Module – 3: Electronics and Sensor-less Control in EV

EV considerations: Electric propulsion (the force which drives or moves vehicles) the
systems are at the heart of EVs and HEVs which consists of electric motors, power converters,
and electronic controllers as shown below:

Electric Motor: It converts the electric energy into mechanical energy to propel the vehicle, or
vice versa, to enable regenerative braking and/or to generate electricity for charging the on-
board energy storage.
Power Converter: It is used to supply the electric motor with proper voltage and current.
Electronic Controller: It commands the power converter by providing control signals to it,
and then it controls the operation of the electric motor to produce proper torque and speed,
according to the command from the driver. It has following three functional units
a) Sensor,
b) Interface circuitry and
c) Processor.
The sensor is used to translate the measurable quantities, such as current, voltage,
temperature, speed, torque, and flux, into electric signals through the interface circuitry. These
signals are conditioned to the appropriate level before being fed into the processor. The
processor output signals are usually amplified via the interface circuitry to drive power
semiconductor devices of the power converter.

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Basic Electronic Devices: Power electronics deals with the conversion and control of electric
power using electric converters based on the switch of semiconductors. The power converter
has four major categories:
1) DC/DC converters – linear regulators and switching choppers
2) AC/DC converters – rectifiers that transform AC to DC with adjustment of voltage and
current
3) DC/AC converters – inverters that produce AC of controllable magnitude and
frequency
4) AC/AC converters – AC frequency, phase, magnitude, and power converters, both with
and without an intermediary DC link.
Various power semiconductor devices in EVs are Diodes, Thyristors, BJTs, MOSFETs, IGBTs
a) Diodes : These are used as simple switches which permit the flow of current in one
direction. Power diodes possess greater power, voltage, and current handling capabilities.
They are extensively employed in power electronic circuits for including rectification,
voltage regulation, and safeguarding.

The representation of diode and its characteristics is shown above. The current ratings of 1A to
100 A, and voltage ratings of 50 V to 3000 V are employed in EVs. These diodes have higher
efficiency due to their lower reverse recovery time, which allows them to save energy and
minimize power dissipation during transition from one state to other.

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b) Thyristors : A Thyristor SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is a semiconductor device that
has three terminals and four alternating layers of p-type and n-type materials arranged in a
p-n-p-n configuration as shown below. The anode should be connected to the outermost p-
type layer, the cathode to the outermost n-type layer, and the gate to the inner p-type layer.
The V-I characteristics of SCR is shown below:

Thyristors possess distinct characteristics like ability to block high voltage, carry high current,
and exhibit low conduction losses, rendering them appropriate for high-power applications.
Also, thyristors are known for their superior reliability, durability, and cost-effectiveness in
comparison to other power electronic devices.
Thyristors are used in several electrical applications like :
i) AC power control: Regulating power in heating, lighting, and motor control systems.
ii) Thyristor-based inverters are commonly employed in various applications, including
motor drives and renewable energy systems, to convert DC power into AC power.
c) Power BJT : It is always operated between cutoff and saturation region. A bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor device that consists of three layers and three terminals,
with alternating p-type and n-type layers as shown below.

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Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) exhibit three distinct modes of operation, namely cut-off,
active, and saturation, which are determined by the biasing conditions of the junctions.

In the cut-off mode, both the collector-base junction (CBJ) and base-emitter junction
(BEJ) are reverse-biased, resulting in the BJT being turned off.

In the active mode, the BEJ is forward-biased while the CBJ is reverse biased, causing
the BJT to function as an amplifier, with the base current being amplified and the collector-
emitter voltage decreasing as the base current increases.

In the saturation mode, both the BEJ and CBJ are forward-biased, leading to the BJT
acting as a closed switch, with the base current being sufficiently high to cause the collector-
emitter voltage to be low.

The internal capacitances of BJTs cause a delay in the immediate turn-on of the transistor upon
application of the base voltage. This delay time is dependent on the time taken for the BEJ to
become forward-biased due to its capacitance, while the rise time is determined by the time

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taken for the collector current to reach its steady-state value. Similarly, the turn-off time is
determined by the reverse-biased BEJ capacitance. These factors are critical as they determine
the switching losses. To ensure optimal operation, BJTs should be operated with appropriate
drive circuitry and ample base current to facilitate quick turn-on.

Applications : BJTs are frequently employed in a following multitude of power electronics

applications:

1 Flyback Converters: Flyback converters are devices used for power conversion that facilitate
both AC to DC and DC to DC conversion, while simultaneously providing galvanic isolation
between the input and output.
2 Chopper Drives: Chopper drives can be connected between a DC motor and a fixed-voltage
DC input to vary the armature voltage. By varying the duty cycle through the control of BJTs'
switching, it is possible to regulate the power flow and speed of motors.
3 Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS), inverters, diverse converters such as forward
converters, and audio devices.

d) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) : Power MOSFETs are a
type of voltage-controlled device that operate with less power than current-controlled
devices such as BJTs. These devices are non-latching and require a continuous gate-source
voltage to remain on, similar to BJTs. MOSFETs have exceptional switching speed which
surpasses that of all other power switches and operates in the order of megahertz.
There are two types of MOSFETs: depletion and enhancement. The depletion-type
MOSFET functions as a normally-on electrical switch, while the enhancement-type
MOSFET functions as a normally-off electrical switch.
MOSFETs possess four terminals, namely the source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body
terminals as shown below. The body terminal is frequently linked to the source terminal,
thereby reducing the overall number of available terminals.

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 i) When VGS < VT; VT (Threshold Voltage), the device turns off and operates in the cutoff
region.
ii) When VGS > VT; the device can operate in either linear mode or saturation mode.
In the linear (or ohmic) mode, VDS < VGS – VT, while in the saturation mode, VDS > VGS –
VT.
In the linear mode, the drain current (ID) varies proportionally with the drain-source
voltage (VDS).
Power MOSFETs are commonly used in the linear region for switching applications
due to their low drain voltage and high drain current. Conversely, the drain current
remains almost constant in the saturation mode, regardless of any changes in VDS.
MOSFET Applications are DC-DC Converters, Motor Control using methodologies such as
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), Inverters, Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS),
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), etc
e) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT): Like MOSFET the IGBT is a voltage controlled
voltage with three terminals that combines the characteristics of both Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJTs) and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs).
These characteristics include high input impedance and low on-state conduction losses,
making IGBTs suitable for high-voltage and high-current applications.

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 The configuration of an N-channel insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is shown
above. The metallic connections link the collector, emitter, and gate terminals to the
structure. The IGBTs possess their intended operational traits due to the presence of four
alternating layers (PNPN).
IGBT Operation : IGBT functions in two primary modes, namely forward blocking mode
and conduction mode, which are determined by the relative voltages of the collector,
emitter, and ground.
When the gate and emitter are at ground potential, and the collector has a positive
voltage, J1, and J3 become forward biased, while J2 is reverse biased, thereby placing the
IGBT in forward blocking mode, which prevents the flow of current.
Conversely, when the gate and collector have a positive voltage, and the emitter is
grounded, the voltage applied to the gate causes an inversion effect, which creates a channel
by connecting the n+ and n- materials near the gate. This results in the electrons in the n+
region being pushed toward the center of the n- region, also known as the drift region,
thereby lowering the potential at junction J1 and causing the holes to flow into the central n-
region. This ultimately leads to plasma of holes, which forward biases the device and allows
for the conduction of current.

The transfer characteristics of an IGBT, is shown above. The flow of collector current
necessitates a minimum threshold voltage, VTH, between the gate and emitter. The IGBT
remains in the off-state when the gate-emitter potential is below the threshold voltage.
Conversely, when the gate voltage exceeds the threshold voltage, the transfer curve displays
linearity across a significant portion of the drain current.
The output characteristics of an IGBT are shown above. While the output characteristics of a
MOSFET are comparable to those of a BJT, the controlling variable for an IGBT is VCE, as it is a
voltage-controlled device. The concept of turn-on and turn-off times also applies to IGBTs,
similar to MOSFETs.

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IGBT Applications: IGBTs are employed in a diverse range of high-power applications.
i) Motor drives for regulation and control of electric motor speed across a wide range of
industries, including automotive, aerospace, and consumer appliances.
ii) Power supplies for high-voltage and high-current applications, including welding
equipment, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and high-power DC-DC converters.
iii) Renewable energy systems like solar and wind power systems, inverters utilize
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) to convert the fluctuating DC power
generated by solar panels or wind turbines into AC power.
iv) Electric vehicles for traction inverters of electric vehicles (EVs) to regulate the power
supplied to the motors that propel the vehicle. The high voltage and current ratings of
IGBTs enable them to effectively manage the high-power demands of electric vehicle
propulsion systems. Additionally, their rapid switching speeds and minimal on-state
voltage drop contribute to enhanced efficiency and decreased heat generation, which
are critical factors in extending the driving range and battery life of electric vehicles.
v) Power grid equipment like High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems
and Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), Voltage Source Converters (VSCs),
Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOMs), Static VAR Compensators (SVCs)to
regulate the flow of reactive power in the grid with high precision and speed. This
results in improved power quality, stability, and reliability

IGBT comparison table[6]

Device
Power BJT Power MOSFET IGBT
Characteristics
Voltage rating High <1 kV High <1 kV Very high >1 kV
Current rating High <500 A Low <200 A High >500 A
Current ratio Voltage Voltage
Input drive
hFE ~ 20–200 VGS ~ 3–10 V VGE ~ 4–8 V
Input impedance Low High High
Output
Low Medium Low
impedance
Switching speed Slow (μs) Fast (ns) Medium
Cost Low Medium High

Difference between Thyristor and IGBT[7]

Aspect Thyristor IGBT
A four-layer semiconductor An insulated-gate bipolar transistor
Definition device with a P-N-P-N combining features from bipolar
structure transistors and MOSFETs
Terminals Anode, cathode, gate Emitter, Collector, Gate

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 Layers Four layers Three layers
Junction PNPN structure NPN(P) structure
Modes of Reverse blocking, forward
ON-state, OFF-state
operation blocking, forward conducting
Coupled transistors
Design structure Combined bipolar and MOSFET features
(PNP and NPN)
Carrier source Two sources of carriers One source of carriers
Turn-on voltage N/A Low gate voltage required
Turn off loss Higher Lower
Operating Suitable for line frequency, Suitable for high frequencies, typically
frequency range typically lower higher
Suitable for high-power
Power range Suitable for medium-power applications
applications
Control
Requires gate current Requires continuous gate voltage
requirements
Value for money Cost-effective Relatively higher cost
Control method Pulse triggering Gate voltage control
Switching speed Slower Faster
Current switching
High Moderate
capability
Control current High current drive Low current drive
Voltage capability High voltage handling Lower voltage handling
Power loss Higher power dissipation Lower power dissipation
Application High voltage, robustness High-speed switching, efficiency

Inverters in Electric Vehicles: There are different types of inverters in EVs that help
convert the DC battery voltage to the AC voltage required for powering devices.
1. Central Inverter : The central inverter is designed specifically for power conversion and
provides energy to the vehicle through DC to AC conversion. It is often used in large vehicles
such as buses and trucks.
2. Distributed Inverter : The distributed inverter is designed for small vehicles and can
convert the battery voltage to the required AC voltage. It is often used in small electric vehicles
such as electric motorcycles and electric bicycles.
3. Enhanced Inverter :Enhanced inverters are suitable for high-power applications and are
typically used in high-speed highways and racing applications that require high power output.
4. Photovoltaic Inverter : The photovoltaic inverter is a type of inverter that converts the
DC electric energy generated by solar panels to AC electric energy for use in the AC power grid.

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Which Inverter is Suitable for Electric Vehicles?
 It is recommended to use a highly efficient AC photovoltaic inverter to improve energy
conversion efficiency and ensure the charging stability and safety of EVs. Moreover, it is
recommended to choose a medium-frequency variable frequency inverter with suitable
power and stable voltage output. This can ensure stable high-quality energy output to
extend the battery life of electric vehicles.
Are Electric Car Inverters Safe?
 Most branded products in the EV inverter market are generally safe and reliable, with high
technical content and advanced safety measures as these inverters undergo mandatory
testing and certification and fully comply with national standards and various technical
specifications to ensure safe and stable use of electric vehicles.
However, due to the safety issues associated with high voltage and high temperature in
EV inverters, it is important for consumers to choose the right electric vehicle inverters.
Low-quality inverters or improper installations can cause issues such as battery overcharge,
shorter battery life, and charger explosions, posing potential risks to vehicle and personal
safety. Therefore, users should pay enough attention to the quality, performance, and
service of different brands of inverters before purchasing and buying from established
channels.

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