An Autonomous Institute

Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi,

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,
Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
Accredited by NBA & NAAC

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE : MVJ18EC652
SUBJECT NAME: SENSORS AND SIGNAL CONDITIONING
LECTURE PRESENTATION MODULE – 5

Sensors based on semiconductor junctions

FACULTY : Prof. Anitta D, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B) status.
Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem whose purpose is to detect
events or changes in its environment and send the information to other electronics, frequently a 
computer processor.

A sensor is always used with other electronics.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps
which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides innumerable applications of which most people are
never aware.

With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have

expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure or flow measurement. 2

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
2
MODULE 1
SYLLABUS
Introduction to sensor bases measurement systems: General concepts and terminology, sensor classification,
primary sensors, material for sensors, microsensor technology, magnetoresistors, light dependent resistors,
resistive hygrometers, resistive gas sensors, liquid conductivity sensors

MODULE 2
Reactance Variation and Electromagnetic Sensors: -Capacitive Sensors, Inductive Sensors, Electromagnetic
Sensors. Signal Conditioning for Reactance Variation Sensors-Problems and Alternatives, ac Bridges Carrier
Amplifiers, Coherent Detection, Specific Signal Conditioners for Capacitive Sensors, Resolver-to-Digital and
Digital to-Resolver Converters.

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
3
MODULE 3
Self-generating Sensors-Thermoelectric sensors, piezoelectric sensors, pyroelectric sensors, photovoltaic sensors,
electrochemical sensors.
MODULE 4
Digital and intelligent sensors-position encoders, resonant sensors, sensors based on quartz resonators, SAW
sensors, Vibrating wire strain gages, vibrating cylinder sensors, Digital flow meters.

MODULE 5
Sensors based on semiconductor junctions - Thermometers based on semiconductor junctions, magneto diodes and
magneto transistors, photodiodes and phototransistors, sensors based on MOSFET transistors, charge- coupled
sensors – types of CCD imaging sensors, ultrasonic-based sensors.

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
4
 MODULE STRUCTURE
• Module 5

• Sensors based on semiconductor junctions –

• Thermometers based on semiconductor junctions,

• magneto diodes and magneto transistors

• photodiodes and phototransistors

• sensors based on MOSFET transistors

• charge- coupled sensors – types of CCD imaging sensors

• ultrasonic-based sensors. 5

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
5
 Text Book
Text Book: “Sensors and Signal Conditioning”, Ramon Pallás Areny, John G. Webster, 2nd edition, John
Wiley and Sons, 2000

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
6
 Bridge Material

• Sensors Basics

• Transducer Basics

• Difference between Sensor and Transducer

• Resistance Temperature Detectors

• Signal Conditioning Circuits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfw_So5cCp4
7

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
7
 COURSE OUTCOME

• After studying this course, students will be able to:

• Appreciate various types of sensors and their construction

• Use sensors specific to the end use application

• Design systems integrated with sensors

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
8
 Sensors based on semiconductor junctions
• Introduction

• Semiconductor junctions are the basis of self-generating sensors such as some photoelectric cells and of
several modulating sensors.

• The latter, however, need a current or voltage bias in order to provide a useful output, in the same way
that modulating sensors based on resistance or reactance variation need voltage or current excitation.

• Sensors based on semiconductor junctions are of twofold interest. First, the large yield of micro
fabrication processes results in very competitive prices for them.

• Second, it is possible to include sensor, signal conditioning, signal processing, and communication circuits
to produce intelligent sensors.

/
An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
9
 Thermometers Based on Semiconductor Junctions
• The forward characteristic for a diode is temperature-dependent, which is usually considered a
shortcoming.
• However, we can use that dependence to measure temperature or any other quantity related to a
change in temperature.
• But this dependence is nonlinear and not repetitive enough for accurate measurements.
• It is therefore better to use the temperature dependence of the base±emitter voltage vBE of a
transistor supplied with a constant collector current.
• According to the Ebers±Moll model, the collector current for an ideal transistor is

10

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
10
 11

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
11
• The product is sometimes designated IS. In the active zone, iC >>IS. If in addition
we make the collector-base voltage zero, from (9.1) we deduce

• which shows that vBE depends on the temperature, but IS is also temperature dependent according
to [2]

• where B is a constant that depends on doping level and on the geometry but does not depend on
the temperature, and Vg0 is the band-gap voltage (1.12 V at 300 K for silicon). By combining
(9.2) and (9.3), we obtain

12

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
12
• If we designate VBE0 the base±emitter voltage corresponding to a constant collector current IC0
at a given temperature T0, then we have

• The relation between vBE and T is therefore nonlinear and depends on the collector current. To
quantify the nonlinearity, we take the derivative with respect to the temperature at a given constant
collector current. For iC =ˆ IC0 we have

• The first term on the right-hand side is the sensitivity, while the second term describes the
nonlinearity. Their respective values for silicon are about -2.2 mV/degreeC and 0.34 mV/degreeC.

13

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
13
 Magnetodiodes and Magnetotransistors
• I-V characteristics for a diode change in a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of travel of
charge carriers because the Lorentz force deviates those carriers from their trajectories.
• If a diode is designed so that the carriers are deviated to a high recombination region, then the I-V
characteristic of the resulting magnetodiode depends on the magnetic field intensity.
• The sensitivity to the magnetic field increases when recombination characteristics for the high and
low recombination regions differ substantially.
• This sensitivity is about ten times higher than that of a silicon Hall-effect device. However,
magnetodiodes need unconventional IC processes that are expensive.
• This same principle can be applied to magneto transistor design, but another structure is preferred,
which consists of a base, an emitter, and two collectors (reference 1, Section 5.4).
• When no magnetic field is present, both collector currents are equal. When a magnetic field is
applied, one collector current increases and the other decreases. The difference between them is a
measure of the applied field intensity.
14

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
14
• An alternative sensor uses a Hall element and two transistors. The Hall element is the base
common to both transistors and has two contacts, one at each base. When a magnetic field
generates a Hall voltage between both contacts,
• the base voltage for one transistor is larger than that for the other, thus resulting in collector
current imbalance, which is a measure of the applied field.
• It is also possible to arrange the Hall element so that it controls the gate voltage of a field-effect
transistor.
• None of these devices has yet found broad commercial use, mostly because of their poor
repeatability, low sensitivity, and offset problems.
• In addition, some of the best devices are incompatible with standard IC processes [4].

15

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
15
Photo diodes & Photo Transistors

16

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3OPpFWco4A8

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
16
 17

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
17
 18

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
18
 19

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
19
• Introduction:
• A photo diode is a PN junction diode that consumes light energy to produce electric current .
• Sometimes it is also called as photo detector, a light detector. And photo sensor.
• These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias condition, it means that the P side of
the photo diode is associated with the negative terminal of the battery and n side is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery.

20

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
20
• What is a Photodiode
• A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or voltage based
on the mode of operation of the device.
• It comprises of optical filters. built-in lenses and also surface areas.
• These diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the photodiode increases.
• Photo diodes are a like to regular semiconductor diodes.

21

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
21
• Types of Photodiode
• The Types of photo can be classified based on as construction and functions as follows.
• PN Photodiode

• Schottky Photo Diode

• PIN Photodiode
• Avalanche Photodiode

22

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
22
• Working of Photodiode
• When a photon of ample energy striks the diode.
• it make the of an electron hole.
• This mechanism is also called as the inner photoelectric effect. if the absorption arises in the
depletion region junction.
• Then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
• The holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent will be generated.
• The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent.

23

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
23
• This increases the width of the depletion region and yields a faster response time and a current
proportional to the radiation intensity.
• Figure 9.3 shows the structure for a photodiode. Because non depleted p and n regions are
conductive, any applied voltage is applied to the depletion region, where it creates an electric field.

24

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
24
• Any incident radiation absorbed produces
electron ± hole pairs, which accumulate in the p
and n regions because of the electric field, thus
resulting in a voltage (photovoltaic effect).
• In order to collect the output current, charges
have to migrate to the diode surface, which
slows the response time.
• This results in a higher recombination
probability, which reduces the responsivity
(sensitivity).

25

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
25
• Figure 9.4 shows the response of a photodiode to a
square pulse of radiation.
• When there is no polarization (0 V), the response is slow
because of the slow charge migration toward the surface.
• But when a small inverse voltage is applied (5 V),
charges generated in the depletion region are quickly
collected and are responsible for the fast initial response.
Charges produced outside the depletion region migrate
very slowly and are responsible for the slow part of the
response.
• For a larger applied voltage (30 V) the depletion region
extends to the entire device depth, which results in a
single fast rising edge.

26

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
26
• A method to increase the sensitivity and spectral bandwidth for photodiodes consists of placing
a region of intrinsic semiconductor between the p and n regions, thus forming a p±i±n diode.
• Then most of the incident photons are absorbed in this intrinsic region where there is a lower
recombination rate.
• The increased separation between doped zones also results in a reduced internal capacitance.
• A bias voltage large enough to bring the photodiode near breakdown yields a chain reaction
termed avalanche multiplication which amplifies the basic photodiode current by up to 100.
• This permits low-light measurement and also high-speed measurement.
• However, avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are so sensitive to tolerances in bias voltage and diode
characteristics that they may need individual circuit adjustment .

27

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
27
• Spectral response for a photodiode depends on the absorption of its window and also on the
detecting material itself.
• Silicon, for example, is transparent to radiation with a wavelength longer than 1100 nm. Hence
this radiation is neither absorbed nor detected.
• Also, very short wavelengths hardly penetrate into the material and are absorbed only in a very
thin surface layer.
• Therefore surface finishing is critical and the p-doped zone is made very thin. There is also a loss
due to the absorption in antireflective coatings, because these improve the response to some
wavelengths but reduce it at those wavelengths where they are somewhat reflective.
• Detector input windows are selected to improve the response to the desired wavelengths in the
intended application.

28

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
28
• Some color sensors use a red, a blue, and a green filter preceding the photodiode.
• The color is determined by measuring the current generated by the light transmitted through each
filter.
• A shortcoming is that filters also attenuate the intensity of light of the desired wavelength.
• An alternative method uses a transparent window and two stacked (back-to-back) p±i±n
photodiodes.
• The photodiodes' spectral response depends on the voltage difference applied to them.
• By sequentially applying three different bias voltages we can detect the intensity of the three basic
colors.

29

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
29
 Figure 9.5 shows the equivalent circuit for a photodiode connected to a load
resistance RL. leakage (iD, dark current) and noise currents …in † have been added.
Table 9.2 gives some specifications for two particular photodiodes. If we neglect
the noise current in Figure 9.5, the output voltage is

30

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
30
 31

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
31
• Figure 9.6 shows the current through the photodiode, as a function of the applied voltage.
• For a given load resistance, from these curves , we can calculate the output voltage.
• Because the sensitivity depends on temperature, to achieve a constant sensitivity the bias voltage
must track changes in temperature.
• As in other electronic devices, noise limits the minimal detectable signal.
• If noise is considered as a signal due to an incident radiation, the power for the radiation necessary
to yield that signal is called noise equivalent power (NEP).
• For a biased diode, the major noise source is the shot current associated with the average
leakage[The leakage current in equipment flows when an unintentional electrical
connection occurs between the ground and an energized part or conductor.] or dark current ID
[Dark current is the relatively small electric current that flows through photosensitive devices
such as a photomultiplier tube, photodiode, or charge-coupled device even when no photons are
entering the device](as low as 100 pA).

32

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
32
 33

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
33
• where q =ˆ 0:169 aC is the electron charge and B the noise bandwidth. If the detector flux
responsivity at the working wavelength is S [A/W], we have

• When the diode is unbiased (photovoltaic mode), the leakage current is very small (a few

• However, the shot noise of these currents do not cancel each other; rather their power (intensity)
adds. The resulting noise is equal to the thermal noise associated with the dynamic resistance Rp,

34

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
34
 Photo Transistors
• INTRODUCTION
• Phototransistor
• The phototransistor is a semiconductor light sensor formed from a basic transistor with a
transparent cover that provides much better sensitivity than a photodiode

• The phototransistor is a transistor in which base current is produced when light strikes the
photosensitive semiconductor base region
• The collector-base P-N junction is exposed to incident light through a lens opening in the
transistor package.
• When there is no incident light, there is only a small thermally generated collector-to-emitter
leakage current i.e. I(CE0), this is called the dark current and is typically in the nA range.

35
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zx4OUXk0LSQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouGbgDxJN4U
An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
35
• Phototransistor structure
• • The photo transistor has much larger base and collector
areas than would be used for a normal transistor. These
devices were generally made using diffusion or ion
implantation.

• • Early photo transistors used germanium or silicon

throughout the device giving a homo-junction structure.
The more modern phototransistors use type Ill-V materials
such as gallium arsenide and the like

36

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
36
 37

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
37
 38

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
38
• • Heterostructures that use different materials either side of
the p-n junction are also popular because they provide a
high conversion efficiency.
• • These are generally fabricated using epitaxial growth of
materials that have matching lattice structures.
• • These photo transistors generally use a mesa structure.

• • Sometimes a Schottky (metal semiconductor) junction can

be used for the collector within a phototransistor, although
this practice is less common these days because other
structures offer better levels of performance.

39

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
39
 Phototransistor operation

• • Photo transistors are operated in their active region

• • For operation the bias conditions are quite simple. The collector of an n-p-n transistor is made
positive with respect to the emitter or negative for a p-n-p transistor.
• • The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it causes hole electron pairs to be
generated. This mainly occurs in the reverse biased base-collector junction.
• The hole-electron pairs move under the influence of the electric field and provide the base current,
causing electrons to be injected into the emitter.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ukDKVHnac4
40

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
40
 Phototransistor characteristics

• The photo transistor has a high level of gain resulting from the transistor action.
• For homo-structures, i.e. ones using the same material throughout the device, this may be of the
order of about 50 up to a few hundred.
• However for the hetero-structure devices, the levels of gain may rise to ten thousand.
• Despite their high level of gain the hetero-structure devices are not widely used because they are
considerably more costly to manufacture.
• The characteristics of the photo-transistor under different light intensities. They are very similar to
the characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor, but with the different levels of base current
replaced by the different levels of light intensity.
• There is a small amount of current that flows in the photo transistor even when no light is present.
This is called the dark current, and represents the small number of carriers that are injected into the
emitter.

41

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
41
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

• • A further advantage of all phototransistors when compared to the avalanche photodiode, another
device that offers gain, is that the phototransistor has a much lower level of noise.
• DISADVANTAGE
• • One of the main disadvantages of the phototransistor is the fact that it does not have a
particularly good high frequency response.
• This arises from the large capacitance associated with the base-collector junction. This junction is
designed to be relatively large to enable it to pick up sufficient quantities of light.
• For a typical homo-structure device the bandwidth may be limited to about 250 kHz.
• Hetero-junction devices have a much higher limit and some can be operated at frequencies as high
as 1 GHz.

42

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
42
Working of MOSFET

43
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stM8dgcY1CA

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
43
 44

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
44
 45

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
45
 46

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
46
 Sensors based on MOSFET transistors
• The drain current ID for an n-channel MOSFET transistor in the linear region

• The corresponding equation when in the saturation region (VGS > VT, VDS > VGS - VT) is

• where beta is the sensitivity parameter determined by the gate's dimensions,

47

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stM8dgcY1CA&t=178s
An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
47
The value of VT ranges from 1 V to 6 V and is given by

Where is the difference in work functions for metal and semiconductor (silicon; the
work function is the minimal energy required to move an electron from the Fermi level to
infinity), is the Fermi level for the substrate (semiconductor), QSS is the surface charge
density, QB is the charge density in the depletion region, and q is the charge of an electron.

48

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
48
• When MOSFET transistors are used as electronic components, we assume that all parameters in
equations (9.26) through (9.29) are constant.
• By so doing, we obtain a well-defined input ± output relationship between VG and ID.
• In sensors, on the contrary, we are interested in detecting quantities that modulate some of these
parameters, thus changing the input ± output relationship.
• Temperature and radiation, for example, affect .However, this fact is common to many
electronic devices, and MOSFET transistors are not frequently used for those applications.
• The important advantage for MOSFET transistors is the dependence between VT and the work
function (or chemical potential) for the metal, . FETs sensitive to chemicals are termed
ChemFETs.

49

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
49
• If the work function of the metal gate is controlled by an external parameter, the MOS transistor
can sense that parameter.
• If, for example, palladium is used as a gate material instead of the normal aluminum, the
palladium adsorbs hydrogen that diffuses into the palladium ± oxide interface and forms a dipole
layer that changes VT.
• Then the threshold voltage gives a measure of hydrogen concentration.
• The device is made to work at high temperature (50 degreeC to 150degreeC) to promote the
palladium catalytic action.
• This method is sensitive to all gases able to dissociate at the palladium surface, such as H2O, H2S,
NH3, and a number of hydrocarbons.
• Other gases can be detected with a porous gate, where pores permit the gas to reach the palladium
± oxide interface.
• These devices are generically named gasFETs (Figure 9.11a).

50

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
50
Electret: A permanently polarized piece of dielectric material, analogous to a permanent magnet.
Electrolyte: An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved
in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which
disperse uniformly through the solvent. Electrically, such a solution is neutral.

51

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
51
• Other MOSFET-based sensors are based on gate modifications in a conventional MOSFET that are
compatible with usual production technologies.
• The simplest modification is just to omit the gate.
• The best-known one consists of interposing a given material between gate and oxide, thus
rendering the transistor sensitive to any measurand resulting in changes in that material.

52

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
52
• An OGFET (open gate FET) is a MOSFET transistor without a gate that is exposed to a gas.
• Drain current is then a function of gas partial pressure. An improved version is the ADFET
(adsorption FET), whose oxide has a thickness smaller than 5 nm (Figure 9.11b). This device
senses the concentration of gases having a permanent dipole moment, such as H2O, NH3, HCl,
CO, NO, NO2, and SO2.
• Its sensitivity is due to the dipolar molecules adsorbed in the oxide layer that create an electric
field that controls the drain current. By chemically etching this layer, it seems possible to achieve a
selective response.
• Other variations on the same device are intended to minimize electric interference due to the lack
of gate electrode (which when present acts as an electric shield).

53

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
53
• If in a conventional MOSFET the gate electrode is separated from the oxide in the vertical
direction, equations (9.26) through (9.29) still are valid, but in (9.28) the equivalent capacitance C
eq must replace the oxide capacitance Cox.
• This device will then detect any measurand that changes C eq. Figure 9.11c shows the diagram for
a pressure sensor based on this principle (PRESS FET), where the pressure applied changes the
separation between electrode and oxide.
• An electrically polarized material (electret) is deposited on the oxide, so it is not necessary to
apply any external voltage.
• An alternative approach is to use a piezoelectric material instead of an electrode and an air
chamber.
• An ISFET (ion-sensitive FET) is a MOSFET transistor that instead of gate electrode has in that
region a chemically selective covering or membrane (Section 6.5).

54

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
54
• ISFETs were first proposed by P. Bergvelt in 1970. When it is immersed into an electrolyte, the
potential in the insulation (oxide) depends on the detected ion concentration.
• That potential depends on the threshold voltage and therefore on the drain current. The reference
metal electrode immersed in the same electrolyte can be considered as the equivalent to the gate
electrode (which is not present in the device).
• This way the ISFET can be considered a MOSFET that has an oxide ± electrolyte system instead
of gate (Figure 9.11d).
• Some problems derive from the poor selectivity and adherence of the membrane, as well as from
the stability and photosensitivity of the gate material.
• The package must allow the contact with the electrolyte but prevent this from entering the
electronic circuits.
• There are commercial ISFETs for pH and glucose, among others. Some biosensors (Section 9.6)
rely on ISFETs.

55

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
55
 Magneto diodes
• Magneto-sensitive diode is a new type of magneto electric conversion device.

• The utility model has the advantages of high detection sensitivity, small size, fast response, no contact, large output
power and good linearity. Should be widely used in magnetic detection, contactless switch, displacement
measurement, speed measurement and various automatic equipment.
 
• ( 1 ) Characteristics and principles of a magneto sensitive diode
• The internal structure of the magneto diode is different from that of the ordinary diode. When the external magnetic
field is absent, the device is stable. If a positive magnetic field is added to the outside, the external resistance
increases, the current decreases, and the pressure drop increases: on the other hand, the external magnetic field is
added, and the external resistance decreases, the current increases, and the pressure drop decreases.

• (2) Parameters of magnetic diode

• The main parameters of the magneto diode are:
• rated working voltage Vo,
• working current Io,
• frequency of use fo. 56

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
56
 Magneto diodes

• I±V characteristics for a diode change in a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of travel
of charge carriers because the Lorentz force deviates those carriers from their trajectories.
• If a diode is designed so that the carriers are deviated to a high recombination region, then the I±V
characteristic of the resulting magnetodiode depends on the magnetic field intensity.
• The sensitivity to the magnetic field increases when recombination characteristics for the high and
low recombination regions differ substantially.
• This sensitivity is about ten times higher than that of a silicon Hall-effect device. However,
magnetodiodes need unconventional IC processes that are expensive.

57

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
57
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-IgMOZLr_s 58

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
58
 59

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
59
• This same principle can be applied to magnetotransistor design, but another structure is preferred,
which consists of a base, an emitter, and two collectors (reference 1, Section 5.4).
• When no magnetic field is present, both collector currents are equal. When a magnetic field is
applied, one collector current increases and the other decreases.
• The difference between them is a measure of the applied field intensity. alternative sensor uses a
Hall element and two transistors.
• The Hall element is the base common to both transistors and has two contacts, one at each base.
• When a magnetic field generates a Hall voltage between both contacts,the base voltage for one
transistor is larger than that for the other, thus resulting in collector current imbalance, which is a
measure of the applied field.
• It is also possible to arrange the Hall element so that it controls the gate voltage of a field-effect
transistor.
• None of these devices has yet found broad commercial use, mostly because of their poor
repeatability, low sensitivity, and offset problems.

60

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
60
CHARGE-COUPLED AND CMOS IMAGE SENSORS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKJFIzDfUNE&t=262s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_djfA0ermCM

61

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
61
 62

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
62
 63

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
63
 64

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
64
 65

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
65
 CMOS IMAGE SENSORS

66

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
66
 67

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
67
• Bell Laboratories patented the charge-coupled device (CCD) in 1970.
• A CCD is a monolithic array of closely spaced MOS capacitors that transfers an analog signal
charge (a ``packet'') from one capacitor to the next, working as an analog shift register.
• The charge is stored and transferred between potential wells at or near an Si±SiO2 interface
(Figure 9.12).
• These wells are formed by MOS capacitors (an array of metal electrodes is deposited on the SiO2)
pulsed by a multiphase clock voltage.
• The charges transferred are electrons or holes, respectively, in n-channel and p-channel devices
and can be introduced either electrically or optically. For optical input the CCD acts as optical
sensor.

68

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
68
• If in Figure 9.12 a positive step voltage is applied to a gate electrode while adjacent electrodes
remain at a lower voltage, a potential-energy well is set up into the p substrate, and charge
(electrons) is stored under that electrode.
• If now one of the adjacent electrodes is biased with a voltage higher than that of the previous
electrode, a deeper potential well is established and the stored charge travels to it along the surface
of the silicon to seek the lowest potential.
• By clocking electrode voltages, we can thus move, in a given direction, the charge initially stored.
However, thermal electron ± hole pairs are being continuously produced, and electrons eventually
fill the well.
• Therefore, a CCD is a dynamic device in which we can store a charge signal only for a time much
shorter than thermal relaxation times for the MOS capacitors. At room temperature, this time is
from 1 s to several minutes, depending on the structure and fabrication processes.

69

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
69
 70

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
70
 Charge
transfer

71

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
71
 72

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
72
 73
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Us5q_CgbV70

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
73
• Depending on how many clock phases a CCD needs, there are two- and three-phase structures.
• A three-phase system is like that in Figure 9.12, where every third electrode is connected to the
same clock voltage, therefore requiring three separate clock signals.
• These signals overlap and exhibit a steep leading edge and a linearly falling edge, which increases
the efficiency in charge transfer.
• The charge stored into the wells under the pi 1 electrodes at t= ˆ t1, not necessarily the same in
each well, spreads out to adjacent wells created under electrodes Pi 2 when a positive voltage step
is applied to these electrodes.
• By t2, the charge has spread out, and then the voltage Pi 1 is linearly reduced so that the

74

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
74
 75

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
75
• potential at the wells under the pi 1 electrodes rises slowly rather than abruptly. This eases the
transfer of charge to the wells under electrodes 2, 5, and others connected to the same clock line.
• By t3 the transfer has been completed. A low voltage at pi 3 during the interval t1 to t3 ensures a
transfer to the right with no charge moving to the left of the wells.
• By repeating the same procedure with pi2 and pi3, we can move the charge another step, and then
another one from pi3 to pi1, and so on.
• By inverting the sequence order, the charge would be moved to the left.
• In a two-phase system, the oxide thickness is stepped, or different n-type conductivity regions are
created (Figure 9.13), so the potential wells beneath each individual electrode are asymmetrical.

76

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
76
 77

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wsdmt0De8Hw
An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
77
• In a CCD image sensor, light from the object illuminates a CCD, either from the electrode or from
the substrate side, and electron±hole pairs are created in the silicon by the photoelectric effect.
(Silicon is sensitive to photons with wavelengths from 300 nm to 1100 nm.)
• By applying the appropriate clock signals, potential wells are created that collect the photon-
generated minority carriers for a time called the optical integration time, while majority carriers
are swept into the substrate.
• The collected charge packets are shifted down the CCD register and converted into voltage or
current at the output terminal.
• The amount of charge accumulated in each well is a linear function of the illumination intensity
and the exposure (or integration) time.
• The output signal charge is a stepped dc voltage that will linearly vary from a thermally generated
background level (noise) at zero illumination (dark condition) to a maximum at saturation under
bright illumination.

78

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
78
• CMOS image sensors also rely on the photoelectric
effect in silicon but do not serially shift charge
packets to the common output amplifier.
• Instead, the charge at each pixel (i.e., picture
element) is directly sensed and the respective
signals are multiplexed toward the signal processing
circuits.
• CMOS image sensors can have passive or active
pixels. Sensors with passive pixels (Figure 9.14a)
date from about 1967.
• Each pixel consists of a photodiode and an access
transistor to the column bus. After photo charge
integration, the array controller turns on the access
transistor to transfer the charge to the capacitance of
the column bus.

79

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
79
 80

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
80
• This bus is connected to a charge-integrating amplifier that senses the voltage and resets the
photodiode.
• The controller then turns off the access transistor. Because each pixel contains only one transistor,
the fill factor is high.
• However, the read noise is high, particularly for far-off pixels that may be unable to charge the
distributed capacitance of the bus under low-level illumination.
• Also, differences in turn-on thresholds for the access transistors yield non uniform response to
identical light levels, thus resulting in fixed-pattern noise (FPN).

81

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
81
• Active-pixel sensors (APSs) include an amplifier in each pixel.
• In active photodiodes (Figure 9.14b) there is a source ± follower transistor that provides current to
charge and discharge the bus capacitance quickly.
• This permits an increased bus length, hence a larger array size. They also include a reset transistor
that controls integration time, hence providing electronic shutter control, and a row-select
transistor to coordinate pixel reading.
• These additional transistors reduce the fill factor and increase FPN because their thresholds are
difficult to match.
• To counter the low fill factor, some CMOS sensors use a microlens for each pixel, but this
increases cost because microlens deposition is not a standard CMOS process.

82

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
82
 Ultrasonic-based sensors
• Ultrasound is a mechanical radiation with a frequency above the human hearing range (about 20
kHz). As for any radiation, when ultrasound strikes an object, part is reflected, part is transmitted,
and part is absorbed (Figure 9.20).
• In addition, when the radiation source moves relative to the reflector, there is a shift in received
frequency (Doppler effect).
• All these properties of radiation object interaction have been applied to the measurement of
several physical quantities using ultrasound.
• The penetration power for ultrasound permits non-invasive applications; that is, there is no need to
install hardware where the changes to be detected occur.
• Non-invasive measurements are of interest in explosive and radioactive environments, in medical
applications and also to prevent contamination of the medium where measurements are performed.
• Non-invasive sensors are generally easier to install and maintain than invasive sensors.

83
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JNQAH3VMFTU

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
83
 84

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
84
 85

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WY6Bj3f6piE
An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
85
 86

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
86
 Fundamentals of Ultrasonic-Based Sensors
• When a deformation is produced at a point inside an elastic medium, the deformation does not
remain restricted to that point; rather it propagates to neighboring points. When the deformation is
due to a vibratory movement, this movement is characterized by its frequency f, amplitude a, and
atomic instantaneous velocity v.
• The velocity for the perturbation to propagate from one point to another, or wave velocity, depends
on the medium but not on the frequency. For gases and liquids, that velocity is given by

• where Km is the bulk modulus of elasticity and r is the density. Because both parameters change
with temperature, c is also temperature-dependent. For a solid, the velocity of longitudinal waves
is

87

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
87
• where E is Young's modulus and n is Poisson's ratio. For air, cA330 m/s; for water, cA1500 m/s;
for steel, cA5900 m/s; for aluminum, cA6320 m/s. The velocity of transverse shear waves is

• Shear wave, transverse wave that occurs in an elastic medium when it is subjected to periodic

shear. Shear is the change of shape, without change of volume, of a layer of the substance,
produced by a pair of equal forces acting in opposite directions along the two faces of the layer.

88

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
88
• As a result of the perturbation, the pressure at a given point is not constant but changes with
respect to an average value.
• The difference between instantaneous and average pressures is named acoustic pressure p.

• When there are no losses in the propagation medium, p and v are in phase, so Z is real. It can be
shown that its value is

89

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
89
• Radiation intensity is defined as its power per unit area

• When the radiation propagates in a homogeneous medium, it attenuates exponentially with the
distance according to

• where I0 is the incident intensity, a is an attenuation coefficient which depends on the medium and
the frequency (increases with frequency), and x is the distance traveled in the medium.
• If the medium is not homogeneous, the acoustic impedance changes from region to region and the
radiation is not only absorbed but also reflected.
• For a plane wave traveling in a direction perpendicular to a plane surface separating two mediums
whose respective acoustic impedances are Z1 and Z2 (Figure 9.20), intensity transmission and
reflection coefficients are
90

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
90
• where Ii, Ir, and It are, respectively, the incident, reflected, and transmitted intensities. Note that
R‡+T ˆ= 1, as expected because at normal incidence the power densities on each side must be equal.
• From (9.39) we deduce that the reflection increases when the difference in impedance between both
mediums increases.
• This hinders noninvasive measurements in gases because of the high contrast in Z between gases
and vessel walls.

• The Doppler effect, discovered by C. Doppler in 1843, is the change in frequency undergone by a
radiation (be it mechanical or electromagnetic) .
• when it is reflected by an object that is moving with respect to the radiation transmitter. If the
reflector moves with velocity v, the change in frequency is 91

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
91
• where fe is the emitted frequency, fr is the received frequency, and a is the relative angle between
reflector velocity and sound propagation directions.

92

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi. Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
92