Chapter 10: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
➢ Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and inherited variation.
10.1: Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes
➢ Genetics: the study of heredity and inherited variation.
➢ Heredity: is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
➢ Meiosis: a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original
amount of genetic information.
➢ Fertilization: is the joining of the egg and sperm.
➢ Physical traits from parents come from both parents through the chromosomes
passed onto their child.
Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
➢ There is only one parent and ➢ There are two parents and there
passes copies of all of their are unique combinations of
genes to their offspring without genes,
the fusion of gametes ➢ There are genetic variations (not
(reproductive cells (egg and clones) between parents and
sperm)). siblings (There is family
➢ Is like a clone → genetically resemblance but not the same).
identical.
10.2: Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
➢ A karyotype is when chromosomes are arranged in pairs from the longest to the
shortest.
○ The first 22 are homologous pairs of chromosomes (aka autosomes) and the
23rd are the sex cells (aka gender finder (XX = girl, XY = boy))
Somatic Cells Gametes
- Make up most of an organism’s - Reproductive organs (sperm
Definition cells. and egg cells)
- Diploid - Haploid
Examples - All cells (autosomes) not sex cells. - Egg and sperm
- Diploid (2 sets of chromosomes - Haploid (1 set of
Chromosome # (2n)) chromosomes (n))
(2n / n) - 1 maternal set - 22 autosomes
- 1 paternal set - 1 sex chromosome (XX / XY)
Results from… - Mitosis - Meiosis
Genetic Diversity - No (need mutations) - Yes
10.3: Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to
haploid
➢ A similarity between mitosis and meiosis is:
○ They both have cell division
➢ 3 differences between mitosis and meiosis are:
○ Mitosis involves the division of body cells,
while meiosis involves the division of sex cells.
○ The division of a cell occurs once in mitosis
but twice in meiosis.
○ Two daughter cells are produced after
mitosis and cytoplasmic division, while four daughter
cells are produced after meiosis.
➢ Phases of Meiosis I (separates homologous
chromosomes)
○ Prophase 1: the chromosomes begin to
condense, but in meiosis I, they also pair up. Each
chromosome carefully aligns with its homolog partner
so that the two match up at corresponding positions
along their full
length (Crossing
over → )
○ Metaphase 1: homolog pairs (not individual chromosomes) line up at the
metaphase plate for separation.
○ Anaphase 1: the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends
of the cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain
attached to one another and don't come apart.
○ Telophase 1 & Cytokinesis: the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell.
In some organisms, the nuclear membrane reforms and the chromosomes
decondense. Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase I, forming
two haploid daughter cells.
➢ Phases of Meiosis II (Separates sister chromatids)
○ Prophase 2: chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down, if
needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them, and the
spindle microtubules begin to capture chromosomes.
○ Metaphase 2: the chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate
○ Anaphase 2: the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite
poles of the cell.
○ Telophase 2 & Cytokinesis: nuclear membranes form around each set of
chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits the
chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products of meiosis: four
haploid cells in which each chromosome has just one chromatid.
Mitosis Meiosis
Purpose? Enables multicellular development - Produces gametes or
- Growth plants.
- Repair - Reduces the number of
- Asexual Reproduction (some) chromosome sets by half
- Introduces genetic
variation
Location? - Everywhere except the reproductive - Reproductive organs
organs. (ovaries / testes in humans)
DNA Replicate? - Interphase before mitosis begins. - Interphase before Meiosis I
begins once.
Homologous - None Meiosis I → crossing over
Chromosomes?
Crossing Over? - None Meiosis I → crossing over
Sister - Yes → all of mitosis - Yes → during all of
Chromatids? meiosis, but it's more
important in Meiosis II.
Tetrads? - None - Yes → Prophase I
Nuclear / - One - Two
Cellular Division?
Comparison - Parent - Parent
- 46 DNA molecules - 46 DNA molecules
- 2 sets of chromosomes - 2 sets of chromosomes
- Diploid - Diploid
- Daughter - Daughter
- 46 DNA molecules - 23 DNA molecules
- 2 sets of chromosomes - 1 set of chromosomes
- Diploid - Haploid
End Result? - Two genetically identical daughter - Four unique gametes the
cells (to each other and the parent); chromosome numbers are
chromosome number preserved. halved.
10.4: Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
➢ Alleles are different versions of genes created by mutations; their reshuffling creates
unique combos of traits for each member of a sexually reproducing species.
- Random orientation of pairs of
homologous chromosomes in Metaphase I.
- This occurs during Metaphase I.
- The maternal and paternal homologs
randomly (and independently) orient
Independent Assortment themselves to one pole; each daughter cell
will either get the parental homolog or
maternal homolog of that particular
chromosome.
- This accounts for around 8.4 million
possible combinations. (n = 23 → 2^n = 2^23
→ 8.4 million)
- Produces recombinant chromosomes;
because DNA is exchanged between
Crossing Over non-homologous chromosomes. A
chromosome has the potential to carry DNA
from both parents.
- In meiosis this occurs during Prophase I.
- Recombinant chromosomes are individual
chromosomes that have genes from both
parents to increase allele diversity.
- 1-3 crossovers can one pair of
homologous chromosomes have?
- The random chance a sperm gets to
Random Fertilization fertilize an egg.
- This accounts for about 70 trillion diploid
combinations.
Chapter 11: Mendel and the Gene Idea
11.1: Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
➢ Character: is a heritable feature that varies among individuals (ex. Flower color)
➢ Trait: each variant for a color (ex. Purple or white flowers)
➢ Gene: a specific portion of a chromosome that codes for a trait (ex. Gene for flower
color)
➢ Allele: a version of a gene (usually 2+ exist) (ex. An allele that codes for purple flowers)
➢ Dominant Allele: the allele that affects an organism’s appearance
➢ Recessive Allele: the allele that does not affect an organism’s appearance; it's “hidden”
by the dominant allele.
➢ Homozygous: the inherited alleles are identical to each other (AA or aa)
➢ Heterozygous: the inherited alleles are different (Aa)
➢ Genotype: an organism’s genetic makeup; useful for
distinguishing homozygous dominant and
heterozygous organisms.
➢ Phenotype: an organism’s observable traits.
➢ Mendel discovered a 3:1 ratio of purple to white
flowers; (1) alternative versions of genes account for
variations in inherited characters (2) for each
character, an individual inherits two alleles, one from
each parent (3) if the alleles are different, the
dominant one determines the organism’s
appearance (4) the two alleles separate during
gametogenic and end up in different gametes.
➢ The law of segregation is a summary of random
assortment and crossing over; it explains why each gamete is unique and how sexual
organisms increase genetic diversity in their population; this explains why recessive
traits skip generations.
➢ A test cross is when breeding an organism with an unknown genotype with a recessive
homozygote.
➢ Independent assortment is when alleles of genes on different chromosomes get
sorted into gametes independently of one another during metaphase II; increases
genetic diversity and allows us to track how two or more traits interact.
11.2: Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance
➢ The multiplication rule is the probability that two or more independent events occur
together is equal to the product of their individual probabilities. (ex. P(A) * P(B) = P (A U
B)
➢ The addition rule is the probability of a mutually exclusive event occurring among
many is the sum of each of the probabilities. (ex. P(A) + P(B) = P (A n B))
11.3: Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple
Mendelian genetics
➢ Complete Dominance is when one allele completely hides the other effects.
➢ Incomplete dominance is when neither allele can be completely dominant.
➢ Co-Dominance is when neither allele can be completely dominant
➢ Multiple Alleles is when genes have more than two versions of a trait.
➢ Pleiotropy is when genes have systemic effects on an organic,
➢ Epistasis is when the phenotype of one gene impacts another gene’s expression.
➢ Polygenic Inheritance is when multiple genes create one unique phenotype.
➢ Multifactorial is when phenotypes depend on environmental factors on top of
genotypes.
11.4: Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance
➢ A pedigree is created by collecting info about a family trait throughout their family
members.
➢ In recessive inherited alleles, the heterozygotes (Aa) typically have the normal
phenotype because one copy of the normal allele (A) produces a plentiful amount of
the specific protein. → A recessively inherited disorder shows up only in the
homozygous people (aa) who inherit a recessive allele from each parent. → Each child
has 1/4 (25%) of being homozygous recessive (when crossing like Aa x Aa). Albinism is
an example.
➢ In dominantly inherited alleles, the individuals inherit two versions of each gene,
known as alleles, from each parent. In the case of a dominant trait, only one copy of
the dominant allele is required to express the trait. The effect of the other allele (the
recessive allele) is masked by the dominant allele. → Huntington’s Disease is an
example.
Chapter 12: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
12.4: Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic
disorders
➢ A large-scale chromosomal changes can affect an organism’s phenotype by
○ Spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) of the zygote
○ Various developmental disorders in surviving offspring
○ Plants tend to tolerate changes better than animals do.
➢ Nondisjunction is when a pair of homologous chromosomes don’t properly separate
in Meiosis I. A pair of sister chromatids don’t properly separate in Meiosis II. One
gamete has too much DNA, the other has too little.
➢ An aneuploidy is an abnormal gamete that can connect with a normal one which
creates a zygote with an abnormal number of chromosomes.
➢ Monosomy is when there is a missing chromosome.
➢ Trisomy is when there are three copies of a chromosome → additional one.
➢ A karyotype is an ordered diagram of a person’s genome. Trisomy or monosomy
easily show up on a karyotype, so aneuploidy is easily identifiable.
➢ Aneuploidy in sex chromosomes.
○ XXY → sterile males with some breast enlargement.
○ XYY → normal
○ XXX → trisomy X; might be taller than average or have learning disabilities are
fertile females
○ XO → only human monosomy.
➢ Deletion is the removal of one or more genes in a chromosome (ex. Cri -du-chat)
➢ Duplication is when a second copy of a gene is present. Duplicates might not be
identical but 2 different alleles.
➢ Inversion is a chromosomal fragment attached in the reversed orientation (ex.
Hemophilia).
➢ Translocation is when the fragment from another, nonhomologous chromosome joins
the party (ex. Schizophrenia and Down Syndrome).
12.1: Morgan and the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
➢ The chromosome theory of inheritance is when mendelian genes have specific loci on
chromosomes; the chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment.
12.2: Sex-Linked Genes Exhibit Unique Patterns of Inheritance
➢ In mammals, the X and Y chromosomes (sex chromosomes) are not homologous in
certain sections. Their pairing allows for males to develop.
➢ Biological sex in mammals is determined by the sex determining region of the Y (SRY)
gene which triggers testicular development. If there is no SRY gene, there is the
development of the ovaries.
➢ Mother's pass the x-linked traits to both males and females. While fathers only pass
the x-linked traits to their daughters (not sons).
➢ Autosomal traits are more common in males than females because any male that
inherits a recessive x-linked allele from his mom will have the disorder; the females will
be carriers.
➢ X-Inactivation is when one X chromosome in females means that the protein dosages
are the same and at healthy levels.
➢ A Barr Body is a tightly condensed x-chromosome incapable of replicating.
➢X-Inactivation can result in mosaicism when each cell picks a different X chromosome
to create a Barr Body; females have a mosaic of two different types of cells: parental
X chromosome activated cells and maternal X chromosome activated cells. This
mosaicism results in patchy coloration of the tortoiseshell cats.
12.3: Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located
near each other on the same chromosome
➢Linked genes are genes that are located ON THE SAME CHROMOSOME and tend to be
inherited together.
➢ Recombination in Unlinked Genes
○ Offsprings that have new combos of the seed shape and color are called
recombinant types.
○ When 50% of all offsprings are recombinants, there is a 50% chance of
recombination.
○ The physical basis of recombination between unlinked genes is the random
orientation of homologous chromosomes at metaphase I of meiosis, which
leads to the independent assortment of the two unlinked genes.
➢ Recombination in Linked Genes
○ That suggested that the two genes were on the same chromosome, since the
occurrence of parental types with a frequency greater than 50% indicates that
the genes are linked. About 17% of offspring were recombinants.
○ Crossing over accounts for the recombination of linked genes. → In crossing
over, which occurs while replicated homologous chromosomes are paired
during prophase of meiosis I, a set of proteins orchestrates an exchange of
corresponding segments of one maternal and one paternal chromatid. In effect,
when a single crossover occurs, end portions of two nonsister chromatids trade
places.
