygdaloidal structures.

Colour Index
The ratio between the relative proportions of mafic (dark) and felsic (light) minerals in a rock is termed as colour
index. It is to be a purely qualitative classification and depends on the megascopic description of a rock. Igneous
rocks are made up of different proportions of light (felsic) and dark (mafic) minerals. Based on the colour index,
the rocks can be classified into leucocratic (light coloured rocks) mesocratic (medium coloured rock) and
melanocratic (dark coloured rocks).

TEXTURES
CRYSTALLANITY
Crystallanity of a rock is described by the ratio between the relative proportions of glass and crystals present in it.
If a rock is fully composed of crystals, then the rock is described as holocrystalline. If a rock composed of 100%
glass is said to be holohyalline. The intermediate form between holocrystalline and holohyalline is termed as hemi
crystalline. A hemicrystalline rock is composed of both glass and crystals with different proportions.

GRANUALRITY
Granularity of a rock is represented as the absolute and relative sized of crystals present in it. Based on absolute
sizes of crystals, the igneous rocks are grouped into three classes.
a. Phenaro crystalline – characterised by coarse grained crystals and the crystalline nature of the minerals is
identified megascopically.
b. Micro Crystalline – characterised by medium grained crystals and the crystalline nature of the minerals is
identified with the help of microscope.
c. Crypto Crystalline – characterised by fine grained crystals and the crystalline nature of the minerals is
identified with the help of electron microscope.

FABRIC
Fabric Based on the relative size of crystals, the textures of igneous rocks can be described into equigranular and
inequigranular.
 In the equigranular texture, all crystals are of approximately the same size. Gabbro and Dolerites exhibit
equigranular texture and they contain uniform size of grains.
In the inequigranular texture the crystals are dissimilar in size as some crystals are bigger (phenocrysts)
and some crystals are smaller (fine grained ground mass).

Porphyrytic texture: It is a variety of inequigranular texture, in which the big crystals are embedded in a fine
grained groundmass. Such textures (see figure) are common in many granites.

STRUCTURES
Structures are large scale feature that can be observed by naked eye. Igneous rocks generally exhibit common
structures like vesicular, amygdaloidal, columnar, in extrusive rocks, and layering (sheet) in intrusive rocks.
Vesicular structures are commonly seen in volcanic rocks (basalts, rhyolites, etc) and they are pores-likes
features that are developed at the time of solidification of lava. During the time of solidification and
crystallization of molten lava, the lava looses its gases and volatiles into atmosphere and ultimately it turn into a
solid rock with vesicles, pores and cavities. Such forms are described as vesicular structures.
The pores, vesicles and cavities of vesicular structure are filling with secondary minerals like quartz (and
its hydrous forms), calcite and zeolite by later hydrothermal process, such minerals forms are called amygdales.
The resultant rock structure with amygdales is known as “amygdaloidal structure”.
Columnar structures are commonly seen in basaltic rocks and they are formed under sub-aerial conditions.
They are pillar like features with four, five or six sided prisms.

MINERAL COMPOSITION:
The Minerals present in the igneous rocks are categorized as primary (essential and accessory minerals)
and secondary minerals.
Essential Minerals: Essential minerals are those which are dominant mineral constituents in rock composition
and helpful in identification and naming the rock Example – Quartz and Felspar are essential minerals in Granite.
Accessory Minerals: The accessory minerals are present in minor proportions or small quantities (some times may
be absent). Their presence and absence will not be considered in naming the rock. Example – Biotite or
Hornblende are accessory minerals in Granite.
Secondary Minerals: The pores, vesicles and cavities of vesicular structure of volcanic igneous rock are filled with
minerals like quartz (and its hydrous forms), calcite and zeolite. Such minerals which enter in to the rock
composition after their formation are termed as secondary minerals.
Common Rock Types: Granite, Pegmatite, Charnockite, Gabbro (Plutonic Igneous Rocks)
Dolerite (Hypabasal Igneous Rocks)
Basalt – Vesicular and Amygdaloidal (Volcanic Igneous Rocks).
 Identification of Igneous Rocks

Mineral Composition Average

Water
Durability and Compressive
Name of the Colour Crystallanity Granularity Texture / Structure Absorption and Petrogenesis
Compaction Strength
Rock Porosity
Essential Secondary (kg/cm2)
Accessory Minerals
Minerals Minerals

HOLO PHAENARO EQUI GRANULAR / QUARTZ AND HORNBLENDE AND

GRANITE LEUCOCRATIC - NIL TO LOW HIGH 700 - 1500 PLUTONIC
CRYSTALLINE CRYSTALLINE INEQUI GRANULAR FELSPAR BIOTITE

HOLO PHAENARO QUARTZ AND MUSCOVITE AND

PEGMATITE LEUCOCRATIC INEQUI GRANULAR - NIL TO LOW HIGH 700 - 1500 PLUTONIC
CRYSTALLINE CRYSTALLINE FELSPAR TOURMALENE

HOLO PHAENARO EQUI GRANULAR / QUARTZ AND HYPERSTHENE

CHARNOCKITE MESOCRATIC - NIL TO LOW HIGH 700 - 1500 PLUTONIC
CRYSTALLINE CRYSTALLINE INEQUI GRANULAR FELSPAR (PYROXENES)

HOLO PHAENARO FELSPAR AND AMPHIBOLES AND

GABBRO MELANOCRATIC EQUI GRANULAR - NIL TO LOW HIGH 1000 - 2000 PLUTONIC
CRYSTALLINE CRYSTALLINE PYROXENES IRON OXIDES

HEMI MICRO FELSPAR AND AMPHIBOLES AND

DOLERITE MELANOCRATIC EQUI GRANULAR - NIL TO LOW HIGH 1500 – 3500 HYPABASAL
CRYSTALLINE CRYSTALLINE PYROXENES IRON OXIDES

QUARTZ,
CRYPTO VESICULAR / FELSPAR AND AMPHIBOLES AND
BASALT MELANOCRATIC HOLO HYALINE CALCITE, LOW TO HIGH LOW TO HIGH 700 - 2500 VOLCANIC
CRYSTALLINE AMYGDALOIDAL PYROXENES IRON OXIDES
ZEOLITE
 Experiment – Identification of Igneous Rocks

MINERAL COMPOSITION
WATER AVERAGE
TEXTURE / DURABILITY AND
TRAY COLOUR CRYSTALLANITY GRANULARITY NAME OF THE ABSORPTION COMPRESSIVE PETROGENESIS
STRUCTURE COMPACTION
NO. ROCK AND POROSITY STRENGTH
ESSENTIAL ACCESSORY SECONDARY
MINERALS MINERALS MINERALS
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks constitute one of the three major groups of rocks. The sedimentary rocks are secondary rocks or
derived rocks formed by three processes weathering, transportation and deposition. Weathering involves
disintegration or decomposition of rocks by water, wind and ice. The weathered particles are transported by the
agents. Finally deposition takes place when velocity of the agent is checked initially the sediments are loose,
consolidation takes place by two processes i.e. welding and cementation (siliceous, argillaceous, calcareous and
ferruginous materials) which together produce cohesion thus giving rise to a compact Sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are broadly classified in to non transported (residual) and transported (clastic and non clastic)
rocks.
Clastic rocks composed of physically broken and transported rock fragments (clastic fragments).
Non clastic rocks are formed either by precipitation, evaporation (i.e., by chemical process) and are accumulated by
chemical processes (chemical deposits), and also by accumulation of hard plants or animals (organic deposits).
Residual rocks are formed at the site of the pre existing rocks from which they have been derived without any
transportation.
TEXTURES
The textures of the sedimentary rocks (clastic) are defined by their grain size, degree of roundness and degree of
sorting. The textures of these rocks are governed by the type of weathering, period of weathering, nature of rock,
rate and distance of transport and medium of transport.
GRAIN SIZE - The grain size in the sedimentary rocks varies with in wide limits. Individual grains of less than .002
mm to 250 mm may form a part or whole of these rocks. Accordingly, the sedimentary rocks are classified in to the
following types on the basis of grain size.
Very Coarse Grained - > 5 mm
Coarse Grained- 2 mm to 5 mm
Medium Grained - 1 mm to 2 mm
Fine Grained - < 1 mm.

Degree of Roundness – The shape of the mineral grains in sedimentary rocks is influenced by the type and period
of weathering, distance of transport, nature of rock masses and their structures. The shape of the mineral grains is
explained by the rounded / angular nature of the mineral grains as follows:
Well rounded – when the mineral grains possess smooth curved edges.
Sub rounded / Sub angular - when the some mineral grains have partially smooth curved edges and some mineral
grains are sharp edges.
Angular - when the mineral grains possess sharp edges.
Degree of Sorting – is defined as the ability of rock having the same size mineral grains. Based on the mineral
grains present in a rock, the degree of sorting is classified as:
Well Sorted – A rock is composed of minerals of same / uniform size.
Moderately sorted – A rock is composed of some of same size minerals and some of different size minerals.
Ill sorted – A rock is composed of all different size minerals.

MINERAL COMPOSITION:
The Minerals present in the sedimentary rocks are categorized as essential and accessory minerals.
Essential Minerals: Essential minerals are those which are dominant mineral constituents in rock composition
and helpful in identification and naming the rock
Accessory Minerals: The accessory minerals are present in minor proportions or small quantities (some times may
be absent). Their presence and absence will not be considered in naming the rock.

CEMENTING MATERIAL:
The loose grains in a sedimentary deposit are held together by a binding or cementing material. These binding
materials are supplied by the percolated waters, which are rich in silicon and iron oxides (siliceous and ferruginous)
calcium carbonate (calcareous) and clay (argillaceous).
 Properties of Sedimentary Rocks

Mineral Composition Average

Durability
Degree of Water Absorption Compressive
Name of the Grain size Degree of sorting Cementing and Petrogenesis
roundness and Porosity Strength
Rock Material Compaction
Accessory (kg/cm2)
Essential Minerals
Minerals

SUB ROUNDED SILICEIOUS/

FINE TO MODERATELY TO FELSPAR, MICA ARGILLACEOUS/ LOW TO CLASTIC
SAND STONE TO WELL QUARTZ LOW TO HIGH 100 - 1000
COARSE WELL SORTED CLAY CALCAREOUS/ WELL
ROUNDED
GRIT FERUGENOUS
SILICEIOUS/
FELSPAR, MICA ARGILLACEOUS/ LOW TO
(C0ARSE RAINED COARSE SUB ROUNDED ILL SORTED QUARTZ LOW TO HIGH 100 - 1000 CLASTIC
CLAY CALCAREOUS/ WELL
SANDSTONE)
FERUGENOUS
SILICEIOUS/
SHALE FINE SUB ROUNDED WELL SORTED CLAY QUARTZ ARGILLACEOUS/ LOW POOR 100 - 400 CLASTIC
CALCAREOUS/
FERUGENOUS
LOW TO POOR TO
CONGLOMERATE VERY COARSE WELL ROUNDED ILL SORTED QUARTZ - SILICEIOUS/ 100 - 500 CLASTIC
MEDIUM WELL

LOW TO POOR TO
BRECCIA VERY COARSE ANGULAR ILL SORTED QUARTZ - SILICEIOUS/ 100 - 500 CLASTIC
MEDIUM WELL

SILICEIOUS/
DOLOMITE. ARGILLACEOUS/
LIME STONE FINE SUB ROUNDED WELL SORTED CALCITE LOW TO HIGH POOR 100 - 400 NON CLASTIC
QUARTZ CALCAREOUS/
HYDRATED IRON FERUGENOUS
MEDIUM TO MODERATELY TO LOW TO
LATERITE SUB ROUNDED AND ALUMINIUM QUARTZ FERUGENOUS POOR 100 - 400 RESIDUAL
COARE ILL SORTED MEDIUM
OXIDES
 Experiment – Identification of Sedimentary Rocks

Mineral Composition Average

Water Durabilit
Compressi
Grain Degree of Degree of Absorption y and Petrogene
Tray Name of Cementing ve
size roundness sorting Essential Accessory and Compact sis
Number the Rock Material Strength
Minerals Minerals Porosity ion
(kg/cm2)
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphism is the process whereby pre-existing rocks are formed into new types under the action heat, pressure
and chemically active fluids. The new rocks are called metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic changes take place
in the solid state. The metamorphic rocks occupy an intermediate position between igneous rocks and sedimentary
rocks in terms of conditions of temperature and pressure under which they formed.
Heat, pressure and chemically active fluids are the three agents of metamorphism. The heat factor may be due to
the geothermal energy, magmatic intrusion of friction between moving rock masses. Heat brings about
recrystallization. The pressure at any point is mainly due to the weight of the superincumbent rocks and is resolved
into two types uniform pressure and directed pressure. Uniform pressure produces a change in the volume while
directed pressure leads to change in shape. Chemically active fluids act as catalyst and facilitate chemical reactions
and mechanical adjustment.
Different types of metamorphism are recognized based on the agent or agent involved. In thermal metamorphism,
heat is the dominating agent. It includes pyrometamorphism and contact metamorphism. In cataclastic
metamorphism, the dominating agent is directed pressure. In dynamothermal metamorphism heat and uniform
pressure are predominant. 鏑 ocal metamorphism・involves changes which are confined to a small area. Contact
metamorphism falls in this category. Regional metamorphism is developed over a large and may include
dynamothermal metamorphism and plutonic metamorphism.

MODE OF FORMATION:
Metamorphic changes occur in the metamorphic (or contact) aureole due to supplied of heat to country rock by
cooling of an igneous intrusion. Heat is the main causative (physical) factor for the formation of contact
metamorphic rocks and this process of metamorphism is known as 鍍 hermal metamorphism ・ Dynamic
metamorphic rocks occur at or near the fault or fracture zones and they have very limited aerial extent. They have
been formed under intensive shearing stress. The shearing stress is originated along the fault planes by the slip of
crystal blocks in the fault zones. The resultant metamorphic rocks are characterized by cataclastic and mortar
textures.
Regional metamorphic rocks are related to depth zones of metamorphism and they have larger aerial extent. They
occur in variety of geological settings and are need not be associated with igneous intrusions and fault or thrust
zones. The regional metamorphic rocks have been formed under high temperatures and high pressures. These
physical conditions are originated at considerable depth of the Earth’s crust: where the original sedimentary or
igneous rocks were thoroughly converted into metamorphic rocks and the resultant rocks have foliation and
lineation features.
CLASSIFICATION
Classification of metamorphic rocks is widely useful in the description and nomenclature of the rocks. Because of
this reason, one should know about the various criteria or bases, which are helpful to the classification.
Metamorphic rocks can be classified by means of structural or textural criteria and mineralogical or chemical basic.
Metamorphic rocks are broadly divided into two groups (a) foliated and (b) weakly or non foliated metamorphic
rocks, based on structural (or textural) criteria.
Foliated metamorphic rocks are characterized by preferred orientation of phyllo silicate minerals, such micas,
chlorites, serpentines etc. In these rocks, minerals lie in a particular way of orientation, where they exhibit planar
features. Muscovite schist, biotite schist, chlorite schist and serpentinite are typically named as foliated
metamorphic rocks. Some rocks have linear features due to arrangement of tabular minerals like amphiboles,
quartz and feldspars. Such minerals lie in a pressure direction to give rise to lineation. The foliation (in dark band)
and lineation (in white band) features are commonly seen in gneisses. Various schists and gneisses are described
as foliated metamorphic rocks.
Non foliated metamorphic rocks are devoid of foliation and lineation features and they exhibit granulose or
granoblastic textures. Equi dimensional grains, polygonal outlines, planar boundaries and triple junctions are the
common features of such rocks. They include granulites, amphibolites, quartzites, marbles and spotted states.

STRUCTURE
The structures of metamorphic rocks are distinctly demarked from those of igneous and sedimentary rocks in the
field and also in the laboratory, by their characteristic foliation and lineation features. As we know, the structures
are the large scale features, which can be seen by naked eye. Metamorphic structures are of secondary in nature and
they form due to deformation of rock (crystal) masses occur at different levels of the Earth crust. They tend to
depend on the composition of original rock, the type of metamorphic process and also on the site of metamorphic
environment (or field occurrence). The structures are very much useful in the description of rocks and for this
reason; one should know at least the common and important structures, which are properly described below.

GRANULOSE STRUCTURE
This structure is commonly seen in high grade metamorphic rocks, such as eclogites, granulites marbles quartzites
and homfelses. In hand specimen, the structure appears as fresh massive granular in form. It develops due
tomosaic arrangement of equidemensional mineral grains under recrystallization process, where the temperature
and uniform pressures are high.
Quartz feldspar, pyroxene, garnet, andalusite, cordierite, calcite and other anhydrous minerals are responsible
constituents for the formation of granulose structure
SCHISTOSE STRUCTURE
This structure is commonly seen in foliated metamorphic rocks, such as mica schist, chlorite schist, hornblende
schist, kyanite-sillimanite schist, phyllite, slate, etc. It develops due to parallel arrangement (or preferred
orientation) or flaky minerals. Schistose rocks have perfect rock cleavage. Along those cleavage planes, the said
rock easily splits into pieces. The splitting behavior of rock is known as schistosity or foliation.
Muscovite, chlorite, biotite, talc, actinolite, anthophyllite, hornblende, serpentine and other allied minerals are
responsible for the formation of schistosity or schistose structure (see figure below).

GNEISSOS STRUCTURE
This structure is commonly seen in many high grade foliated and lineated metamorphic rocks, such as granite
gneiss, hornblende gneiss, khondalite, leptynite, etc. In hand specimen, it appears as a banded form and those
bands are of different colours, mineralogy and textures. Usually, the white band is rich in felsic minerals quartz,
feldspars and muscovite white the dark band is rich in mafic minerals garnet, biotite, hornblende, pyroxene, epidote,
and chlorite. Minerals of each band are in tabular form and they arrange in one particular direction. The parallel
alignment of tabular mineral grains is called lineation.
CATACLASTIC STRUCTURE
This structure is characterised the development of extreme fine rock mass under the influence of severe
crushing and shearing effects due to dynamic pressure (dynamic metamorphism) and shown by the rocks formed
at the shallow depths.
 Properties of Metamorphic Rocks

WATER
MINERAL COMPOSITION DURABILITY AVERAGE
ABSORPTIO
NAME OF THE STRUCTURES AND COMPRESSIVE PETROGENESIS
N AND PARENT ROCK
ROCK ESSENTIAL ACCESSORY COMPACTION STRENGTH
POROSITY
MINERALS MINERALS (KG/CM2)
MICA
DYNAMO
(MUSCOVITE, QUARTZ,
SCHIST SCHISTOSE LOW LOW 100 - 300 SHALE THERMAL
BIOTITE, GARNET
METAMORPHISM
CHLORITE)
DYNAMO
QUARTZ AND HORNBLENDE,
GNEISS GNEISSOSE LOW HIGH 700 - 2000 GRANITE THERMAL
FELSPAR BIOTITE
METAMORPHISM
META DYNAMO
QUARTZ AND HORNBLENDE,
KHONDALITE GNEISSOSE LOW MEDIUM 500 - 800 SEDIMENTARY THERMAL
FELSPAR GARNET
ROCK METAMORPHISM
DOLOMITE, LOW TO THERMAL
MARBLE GRANULOSE CALCITE LOW 400 - 800 LIMESTONE
SERPENTENE HIGH METAMORPHISM
DYNAMO
FELSPAR,
QUARTZITE GRANULOSE QUARTZ LOW HIGH 500 - 1000 SANDSTONE THERMAL
MUSCOVITE
METAMORPHISM
BANDED DYNAMO
QUARTZ, LOW TO FERRUGENOUS
MAGNETITE GRANULOSE - LOW 500 - 1000 THERMAL
MAGNETITE MEDIUM SANDSTONE
QUARTZITE METAMORPHISM

SLATE CATACLASTIC CLAY - LOW LOW 100 - 300 SHALE CATACLASTIC

 Experiment – Identification of Metamorphic Rocks

WATER
MINERAL COMPOSITION DURABILITY AVERAGE
ABSORPTION
NAME OF THE STRUCTURES AND COMPRESSIVE PARENT PETROGENESIS
TRAY NO, AND
ROCK ESSENTIAL ACCESSORY COMPACTION STRENGTH ROCK
POROSITY
MINERALS MINERALS (KG/CM2)
 PROBLEMS

1. Boreholes were drilled at A, B, C and D which are at the corners of a rectangle, whose sides are 1000
m. and 1500 m. The 1000 m. sides are parallel to E-W line. A is at NW, B is at NE, C is at SE and D is
at SW corners respectively. A limestone bed was reached in the boreholes at the following depths, at
A 700 m., at C 700 m., and at D 400 m. Find the strike direction, dip direction and dip amount of the
limestone bed. Also find at what depth the limestone bed be met B.

2. Boreholes were drilled at A, B, C and D which are at the corners of a rhombus, whose shorter
diagonal is 1000 m. in the N-S direction and longer diagonal is 1500mts along E-W. A Limestone was
reached in the boreholes at the following depths; At ‘A’ 250mts (North), at ‘B’ 150 m. (East); at ‘C’
350 m. (South). Find out at what depth the limestone will be met at the point D. Also find the amount
and direction of the dip of the limestone.

3. A bed crops out at the surface at three points A, B and C, at the heights of 500 m. 350m. and 400m.
respectively. The distance from A to B is half a kilometer in direction S-W, and from A to C is quarter
kilometer in a direction S 30˚E. Find the direction and amount dip.

4. Bore holes were sunk at A, B and C. B is due west of ‘A’ at a distance of 1000m. and C is 500 m. due
north of AB. Sandstone was reached in the bore holes at depths of 550 m., 850 m. and 750 m.
respectively. Find the amount and direction of the Sandstone.

5. Bore holes sunk at A, B and C, which are the same attitude, which lie at the corners of an equilateral
triangle, whose side is 100mts. The point C is NW of ‘B’, and A is SW of B. A limestone bed was met
at a depths of 400 m. at A, 600mts at ‘B’ and 200 m. at ‘C’, Find the amount and direction of the dip
of the limestone bed.

6. A bed crops out at the surface at these points A, B and C at heights of 675 m. 475 m. and 375 m.
respectively. The distance from ‘C’ to A is 750 m. in the direction S400W and from C to B is 1250 mts
in the direction N250W. Find the direction and amount of dip?