S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Computer system

This is a collection of components that operate logically

• iii) computer users (live ware).
together to process information.
• The major components of a computer system are: • iv)Data
i) computer hardware- the tangible parts of a computer. • V) Communication
ii) computer software- the set of electronic
instructions/programs that direct the computer how to
operate

Computer users

• The computer user is one of the components of a computer

system. computer users include the ordinary users and
computer professionals such as software programmers, system
analysts, and system administrators, Network administrators and
Database administrators.
• Computer users’ role include entering data into the system to be
processed, programming, administering the network, and
administration of the computer system.

1
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Computer software
(programs)
The
Compute
r system
• These are the digital step by step
instructions that tell the computer system
Hardw Softwar Users Data
are e

Input
outpu Proces
communication
System
softwar Applicatio
e.g. Data
entry
operators,
how to operate and how to process data.
t s e n software graphic
designers etc.

Presentation,
• These include both the system software and
Word desktop
processors Spreadsheets

application software.
publishing etc.

• System software are programs for the • Application software are programs for the
computer's use, to help it manage its own computer to perform tasks for the user, such
tasks and devices. Eg the operating system as creating documents. For example, a word
and utility programs processor, presentation software and
spreadsheet software.

2
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Computer hardware

These are the physical and tangible parts of

a computer system;

they are largely electronic and

electromechanical in nature:

They are broadly categorized into:

• Input devices
• Processing devices
• Output devices
• Storage devices
• Communication devices

3
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

4
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Input devices

These are physical computer components

used to feed data and instructions into the
computer system for processing;

Task

There are four types of input into a computer system:

1. Data. This is the raw facts • Name some commonly used input devices
2. Programs. These are the sets of instructions loaded into the
computer system to guide it functioning.
3. Commands. These are fed into the system alongside the data input
to tell what to do with the data.
4. User responses to the system requirements in order to process data.

5
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Pointing devices

Input devices are of the following categories: Devices that are used to input data and commands
• Pointing input devices into the computer system using a pointing
• The Keyboard mechanism that controls the movement of the pointer

• Scanning input devices on the screen to select items.

• Speech recognition input devices The user gives commands and responses by physical

• Audio input devices movements of the cursor like pointing, clicking, and

• Multimedia input devices dragging it .

Examples of pointing devices

Pointing devices are either based on motion of an object; common

examples in this category include:
Mouse
• Joystick
• Trackball and Track pad
• Light pen
• Touchpad,
• Stylus,
• Digitiser.

6
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Pointing Devices
Stylus used on a smartphone A virtual keyboard on an iPad

Joystick

Light Pen
A graphics tablet with a pen Track pad on an Apple MacBook Pro

The computer Mouse

• This is a small handheld device pushed over

Trackball A gamepad with a trackball a horizontal surface to control the
coordinates of the cursor on the computer
screen as the user moves it around on a flat
surface and as he/she clicks on the mouse’s
buttons.
Using a light pen Using a touch screen

7
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Types of mouse

• The mechanical (ball) mouse has moving

parts of a ball beneath it and two freely
rotating rollers to direct the movement of
the pointer on the screen.

• Optical-mechanical (optomechanical)
mouse.

This consists of a ball that rolls two wheels

inside it, uses LED light whose movements is
detected by optical sensors.

8
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

• The optical mouse: which emits a light to

detect movement relative to the underlying
surface to direct the cursor on the computer
screen.
Optical
Sensors

Using a computer Mouse

• The user has to move the mouse to move the cursor

in the same direction.
• he or she can move the cursor over a command and
uses the left button to click” that option.
• By default, the right mouse button is used to open
an appropriate menu that depends on the position
of the cursor on the screen.

9
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Uses of a computer mouse

• Used to move the insertion point from one location to

• A mouse may have a scroll wheel to help
another in a document.
navigate up/down a displayed page on the • Used to select text on the document
screen. • Used to point/select a desired command. e.g. by
activating drop down arrow.
• used to confirm a command by clicking
• Used to activate appropriate menu by using the right
button

The advantages of using a computer

mouse:

• Used to navigate the document when used • It provides a natural sense of movement . E.g. while
drawing because to move the cursor in a particular
in combination with the scrollbar of the
direction requires moving the mouse in the same
window direction.
• Used to move selected text or icons by the • It requires little training to use

drag and drop method. The disadvantages include:

• it takes up a lot of room to use

10
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Joystick

• It requires a flat surface next the PC • an input device consisting of a stick that

• Mechanical mice get clogged with dust and pivots on a base and reports its angle or

become inefficient. direction to the device it is controlling.

• Excessive use can lead to repetitive strain Joysticks are often used to control video

injury games

1. Stick,
The Keyboard
2. base,
3. trigger,
4. extra buttons, • The keyboard is a device that has a set of
5. autofire switch,
keys used to enter commands and
6. throttle,
7. hat switch (POV hat), characters into the computer system.
8. suction cup.

11
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Sections of alphanumeric
keyboards
The keys are arranged into sections: • Function keys- top row. Pressing these keys will
• Alphabet keys instruct the operating system to perform a certain
• Function keys command.

• Numeric keys • The main section of the keyboard is made up of five

• arrow keys rows. The first row contains numbers and symbols,

• Command keys (insert, delete, home, end, page while the middle three rows are for the letters of the
up/down) alphabet and punctuation marks and other symbols.

• The numeric keypad on the right side of the

keyboard, activated by pressing the Numlock.
• The cursor control keys. These are the arrow keys on
the keyboard that move the cursor in the desired
direction.
• The bottom row has the spacebar and special keys.

12
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Special keys

• Spacebar: Moves the insertion point one space • Delete key

at a time to the right.
• Clears a character at a time to the right. Also
• Backspace: Deletes the character immediately
deletes a selected text or icon.
to the left of the insertion point/deletes one
character at a time to the left. If placed at the
beginning of a sentence, and pressed moves
with the sentence to the upper line

• Enter/return: Moves the start of the typing • Shift and Alt keys: used to change
to the beginning of the next line/moves the (alternate) the function of other keys.

insertion point to the next line. • If pressed down together with other keys to

• It confirms a command when pressed. give the given key’s second-function

command. Or entering a letter as upper
case letters (when Caps Lock is off).

13
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Keyboard shortcuts

If the ALT key is pressed activates the Keyboard shortcuts are combinations of two
keyboard to work in place of the mouse for
the user navigate the menu bar and other or more keys that, when pressed concurrently
commands eg by using the direction keys perform a task that would require a mouse or
and the enter key, and other keys such as F
other pointing device.
for file, and N for insert etc.

General keyboard shortcuts

F1: Help ALT+TAB: Switch between open
programs

CTRL+ESC: Open Start menu Windows Logo + L: Lock the computer

(without using CTRL+ALT+DELETE)

CTRL+C: Copy CTRL+X: Cut

CTRL+V: Paste CTRL+B: Bold

CTRL+U: Underline CTRL+I: Italic

ALT+F4: Closes the current window Alt + F: File menu options in current program.

Alt + E: Edit options in current program Ctrl + A: Select all text.

Ctrl + V: Paste Ctrl + Home: Goes to beginning of document.

Ctrl + Z: Undo an action Ctrl + Y: Redo an action

Alt + Tab: Switch between open items Ctrl + enter: page break at the cursor
position

14
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Application of the Keyboard

• used to key in characters into the computer system.

Advantages of using the keyboard:
• Used to enter commands into the computer using keyboard
shortcuts • It offers quick data entry for trained personnel
• Used to activate special commands for the operating system • Special keys are available for effective data
using the function keys
entry
• Used for numeric entries and calculations using the numeric
keypad. • Special keyboards are available to cater for
• Used to edit documents using special keys like backspace and
varied needs
Del keys

Types of keyboards

The disadvantages include: There are two types of keyboards: alphanumeric

• It is easy to make mistakes while typing keyboards and special-function keyboards:

• Not suitable for drawing/creating diagrams  The alphanumeric keyboard contains letters,

• Difficult to use by the dis abled people numbers and symbols in particular layouts also
known as QWERTY keyboard (based on the
• Excessive use can lead to health issues eg RSI
sequence of letters at the top left).

15
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

The Special-function keyboards are invented

for a particular purpose. For example:

1) The Braille keyboard. This has its keys

marked with raised dots to aid the blind.

Braille Keyboard
Braille

16
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Braille Printers

2) The concept keyboard.

This is a flat board that contains a grid of
buttons with pictures of items representing
what they activate instead of the usual
keyboard symbols and characters.

Concept Keyboards

17
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Concept keys are commonly used: • where there is a limited set of things to
among young children. select and it needs to be done fast e.g. fast
By people who would find using an ordinary food store, pub, and other recreation events
keyboard difficult.
• Where very little training is needed to
in locations where an ordinary keyboard might
operate them
be damaged e.g. by spillage or dust.

3) The left-handed keyboard. These are

designed for the left-handed individual.

18
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

4)A virtual/projection keyboard.

This is a software component that allows a user

to enter characters into the computer system.

Example: the touch-screen keyboard of the

automatic teller machines (ATM), and mobile
devices like smartphones. etc.

Pen input devices

a) A digital pen
This is an input device which captures the
handwriting or brush strokes of a user, and
converts handwritten analogue information
created into digital format. E.g. the one used
with a digitiser

19
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

b) Stylus (or stylus pen). This is a small pen-like shape

that is used to input commands to a computer screen
that is used instead of a finger to touch.
c) Light pen. This is in a form of a light-sensitive wand
used in conjunction with a computer’s screen.
Allowing the user to point to displayed objects or
draw on the screen.

Source data automation Benefits of source data

(Direct data entry methods) automation:

• It increases speed of data input process

The use of special equipment like scanners • it reduces cost of data entry
and digital cameras to collect data at the • it reduces possibility of human errors.
source, generated and send directly to the
computer system for processing.

20
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Scanning devices Types of scanning devices

These are devices that optically scan printed 1)Flatbed scanner: it scans a document,
text, handwriting, or an object (3D) to digital image or object placed on a glass window for
format in order to input them into the scanning.
computer system.

Flatbed scanner

2) Drum scanner: This is one where

Photographs and transparencies are stuck
into a clear cylinder (drum) that is spun at
very high speed during the scanning
operation to produce a very clear image.

21
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Drum scanner

3) Sheet-fed scanner: This allows only paper

to be scanned rather than books or other
thick objects.

4) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition MICR is mainly used in banks to read cheques.

(MICR). This is an input device that identifies Bank cheques have the following information
encoded in magnetic ink:
special ink and characters in a document by
• The cheque number
magnetising the ink and then translates the
• The bank branch number
information into readable characters.
• and The customer’s account number

22
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Magnetic Stripe Reader

• 5) Hand-held scanners, where the device is

moved by hand.

Smart card readers

6) Card reader. This is a data input device that reads

data from a card-shaped storage medium.
Examples of card readers include:
• Memory card readers
• Smart card readers
• Magnetic card readers
• Business card readers

23
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Survey form where OCR is applied

7) Optical Mark Readers (OMR).

This is a technology that scans a printed form

and reads predefined positions and records
where marks are made on the fill-in form
such as registration forms.

Barcode reader

8) Barcode reader (or barcode scanner)

This is an electronic device that uses a laser

beam to scan and read printed barcodes.

The information received by the scanner is

sent to a computer for processing.

24
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Barcodes (optical codes)

• A barcodes are optical machine readable

bars representing data relating to the object
to which the codes are attached

Barcode types
9) Biometric scanner. This a device used to
QR codes (Quick Response Code) identify physical characteristics of parts of the
UPC (Universal Product Code) codes body that uniquely identify an individual
(biometrics).
• Examples of parts of the body to be scanned
include the eye retina, facial features, and
figure prints.

25
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Finger print reader

• The system links the scanned image to the computer • This scans the pattern of ridges on the
database to identify the individual being scanned.
finger and compares them to a set of
• Biometrics are used where proof of identity is
fingerprint patterns stored in computer
required. e.g. to give users access to an account.
• Also used to enhance security e.g. in addition to, or
memory.
instead of identity cards or passports etc.

Iris scanner Image scanner

Finger scanning

26
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

The Audio and Video input

devices

i) Microphones • Microphones may be supplied as

• These are used to input/capture sound into the
independent devices or may be embedded
computer system.
in other systems. e.g. Webcams, laptops,
• They can be used with voice recognition software
and a word processing application to enter text.
smartphones, cellphones and headsets have
built-in microphones.

Sound cards

• This is required in a computer system for

recording voice or music.

• It digitises the information into a form that

the computer can understand.

27
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Sound card/sound adaptor

• The sound card enables input and output of

audio signals to and from a computer
system under control of computer
programs.

MIDI (Musical Instrument MIDI interface

Digital Interface)instruments
• Electronic musical instruments have a
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
port for music input into the computer. The
sounds are digitised and stored as a file, can
A MIDI port on your Music keyboard, computer,

be displayed on screen, edited and played

back, using appropriate software.
USB MIDI Cable Interface Adapter for
Music Electronic Keyboard Piano

USB cable-like MIDI interface

28
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Graphics tablet/Digitiser • It consists of a flat surface upon which the

user may "draw" or trace an image using an
attached stylus, a pen-like drawing
• This is a computer input device that
apparatus. The image does not appear on
enables a user to use a free hand to draw
the tablet itself, but is displayed on the
images, signatures and graphics on the computer monitor.
surface of the digitiser and be translated
into digital format into the computer
system.

Digital cameras

These are devices that capture images and • The resolution of the camera is measured in pixels.
• A Pixel is the smallest discrete component of an
store them as a digital file in memory within
image or picture on a computer screen.
the camera and can be transferred to a
• The larger the number of pixels the camera has, the
computer system for editing. clearer the image and the greater the detail
captured.

29
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Remote control

It inputs commands to an electronic system

by emitting a beam of infra-red data signals
that is converted into an electronic signal on
being received by the electronic device.
Commonly used for input to televisions,
stereo systems, VCRs and DVD players, etc.

Sensors

• Infra red remotes work within a relatively These are devices used to detect events or changes in
the physical environment such as light, heat, chemical
small distance of about 10 metres.
and motion, and convert the information to electrical
• It requires a line of sight to work. signals before passing it to a computer system that
analyses, stores and manipulates it using a control
program.

30
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Data input using Terminals

• A terminal is a device or set of devices used
to input data to, or retrieve information
from a remotely located computer system.

• Terminals can be dumb, smart/intelligent.

Sensor

• A dumb terminal is one that cannot carry out any

Examples of computer terminals include:
processing activity, but it entirely dependent for all its
capabilities on the computer system on which it is 1) Desktop terminals- these are more than
remotely connected.
one terminal that fit and used at the users’
• Usually made up of devices like the keyboard and mouse
for data entry and a monitor to display output only. desktop remotely connecting to a central
• smart terminals are those that may have sufficient computer,
processing capabilities of their own.

31
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

2) The point of sale terminal – This is used at the point of

• Input devices including a keyboard, barcode
sale e.g. at a supermarket to capture sales and inventory
data and send it to the central computer for processing. reader, and card reader.
It constitutes:
i) display devices that show the price, the product
number, and description.
ii) a cash drawer to keep money
iii) a printer to print receipts.

3) Financial transaction terminals – used to

store and retrieve data from a central
computer to perform banking related
functions. e.g. Those used by bank tellers
within banking halls and ATMs.

32
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

4) Portable data terminals (PDT) – these can The computer System Unit
be carried around by users but remotely
connect to a central computer via a wireless
This is a collection of many electronic
transmission facility used to effect payment
components that collectively process data.
of bills to service providers and other
The system unit is normally housed in a
electronic fund transfers.
rectangular box (chassis)

The chassis that houses the System unit components Uses of the Chassis (system
casing)
• It protects the internal parts of the system unit
against direct dust, water, and other falling
objects.
• It provides attachments for holding different
units together,
• It houses the different components as a single
component.

33
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Components of the system

unit
• It facilitates easy movement of the system • The motherboard
• Central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor
unit.
• Upgrade sockets, and expansion slots
• It provides protection for the user against • Random access memory chips (RAM), connectors
electrical signals. • Drives, e.g. floppy, CD/DVD, and Hard disk drives
• The power supply Unit
• Sound adaptor

• Ports through which peripheral devices are

connected.

34
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Main parts of a system Unit

Power supply unit (PSU)

This is the shielded metal box fixed within the

computer chassis that receives power from
the AC mains and transforms it to DC power
used by the components of the system unit.

35
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

The Uses of the power

supply unit
• It coverts AC from the mains to DC used by the system.
• It receives and distributes power to the different system
parts in the required voltage.
• It can be used to alternate electricity according to the
regional voltage settings i.e. between 110 and 240 volts.
• Some have a fuse for protecting the system.

Computer Disk Drives

These are hardware used to read and write

information on a storage Disk.
FLOPPY DRIVE
Examples of disk Drives include: CD/DVD DRIVE
• Optical disk drives including CD/DVD drives
• Hard disk drives
• Floppy disk drives
• Zip drives, Flash Disk Drives

HARD DISK DRIVE

36
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Disk drive access time Bays

This is the time the device takes to locate a These are open areas inside the system unit casing
set a side to firmly hold additional equipment
single piece of information on a disk and
installed inside it.
makes it available to the CPU for processing.
e.g.
CD/DVD bays,
Floppy disk bay,
and hard disk bay.

The Motherboard (main

board or system board)
This is the main circuit board of a computer
on which metallic circuits are printed, with
sockets, slots and ports that hold all other
system unit components together for the
computer to work as a single unit to process
data.

37
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Connectors and slots on Motherboard

Functions of a motherboard

• It is an integration of circuits that enables flow of data

from one component to another.
• It has expansion slots that enable installation of adaptors
to increase the usability of the computer.
• It has ports that provide the interface to connect
peripherals to the system.
• It has sockets on which other devices like the CPU are
connected

38
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Computer Bus Functions of Buses in

Computers
• Data sharing - transfer of data.
A bus is a set of signal pathways that allow
• Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the
information to travel between components processor. This allows data to be sent to or from specific
memory locations.
inside or outside of a computer.
• A bus supplies power to various peripherals that are connected
to it.
• Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronise
the peripherals attached to it with the rest of the system.

Types of Bus

Broadly, there are two types of computer bus:

1. System bus (also called local bus)

2. I/O bus (also called expansion or external

buses)

39
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

The system bus

• This is an internal path between the The system bus, is a combination of three
computer’s Central Processing Unit (CPU) separate kinds of buses: the data bus, the
and main memory, Its speed and width address bus, and the control bus.
depends on the type of CPU installed on the
system board

Control bus + Address bus + Data bus = System Bus

The Data bus

This carries the data to and from memory

and between the microprocessor(CPU) and
input/output controllers.
I/O controller is an interface that manages
data entering and leaving the CPU to and
from I/O

40
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

The address bus

• The size of the data bus determines the This is used by the CPU to transmit data to or
amount of data that can be transmitted from internal memory locations.

simultaneously. The wider the data bus the Each line carries one bit so the number of
more the amount of data it transmits. lines (wires) in the address bus determines
the amount of primary memory that can be
directly addressed

The control bus External bus

• This is the pathway for control signals External bus (or Expansion bus (I/O buses)
generated by the control unit of the CPU to allows the CPU to indirectly communicate
the appropriate computer system with other devices of the computer system
components e.g. From the CPU to hard disk. via the I/O controller.

41
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

I/O busses connect the CPU to all other

components, except RAM. Data is moved on
the busses between components, and from
components to the CPU.

Types of Expansion Buses Common expansion buses

(I/O buses)
• ISA - Industry Standard Architecture
They are categorised by make, connector
• EISA - Extended Industry Standard Architecture
size and word size (data width), and bus • MCA - Micro Channel Architecture
• VESA - Video Electronics Standards Association
speed.
• PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect
• PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also
called PC bus)
• AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port
• SCSI - Small Computer Systems Interface

42
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

1. PCI:

• Introduced by Intel in 1992, it is a 32-bit or

64-bit expansion bus.

PCI slot

PCI card

2. PCI Express. A high speed serial I/O 3. AGP:

interconnect standard being used for high This is a 32-bit bus or 64-bit bus used only
speed connection. for video or graphics environment with a
direct line to the computers memory to hold
3-D images.

PCI-e Card

43
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

AGP slot
4. PCMCIA or PC Card

(Personal Computer memory card

international association) is a type of bus use
for laptops. These cards are slid in the in a PC
AGP CARD
card slot of a laptop.

Expansion cards(adapter Cards(adaptors)

cards)
• These are printed circuit boards that can be inserted into an
expansion slot of a computer motherboard to add functionality
to the computer system via the expansion bus.
• Examples of cards:
• Network
• Video
• TV
• Sound

44
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Sound Card

Memory chip

This holds programs and data either

temporarily or permanently.

45
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

BIOS chip (ROM BIOS) ROMBIOS chip

• BIOS stands for Basic Input/output System.

• It houses the built-in non-volatile BIOS

software. This ensures that the BIOS will
always be available and will not be
damaged by disk failures.

Flash BIOS chips

• BIOS software has the computer start-up • BIOS that have been recorded on a flash
information which is the first code run by a memory chip, which can be updated
PC when powered on (boot firmware). enabling BIOS upgrade if necessary.

• When the PC starts up, BIOS does the

power-on self-test.

46
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

CMOS memory chip

• CMOS stands for Complementary Metal Oxide

• All PCs have a CMOS chip, which is used to
Semiconductor.
• It is a small amount of memory on a CMOS chip on the
save the hardware settings while the
computer motherboard that stores the computer computer is switched off.
configuration settings of a computer, e.g. Language,
date and time, boot sequence, and installed storage
devices.
•

CMOS CHIP
CMOS battery

• The CMOS chip is supported by a CMOS

battery, allowing it to store these settings
without main power.

47
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

CMOS Configuration

• CMOS settings are configured through the

computer's hardware set-up utility known as
CMOS set-up that resides in the ROMBIOS
chip.

System information

• The CMOS setup utility is composed of five

major sections that are accessed using menus
often organized as follows:

• Standard CMOS Setup: In this menu, you can

set system time, date, hard disk drive type,
video settings (such as EGA, VGA, and so on).

48
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

CMOS setup utility interface

• Power Management: You change power

saver settings in this menu. These settings
may be particularly important if the PC is a
laptop to control battery consumption.
• Boot Options: used to set up the desired
boot sequence.

Boot sequence Advanced BIOS features

49
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Standard CMOS features PROCESSING DEVICES

The CPU Chip
This is a device on a computer system that does all
the processing of data into information.
It is commonly referred to as the “Brain” of the
computer because it does all the processing activity in
the computer system that involves receiving, and
decodes (interpreting) instructions from memory and
executes them by performing the basic arithmetic and
logic operations.

• The CPU is housed in a single silicon chip

called a microprocessor.

• The Intel 4004 was the first

microprocessor(1971)

50
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

CPU manufacturers CPU types and generations

The major CPU manufacturers are: • CPU type is described based on some of the

Intel Corporation, Advanced Micro Devices following: manufacturer, family name, code

(AMD), ARM, Motorola Corporation and IBM. name and processor generation.

Older CPUs System bus System Bus

width speed
8088 8 bit 4.77 MHz
- Intel 4004
-Intel 8085, 8086
8086 16 Bit 8 MHz
-Intel Pentium I, II, III, and 4. (Double layer)
-Intel Celeron – Single layer, Heats up very fast, and they are cheaper if
80286 – 12 16 Bit 12 MHz compared to double layer processor chips.
-Pentium Dual-Core
80386S X – 16 16 Bit 16 MHz I core
-Cyrix

80386DX – 25 32 Bit 25 MHz -Motorola 68040, 68030

51
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

An Intel 80486DX2 from below An Intel 80486DX2 CPU from above

A computer can have more than one CPU,

this is what is known as Multi-processing
Some circuits can contain more than one
CPU, this is what is known as Multi-core
processor such as Dual core, Intel core i3, i5, CPU Socket

i7

The key parts of the CPU

• These include:

1) The control Unit

2) The Arithmetic Logic Unit

3) The Registers

52
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

The control unit:

1. Controls all activities within the CPU
2. It controls the flow of data within and outside
the CPU.
3. It fetches data from memory
4. It interprets the commands given by users.

Input Output The ALU (Arithmetic logic

Devices Devices
Unit)
• This is does the actual processing of data
takes place.
• The ALU has two parts:
1. Arithmetic unit: where arithmetic
calculations take place
2. Logic unit: this makes decisions

53
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Registers

1. The registers. This is the immediate access • Registers have a specific storage capacity
store that holds data and programs based on computer bus size, for example, a
needed by the CPU during processing to 32- bit computer has a register of 32 bits in
avoid wasting time fetching the data from length.
RAM

Types of Registers

The number and type of registers in a CPU (2) Instruction registers or current instruction register
(CIR). This stores the instruction currently being
vary according to the CPU design The most
executed by the CPU which are being executed.
commonly used registers are:
(3) The memory data register (MDR).
(1) Program counter (PC). This stores the
This holds data that has just been read from or about
memory location of the next instruction that to be written to main memory.
will be needed by the CPU.

54
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

CPU Cache

(4) Memory buffer registers (MBR). The data • A CPU cache is a smaller, fast memory which
read from the memory location is stored in stores copies of the data frequently used
these registers. from main memory locations to save time
the CPU would take to access data from the
main memory.

• This memory is integrated directly with the • This enables the CPU to bypass the system
CPU chip or placed on a separate chip that bus during data transfer so as to increase
has a separate bus interconnect with the the CPU’s overall access speed. The CPU can
CPU. access cache much more quickly than RAM.

55
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

System clock

This is the internal clock that generates a signal • The unit of measure of the clock speed
to match and set the speed of all operations of (clock rate) is hertz. E.g. megahertz (MHz,
the CPU and the movement of data around the millions of cycles per second) or gigahertz
other components of the computer. (GHz, 1000 million cycles per second).
Each phase in the processing cycle takes one
pulse of the clock to be executed.

The machine cycle The machine cycle

• The machine cycle is the four stage sequence

of Fetch, decode, Execute and store carried out
by the CPU by which it retrieves a program
instruction from memory, determines what
actions the instruction requires, and carrying
out those actions and storing the results.

56
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Fetch

• Fetch is the process done by the Control unit

of obtaining the next program instruction from
memory.

• Before the CPU can execute an instruction, the

control unit must retrieve (fetch) a command
or data from the computer’s memory.

Two types of Data

• The CPU receives at least two types of data:

1. The Instructions on how to handle the
other data (e.g. to save or to print).
2. Data, which must handled according to
the instructions (e.g. a document for
printing or to save or format).

57
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Decode Execute

• Decode means translating the program • This is the stage where the CPU carries out
instructions into commands that the arithmetic, comparison and logical
computer can process. operations. Execute is the actual processing
• The Control Unit of CPU then passes the of the computer commands.
decoded instructions to the ALU to perform
mathematical or logic functions on them.

Store/Writeback The factors that influence the

processing speed of a CPU

• Storing/write back to memory is writing

1. RAM size
data to memory such as the internal CPU
2. Cache memory size(high-speed memory that holds
register for quick access by subsequent the most recent data and instructions that have been
loaded by the CPU).
instructions.
3. The number of CPU cores on the processor. the more
the number, the more powerful because the computer
can execute more instructions at a time.

58
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

5. Clock rate (clock cycles or clock speed). 6. Word size/Bus capacity.

This is the frequency at which the processor The word size is the number of bits that the CPU
can process at a time measured in bits; e.g, 32-
executes instructions or processes
bit or 64-bit word sizes. A CPU with 32-bit word
data(completes a processing cycle). size can manipulate 32 bits at a time. The
higher the word size, the more data a computer
can process at a given time.

Cooling the Processor

• 7. The size and number of registers. The • Due to its processing activity, The processor
produces heat, and, if it gets overheated, it can
larger the register, the greater the
become damaged and unstable.
processing power
• Devices that are used to keep a system cool
include CPU fans, case fans, coolers, heat
sinks,liquid cooling systems, and dust-
preventing tools.

59
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

• The Heat sink is made of aluminum or

copper which are good conductors of heat
sits on top of the processor to suck heat
away from the processor, while a fan on top
of the heat sink sits on top of the processor
blows the heat away.

Types of computer
processing
Computer system collect and process data in
a number of ways including batch, online,
multiprocessing and other processing
systems

60
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Multiprocessing/parallel
processing

Multiprocessing is the simultaneous

execution of data using two or more central
processing units (CPUs) within a single
computer system.
MotherboardThis motherboard for a server
has two processor sockets, which allow for
a multiprocessor platform

Pipelining (pipeline processing) Real time/reactive processing

• This is a computer processing technique This is where there is no delay between the
where the CPU is able to execute more than input and output operations. Data processing
appears to take place, or actually takes place
one instruction at a time by beginning to
immediately upon data entry or receipt of a
execute another instruction before the command.
first/preceding instruction has been The user and data must be handled online.
completed. This increases processing speed

61
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

• There is no processing lags caused by the • Examples of real-time processing systems

system include those in anti-missile defense

• The system is immediately updated systems, electronic fund transfer systems,

• Usually expensive to acquire and maintain. ATM transactions, Traffic control, Heart rate
monitoring, Computer games, Controlling
Robots etc.

Batch processing

This is where data are collected in a bunch Once a batch job starts, it continues until it is
and accumulated before processing it all at done or until an error occurs. There is no
once at a later time when it is necessary or interaction with the user while the program is
efficient to do so. being run.

62
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Advantages of batch processing

over real-time processing
batch processing is usually done where: • It is usually done during less busy times, when
i) There is large amount of data to be processed. computer resources are less needed.
ii) The output is not urgently needed. • Jobs are queued in order to share computer
iii) Where there is no need of human interruptions resources fairly.
during processing.
• Repetitive jobs are done quickly due to
iv) Where processing is periodical or repetitive. e.g. absence of interruptions once batch processing
salaries or monthly bills.
starts.

• There is no need of special hardware to • It is not possible to correct errors during the
support data input. processing.
• Batch processing can take place off-line • Sorting data is time consuming.
which reduces cost.
• Can easily and quickly handle large amount
of data processing at lower processing cost.

63
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Multitasking/Multiprogrammin
g
The apparent simultaneous performance of • An example of multi-tasking is typing in a
two or more tasks by a computer's central word processor while at the same time
processing unit. listening to music played from a CD-ROM.

A multi-tasking system handles a number of • Both batch and interactive jobs may be run
different jobs at the same time. in a multi-tasking environment.

Multitasking
Time-sharing processing
(multi-user processing)
This is the processing method where users
share time on the same computer. the CPU
allocates slices of time to the different users
on the computer system, who independently
run different or the same programs.

64
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Interactive processing

• It provides many users the opportunity to • Interactive processing is one that involves a two-way
communication between the user and computer system,
use the system. involving continual exchange of responses between the
• All users get the equal amount of computer and the user during processing.
• Examples include electronic fund transfer systems,
processing time.
tickets reservation systems, and point-of-sales systems.
• It is possible to interact with the running
program.

On-line transaction processing Centralised processing

(OLTP)
On-line processing uses a terminal (input) This is where all data processing operations
that is remote from the CPU. The user is are executed by the central computer and the
linked directly to a computer for the purpose access to the central computer is via dumb
of data input or receiving output. terminals from which the user sends input
and receives output

65
S2 - Computer Hardware Notes 22 Mar, 2020

Computer Cables and

Distributed processing Connectors
This is processing of data carried out by more • A cable is one or more wires covered in a
than one computer where the system consists of plastic covering that connects a computer
independent computers installed at different to a power source or to another device.
sites, and inter-connected by transmission
• There are two main types of computer
facilities (network), each of the computers
cables: a data cable and a power cable.
performing independent data processing.

66