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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Contents

CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................... 3

INTODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS ........................................................... 3
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 3
2. Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics......................................................................................... 3
3. System of units ........................................................................................................................ 4
4. Properties of Fluids ................................................................................................................. 7
4.1 Mass Density (ρ) ................................................................................................................... 7
4.2Weight Density; Specific Weight (γ) ..................................................................................... 7
4.3 Specific Gravity (r.d.)............................................................................................................ 7
4.4 Specific volume (Ɐ) .............................................................................................................. 8
4.5 Temperature (T) .................................................................................................................... 8
4.6 Pressure (P) ........................................................................................................................... 8
4.7 Surface Tension (σ) ............................................................................................................... 8
4.8 Compressibility (E) ............................................................................................................... 9
4.9Viscosity (µ) ......................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER TWO....................................................................................................................... 14
FLUID STATICS ...................................................................................................................... 14
1. Pressure Distribution in Fluids .............................................................................................. 14
2. Pressure at point (Pascal’s Law) ........................................................................................... 15
3. Pressure Force on a Fluid Element........................................................................................ 17
3.1 Incompressible Fluid ........................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Pressure Measurements ....................................................................................................... 21
4. Manometers. .......................................................................................................................... 23
4.1 Piezometer Tube.................................................................................................................. 23
4.2 The “U”-Tube Manometer .................................................................................................. 24
4.3Manometers to Measure Pressure Difference ...................................................................... 25
5. Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surface. ................................................................................... 27
6. Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surface.................................................................................. 35
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CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................... 38
FLUID DYNAMICS (BASIC EQUATIONS) ......................................................................... 38
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 38
2. Types of flow ........................................................................................................................ 38
3. Flow (Discharge) ................................................................................................................... 39
3.1 Mass flow rate ..................................................................................................................... 39
3.2 Volume flow rate - Discharge. ............................................................................................ 39
3.3 Discharge and velocity ........................................................................................................ 39
4. Basic equations...................................................................................................................... 40
4.1 Continuity equation ............................................................................................................. 40
4.2 Energy equation (Euler equation) ....................................................................................... 42
4.3 Conservation of Momentum (Momentum equation) .......................................................... 48
4.4Application of the Momentum Equation.............................................................................. 50
4.4.1The forces due the flow around a pipe bend ..................................................................... 50
4.4.2 Force on a pipe nozzle...................................................................................................... 52
4.4.3Impact of a Jet on a Plane.................................................................................................. 54
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 60
FLOW IN CONDUITS ............................................................................................................. 60
1. Real Fluids............................................................................................................................. 60
Laminar and turbulent flow ....................................................................................................... 60
2. Modified Bernoulli’s Equation.............................................................................................. 63
DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION ......................................................................................... 64
The Moody diagram for the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor f. ................................................ 65
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS ..................................................................................................... 66
3. Simple Pipe Problem ............................................................................................................. 67
3. Solution Procedures............................................................................................................... 68
4. Pumps & Turbines................................................................................................................. 70
5. Minor Losses. ........................................................................................................................ 74
6. Pipe in Series ......................................................................................................................... 80
7. Pipes in Parallel. .................................................................................................................... 82
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

CHAPTER ONE

INTODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1. Introduction
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics)
and the subsequent effects of the fluid upon the boundaries, which may be either solid surfaces
or interfaces with other fluids.
There are two classes of fluids, liquids and gases. The distinction is a technical one concerning
the effect of cohesive forces. A liquid, being composed of relatively close-packed molecules
with strong cohesive forces, tends to retain its volume and will form a free surface in a
gravitational field. Since gas molecules are widely spaced with negligible cohesive forces.

2. Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics

Why are we studying fluid mechanics on a Civil Engineering course? The provisions of
adequate water services such as the supply of potable water, drainage, sewerage are essential for
the development of industrial society. It is these services which civil engineers provide.
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil Engineering either directly or indirectly.
Some examples of direct involvement are those where we are concerned with manipulating the
fluid:
· Sea and river (flood) defenses;
· Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;
· Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;
· Dams;
· Irrigation;

· Pumps and Turbines;

· Water retaining structures.
And some examples where the primary object is construction - yet analysis of the fluid
mechanics is essential:
· Flow of air in / around buildings;
· Bridge piers in rivers; · Ground-water flow.
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3. System of units
Thus far we have used familiar fluid properties such as pressure and density without definition.
Before defining these and other fluid properties more precisely in the next chapter, it is
worthwhile to review their dimensions and unit systems. Fluid mechanics embodies a wealth of
fluid properties, many with distinctive units, and in a global economy it is important for an
engineer to be able to work confidently in any customer’s preferred unit system. A dimension is
a physical variable used to specify some characteristic of a system. Examples include mass,
length, time, and temperature. In contrast, a unit is a particular amount of a physical quantity or
dimension. For example, a length can be measured in units of inches, centimeters, feet, meters,
miles, furlongs, and so on. Consistent units for a variety of physical quantities can be grouped
together to form a unit system.
There are three widely used systems of units in the word. These are
I. British or English system (it's not in official use now in Briton)
II. Metric system.
III. SI system (System International of Unites or International System of Units).
To avoid any confusion on this course we will always use the SI (metric) system - which you
will already be familiar with. It is essential that all quantities are expressed in the same system or
the wrong solutions will results.
The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
convenience secondary units are used in general practices which are made from combinations of
these primary units.
In fluid mechanics there are only four primary dimensions from which all other dimensions can
be derived: mass, length, time, temperature. These dimensions and their units in both systems are
given in Table 1.1.
Notice how the term ’Dimension’ of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a meter is a
length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometer are all lengths so have
dimension of L.(The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of
writing dimensions – We will see more about this in the section of the course on dimensional
analysis.)
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Table 1.1: Primary dimensions in SI and BG system

Primary SI Unit BG Conversion
Dimension Unit Factor
Mass Kilogram(kg) Slug 1 slug =
(M) 14.5939 kg
Length Meter (m) Foot 1 ft =
(L) (ft) 0.3048 m
Time Second Second 1 sec = 1 sec
(T) (sec) (sec)
Temperature Kelvin Rankin 1K = 1.8 (º R)
(θ) (K) (º R)

Although a specific base dimension set may be freely chosen, other aspects of a valid
dimensional system are restricted by the laws of physics. Every valid physical law can be cast in
the form of a dimensionally homogeneous equation; i.e., the dimensions of the left side of the
equation must be identical to those of the right side. Consider Newton’s second law in the form

F = m×a

We define the Newton and pound is the dimension of force

1 Newton of force = 1N = 1 kg.m/s2

1 pound of force = 1 lbf = 1 slug. ft/s2 = 4.4482 N

The following table (Table 1.2) shows the dimensions of a variety of physical quantities in terms
of the basic units mass, length, time (M,L,T) or force, length, time (F,L,T). The table also shows
the preferred units for those quantities in both the International System (S.I.) and the British
System of units. Additional units commonly used for the quantities listed are shown in the last
column of the table.
A list of some important secondary variables in fluid mechanics with dimensions derived as
combinations of the four primary dimensions is given in Table 1.2. A more complete list of
conversion factors is given in the end of this chapter.
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Table 1.2: Dimensions and units of measurement

The symbols for the units used in Table 1.2 are listed next:
Ac : acre, a unit of area lb : pound
Ac-ft : acre × feet m : meter
Atm. : atmosphere N : newton
cfs : cubic feet per second mi : mile
fps : feet per second P : poise
ft : foot or feet Pa : Pascal (N/m2 )
hp : horse power psi : pounds per square inch
in : inch sec : second
J : joule St : stokes
kg : kilogram W : watt
cfs : cubic feet per second
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4. Properties of Fluids
The properties outlines below are general properties of fluids which are of interest in
engineering. The symbol usually used to represent the property is specified together with some
typical values in SI units for common fluids. Values under specific conditions (temperature,
pressure etc.) can be readily found in many reference books.

4.1 Mass Density (ρ)

Mass Density, ρ (rho) , is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume.
Units: Kilograms per cubic meter, kg / m3
Dimensions: ML-3 (FT2 L-4 )
Typical values:Water = 1000 kg/m3, Mercury = 13600 kg/m3
(At pressure =1.013 ×10-5 N/m2 and Temperature = 288.15 º K “20 º C”.)

4.2Weight Density; Specific Weight (γ)

The specific weight; weight density, γ (gamma) is defined as the weight of fluid per unit volume
at the standard temperature and pressure, or the force exerted by gravity, g, upon a unit volume
of the substance.
The Relationship between g and γ can be determined by Newton’s 2nd Law, since
Weight per unit volume = mass per unit volume × g
γ = ρ× g Where g is the gravitational acceleration
Units: Newton’s per cubic metre, N / m3
Dimensions: ML-2 T -2 (F/L3 )
Typical values: γwater = 9800N/m3

4.3 Specific Gravity (r.d.)

The specific gravity of any substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of
the water. Specific density is usually represented by the symbol (sp.gr.) or sometimes by (r.d.)
referring to the relative density. i.e.
ρ of fluid
(sp.gr.); r.d. = r.d.liquid = ρliquid /ρw = ρliquid /1000
ρw

It is also described as (γ / γwater )

Units: None, since a ratio is a pure number
Dimensions: 1.
Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury = 13.6
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4.4 Specific volume (Ɐ)

The specific volume v is the volume occupied by unit mass of fluid, thus
1
Ɐ= (m3 /kg)
ρ

4.5 Temperature (T)

The temperature is a measure of the internal energy level of a fluid.

4.6 Pressure (P)

The pressure is the stress at a point in a static fluid, and is the differences or gradients in pressure
after drive a fluid flow especially in ducts.
Units: atm. , Pa, bar,

4.7 Surface Tension (σ)

The phenomenon of surface tension, σ (sigma) arises due to the two kinds intermolecular forces.
I. Cohesion Force:- the force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid due to, they are
bound to each other to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion.
II. Adhesion Force:- The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e, between the
molecules of different liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and those of solid body when
they are in contact with each other.
Surface tension may also be defined as the work per unit area (N.m / m2 ) or (N/m) required
creating unit surface of the liquid.
When a liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of the
liquid and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The area of contact between
the liquid and solid increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface
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The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater than the force of
adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by
which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upo n whether the
force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not.
Units: N/m
Dimensions: F/L.
Example
Derive an expression for the change in high (h) in a circular tube of a liquid with surface tension
(σ) and contact angle (θ). As in figure below.
Sol.
The vertical component of the ring surface tension force at the interface in the tube must balance
the weight of column of fluid of height (h).
2𝜋.R.σ. cosθ = ρ.g. 𝜋.R2 .h
Solving for h, we have the desired result
2𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
h= =
𝛾𝑅 𝛾𝐷

Suppose that, the fluid is water having σ = 0.073 N/m,

θ = 0º, ρ=1000 kg/m3 and R=1mm, then find the
capillary rise for the water-air-glass
interface.

4.8 Compressibility (E)

The compressibility is the measure of its change in volume under the action of external forces.
The degree of compressibility of a substance is characterized by the bulk modulus of elasticity E,
defined as:
∆𝑝
E= ̶ ; the negative sign is to make (E) positive
∆𝑉/𝑉

The values of (E) for liquids are very high as compared with those of gases. Therefore the liquids
are usually termed as incompressible fluids.
For example Ewater = 2*106 kN/m2
Eair = 101 kN/m2
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Indicates that the air is about (20000) times more compressible than water. Hence water can be
treated as incompressible.
Units: N/m2
Dimensions: F/L2
Example
A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1000 cm3 at 1MN/m2 and a volume of
995 cm3 at 2 MN/m2 . What is its bulk modulus of elasticity (E)?
Sol.
∆𝑝 (2−1 ) × 10 6
E= ̶ = (995 −1000 )×10 −6 / (1000× 10 −6 )
= 200Mpa
∆𝑉/𝑉

Example
If E=2.2 GPa is the bulk modulus of elasticity for water, what pressure is required to reduce a
volume by 0.6 percent?
Sol.
∆𝑝 𝑝2 −0
E= ̶ → 2.2 ×109 = ̶ ; p2 = 13.2 MPa
∆𝑉/𝑉 −0.006

4.9Viscosity (µ)
Viscosity, µ (mu) , is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between molecules,
which offers resistance to shear deformation. Different fluids deform at different rates under the
same shear stress. Fluid with a high viscosity deforms more slowly than fluid with a low
viscosity such as water.
A fluid is defined as a material which will continue to deform with
the application of a shear force. However, different fluids deform at
different rates when the same shear stress (force/area) is applied.
If the force F acts over an area of contact A, then the shear stress τ
(tao) is defined as τ = F /A
All fluids are viscous, “Newtonian Fluids” obey the linear
relationship given by Newton’s law of viscosity.

𝑑𝑣
𝜏= 𝜇 Where is the shear stress (N/m2 )
𝑑𝑦

dv/dy represent the velocity gradient (1/sec.)

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 The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, µ , is defined as the shear force, per unit area,
(or shear stress τ ), required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer
a unit distance away.
Units: Newton seconds per square meter, (N.sec) / m2 or Kilograms per meter per second,
kg/(m.sec) .
(Although note that µ is often expressed in Poise, where 10 Poise = 1 kg/(m. sec.))
 Ideal Fluid such a fluid having zero viscosity (µ=0) is called an ideal fluid and the
resulting motion is called ideal fluid or in viscid flow. From this definition there is no
existence of shear force.
 Real Fluid, All fluids in reality having viscosity (µ > 0.0) are termed real fluid and their
motion is known as viscous flow.
 A classic problem is the flow induced between a fixed lower plate and an upper plate
moving steadily at velocity V, as shown in Fig. below. The clearance between plates is h,
and the fluid is newtonian and does not slip at either plate.

Example
Suppose that the fluid being sheared in Fig. is SAE 30 oil at 20ºC (µ= 0.29 kg/(m.s). Compute
the shear stress in the oil if the velocity (v) is 3 m/s and (h) is 2 cm.

Sol.
dv V [0.29 kg/(m.sec)](3m/sec )
τ= μ = μ = =
dy h 0.02 m

43kg/(m.sec2 ) = 43N/m2 = 43Pa.

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 Kinematic Viscosity (ν)

Kinematic Viscosity, ν (nu), is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
𝜇
ν=
𝜌

Units: square meters per second, m2 /sec

(Although note that n is often expressed in Stokes, St, where 10 4 Stoke = 1 m2 /sec.)
Dimensions: L2 /T.

Multiplicative Prefix
factor
1012 tera
109 giga
106 mega
103 kilo
102 hecto
10 deka
10 ̶ 1 deci
10 ̶ 2 centi
10 ̶ 3 milli
10 ̶6 micro
10 ̶ 9 nano
10 ̶ 12 pico
10 ̶ 15 femto
10 ̶ 18 atto
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

CHAPTER TWO
FLUID STATICS
1. Pressure Distribution in Fluids
Many fluid problems do not involve motion. They concern the pressure distribution in a static
fluid and its effect on solid surfaces and on floating and sub- merged bodies. When the fluid
velocity is zero, denoted as the hydrostatic condition, the pressure variation is due only to the
weight of the fluid. Assuming a known fluid in a given gravity field, the pressure may easily be
calculated by integration. Important applications in this chapter are:
I. Pressure distribution in the atmosphere and the oceans
II. The design of manometer pressure instruments.
III. Forces on submerged flat and curved surfaces.
The general rules of statics (as applied in solid mechanics) apply to fluids at rest. From earlier we
know that:
 a static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and that
 Any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at right angles to the
boundary.

Note that this statement is also true for curved surfaces; in this case the force acting at any point
is normal to the surface at that point. The statement is also true for any imaginary plane in a
static fluid. We use this fact in our analysis by considering elements of fluid bounded by
imaginary planes.
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We also know that:

 For an element of fluid at rest, the element will be in equilibrium - the sum of the
components of forces in any direction will be zero.
 The sum of the moments of forces on the element about any point must also be zero.
 If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the pressure is said to be
uniform.
It is common to test equilibrium by resolving forces along three mutually perpendicular axes and
also by taking moments in three mutually perpendicular planes and to equate these to zero.

Units: Newton’s per square meter, N/ m2 , kg/ (m. sec.)

(The same unit is also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1Pa = 1 N/m2 )
(Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where 1bar = 105 N/m2 ).

2. Pressure at point (Pascal’s Law)

(Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions.)
Consider a small wedge fluid element at rest of size (Δx , Δz by ΔS) and depth (b) into the paper
by definition there is no shear stress , but we postulate that the pressures px, pz and pn as shown
in Figure below.
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Equilibrium of a small wedge of fluid at rest.

Summation of forces must equal zero (no acceleration) in both x &z directions

From relation 2.3 illustrate two important principles of hydrostatic

a) There is no pressure change in the horizontal direction.
b) There is a vertical change in pressure proportional to the density, gravity and depth change.
In the limit as the fluid wedge shrinks to a (point) Δz → 0.Then, Eq. 2.3 become

px = pz = pn = p (2.4)

Since θ is arbitrary, we conclude that the pressure p at a point in a static fluid is independent of
orientation.
In fluid under static conditions pressure is found to be independent of the orientation of the area.
This concept is explained by Pascal's law which states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest
is equal in magnitude in all directions.
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3. Pressure Force on a Fluid Element.

Let the pressure vary arbitrarily p = p(x,y,z,t) consider the pressure acting on the two x- faces as
in Figure below . The net force in the x-direction on the element is given by

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
In like manner the net force dF y involves ( − ) , and the net force dFz concerns (− )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

the total net –force vector on the element due to pressure is

Net x force on an element due to pressure variation.

Rewrite Eq. 2.7 as the net force per unit element volume and is denoted by ( f )
f press = − ∇p (2.8)
Thus is the pressure gradient causing a net force which must be balanced by gravity or
acceleration.
The pressure gradient is a surface force which acts on the sides of the element. Also, may be a
body force, due to electromagnetic or gravitational potentials acting on the entire mass of the
element. Consider only the gravity force or weight of element
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For an incompressible fluid with constant viscosity the net viscous force is or (viscous stress)

Where the subscript ( vs ) stands for viscous force, note that the term (g) in Eq. 2.9 denotes the
acceleration of gravity, a vector acting toward the center of the earth. On earth the average
magnitude of (g) is 32.174 ft/sec2 = 9.807 m/sec2 in our lectures and exercises we use the
approximate numerical value of g = 32.2 ft/sec2 = 9.81m/sec2 .
The total vector resultant of these three forces which are pressure, gravity, and viscous stress
must either keep the element in equilibrium or cause it to move with acceleration (a).
Form Newton’s law of motion per unit volume:

Rewrite Eq. 2.11 as follows

1- Flow at rest or at constant velocity: The acceleration and viscous terms vanishes
identically, and p depends only upon gravity and density. This is the hydrostatic
condition.
2- When the fluid at rest or at constant velocity, a = 0 and ∇2 V Eq.2.12 for the pressure

distribution reduces to ∇𝑝 = ρg (2.13)

This is a hydrostatic distribution formula and is correct for all fluid at rest. Where (g) is the
magnitude of local gravity, Eq. 2.13 has the pressure components are

𝜕𝑝
Where the coordinate system z is up i.e (p) is independent of x&y. Hence can be replaced by
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑝
the total derivative and the hydrostatic condition reduce to
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑝
= −𝛾 (2.15)
𝑑𝑧
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Equation 2.15 is the fundamental equatio n for fluids at rest and can be used to determine how
pressure change with elevation. This equation indicates that the pressure gradient in the vertical
direction is negative; that is, the pressure decrease as we move upward in a fluid at rest.
This leads to the statement,
I. The pressure will be the same at the same level in any connected static fluid and at all points
on a given horizontal plane whose density is constant or a function of pressure only.
II. The pressure increases with depth of fluid.
III. The pressure is independent of the shape of the container and the free surface of a liquid will
seek a common level in any container, where the free surface is everywhere exposed to the same
pressure. Equation 2.15 is the solution to the hydrostatic problem.

3.1 Incompressible Fluid

For liquids the variation in density is usually negligible, even over large vertical distances, so
that the assumption of constant specific weight when dealing with liquids is a good one. For this
instant, Eq. 2.15 can be directly integrated
𝑝 𝑝
∫𝑝 2 𝑑𝑝 = − ∫𝑝 2 𝛾𝑑𝑧 to yields 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = −𝛾(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
1 1

Or 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) (2.16)

Where p1 and p2 are pressures at the vertical elevation, z1 and z2 as illustrated in Figure below.
Eq. 2.16 can be written in compact form

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾 × (ℎ) Or 𝑝1 = 𝛾 × (ℎ) + 𝑝2 (2.17)

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Where ℎ is the distance, z2 -z1 . This type of pressure distribution is commonly called a

hydrostatic distribution. Eq. 2.17 shows that in an incompressible fluid at rest the pressure varies
linearly with depth. It can also be observed from Eq. 2.17 that the pressure difference between

two points can be specified by the distance ℎ since

𝑝1 − 𝑝2
ℎ= (2.18)
𝛾

Where ℎ is called the pressure head and is interpreted as the height of a column of fluid of

specific weight 𝛾 to give a pressure difference (p1 – p2 ).

If p0 is the reference pressure would be the pressure acting on the free surface, then from
Eq. 2.17 the pressure at any depth h below the free surface is given by the following:

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝛾(ℎ) (2.19)

Example
We can quote a pressure of 500K N/ m2 in terms of the height of a column of water.
Sol.

Example
The deepest point in the ocean is (11034m) in the pacific. At this depth γ=10520 N/m3 . Estimate
the absolute pressure at this depth.
Sol.

pabsolute = 𝛾 (ℎ) + patm. 10520*11034 + 101350= 116179030 N/m2 = 116.18 MPa

Example
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A closed tank contains 1.5 m of SAE 30 oil (γ = 8720N/m3 ), 1m of water, 20 cm of mercury

(γ = 133100N/m3 ) and an air space on top all at 20ºC. If pbottom = 60000 Pa, what is the pressure in
the air space.
Sol.
Apply the hydrostatic formula down through the three layers of fluid.

60000 = pair + 8720 * 1.5 + 9800 * 1 + 133100 * 0.2 → pair= 10580 Pa

3.2 Pressure Measurements

The unit of pressure in the SI system is (N/m2 ) also called Pascal (Pa). The atmospheric pressure
is approximately (105 N/m2 ) is and designated as "bar". From above definition the pressure at a
point within a fluid mass will be designated as either an absolute pressure or a gauge pressure.
Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum (absolute zero pressure), where as
gauge pressure is measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure. Thus, a gauge pressure of
zero corresponds to a pressure that is equal to the local atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressures
are always positive, but gage pressure can be either positive or negative depending on whether
the pressure is above or below atmospheric pressure. A negative gauge pressure is also referred
to as a suction or vacuum pressure. The concept of gauge and absolute pressure is illustrated
graphically in figure below for two typical pressures located at points 1 and 2. Gauge pressure is
the difference between the value of the pressure and the local atmospheric pressure (patm .)
pgauge= p – patm.
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The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished with a mercury barometer,

which in its simplest form consists of a glass tube closed at one end with the open end immersed
in a container of mercury as shown in figure below. The tube is initially filled with mercury
(inverted with its open end up) and then turned upside down (open end down) with the open end
in the container of mercury. The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position where
its weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure (which develops in the space above the
column) balances the force due to the atmospheric pressure. Thus,
patm. = γh + pvapor
The vapor pressure pvapor can be neglected in most practical cases in comparison to patm., since
it’s very small for mercury, pvapor= 0.16*p atm. . So that,
patm. = γh

Example
What will be the (a) the gauge pressure , (b) the absolute pressure of water at depth 12m below
the surface ?
Sol.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

4. Manometers.
The manometers are the standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid
columns in vertical or inclined tubes. Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are
called manometers. Three common types of manometers include the piezometer tube, the U-tube
manometer, and the inclined-tube manometer.

4.1 Piezometer Tube

The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to the
container in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in figure below. Since manometers
involve columns of fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is Eq. 2.19
p = p0 + γh
This gives the pressure at any elevation within a homogeneous fluid in terms of a reference
pressure p0 and the vertical distance h between p and p0 . Remember that in a fluid at rest
pressure will increase as we move downward and will decrease as we move upward. Application
of this equation to the piezometer tube of figure shown indicates that the pressure pA can be
determined by a measurement of h through the relationship
pA = γ1 h1
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

The tube is open at the top, the pressure p0 can be set equal to zero as using a gauge pressure,
with the height h1 measured from the meniscus at the upper surface to point (1) then
𝑝𝐴
𝒉𝟏 =
𝜌𝑔

4.2 The “U”-Tube Manometer

Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure the
difference in pressure between two points or between a certain point and the atmosphere.
Manometer is needed for measuring large gauge pressures. It is basically the modified form of
the piezometric tube. A common type manometer is like a transparent "U-tube" as shown in
figure below.

A “U”-Tube manometer
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
Pressure at B = Pressure at C
p B = pC

For the left hand arm

Pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure due to height h1 of fluid being measured
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾ℎ1
For the right hand arm
Pressure at C = pressure at D + pressure due to height h2 of manometric fluid
𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚. + 𝛾ℎ2
As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 ., then we can calculate 𝑝𝐴 as
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾2 ℎ2 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in comparison to the
density of the manometric fluid. In this case the term 𝛾1 ℎ1 can be neglected.

4.3Manometers to Measure Pressure Difference

Example
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

A closed tank contains oil and compressed air (r.d.oil = 0.9) as is shown in the following figure, a
U-tube manometer using mercury is connected to a tank as shown. For column heights
h1 =914.5mm, h2 =152.4mm and h3 = 228.6mm. Determine the pressure reading in Pa of the gauge.

Sol.
The pressure at level (1) is equal to the pressure at level (2), since these two points are at the
same elevation in a homogeneous fluid at rest. The pressure at level (1) is
𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )
The pressure at level (2) is
𝑝2 = 𝛾𝐻𝑔 × ℎ3
Thus, the manometer equation can be expressed as

Or
𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑟. 𝑑.𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝛾𝑤 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) − 𝑟. 𝑑.𝐻𝑔 𝛾𝑤 ℎ3 = 0
pair = −0.9 * 9800 * (0.9145 + 0.1524) + 13.6 * 9800 * 0.2286 = =21079.23 N/m2 (Pa.)

Example

(a) At what depth below the surface of oil, specific gravity is 0.8 will produce a pressure of
120 kN/m2 ?. (b) What depth of water is this equivalent to?.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Sol.
ρoil
(b) Sp.gr.= ρ oil = Sp.gr. * ρ w = 0.8 *1000 = 800 kg/m3
ρw

Example

A manometer connected to a pipe indicates a negative gauge pressure of 50mm of mercury.

What is the absolute pressure in the pipe in Newtons per square meter?
Sol.

pabs. = pgauge + patm. = 𝛾(ℎ) + patm. = - 13.6 * 9800 *0.05 + 105 = 93329 (Pa)= 93.329 (kPa)

5. Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surface.

Any hydro structure design required a computation of the hydrostatic forces on various solid
surfaces contact with fluid. We wish to determine the direction, location and magnitude of the
resultant force acting on one side of the surface area due to the liquid in contact.

Step 1. Find the resultant force.

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Choose an element of area so that the pressure on it is uniform. Such an element is a horizontal
strip with a width equal to x, so, dA = xdy . Notice that the width of the surface is not constant.
Total force on the whole surface will equal to the summation of forces on all elements of dy:
Total force = F = ΣdF
Force = pressure × area
F =ΣpdA
The mathematical equivalent to the summations is integration (when the strip height “dy” is too
small)

𝐹 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 p= 𝛾 ℎ
h = y sinθ → p = 𝛾 (y sinθ )

∴ 𝐹 = ∫ 𝛾 (y sinθ ) 𝑑𝐴 → 𝐹 = 𝛾sinθ ∫ y 𝑑𝐴

∫ y 𝑑𝐴 is the mathematical expression for the first

moment of area.
The first moment of area equals to the sum of the
∫ y 𝑑𝐴 =ofyarea
products c *Atimes distance to the centroid.

Where:
yc the distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the plan surface along the inclined plan
surface (in vertical surfaces, yc = hc).
→ 𝐹 = 𝛾sinθ (𝑦𝑐 ∗ 𝐴) , but h = y sin θ

∴ 𝐹 = 𝛾 ∗ ℎ𝑐 ∗ 𝐴
Where:
F Pressure force (normal to the surface)
γ Specific weight of fluid (for water, γ = 9800 N/m3 or γ = 62.4 lb/ft3
A Cross sectional area of the plan surface.
ℎ𝑐 Vertical distance from the surface of fluid to the centroid of the plan surface.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Step 2.Find the location where the resultant force is applied.

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

The above equation can be expressed in another form:

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Then,
𝐼𝑐
∴ 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Summary of Results
 Hydrostatic Force: 𝐹 = 𝛾 ∗ ℎ𝑐 ∗ 𝐴
𝐼𝑐
 Acting at Location: 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝐴

Supplementary Notes
1- Forces on vertical plan surfaces:
a. The surface intersects with fluid surface

Force magnitude: 𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾 ∗ ℎ𝑐 ∗ 𝐴
Where cross sectional area of the plan surface (= distance AB × width).

W width of the plan surface (and you can take it equal to unity, and that will give results per unit
width)
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Point of action (location):

The line of action of the force is at distance H/3 from the bottom.
b. The plan surface does not intersect with the fluid surface:

Force magnitude: 𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾 ∗ ℎ𝑐 ∗ 𝐴

Point of action (location):

The line of action of the force is at distance = yc, from the fluid surface:
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example

Calculate the force (P) needed to maintain the gate as shown in “figure (1)”, where a layer of oil
rests on top of water. The width of the gate is (6m) into the page. Neglect the weight of the gate.
Sol .
P
0.8 * 9800 *2 = 15680Pa.

15680 = 9800*y → y = 1.6m of water

2m
Oil (0.8)

Water = 1.6+6 = 7.6m

Water
F = γ* hc * A

6m
= 9800 * (7.6/2) * (8.775*6) 60º

F = 1960847.8N
Hinge
∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0

1960847 * (8.775/3) = P * 10 sin 60

P = 660766.7N
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

6. Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surface.

Consider the curved section ab of the open tank as in figure shown. We wish to find the resultant
force acting on this section with unit length perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The
horizontal plane surface bc and the vertical plane surface ac are the projection areas of the
curved surface ab. Fh & Fv are the forces components that the tank exerts on the fluid. W is the
specific weight (γ) of the fluid times the enclosed volume acts through (cg), then,

i. Vertical forces Fv : the vertical force on a curved surface is given by the weight of the
liquid enclosed by the surface and the vertical force acts on horizontal free surface of the
liquid. The force acts along the center of gravity of the volume.
ii. Horizontal forces Fh : the horizontal force equals the force on the projected area of the
curved surface and acts at the center of pressure of the projected area.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Because of the curvature of the surface, the direction of the resultant force is not pre-
determined as in the previous case. One needs to decompose the force to its horizontal
and vertical components (F x, and Fz) and find the points of application for each.

𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾 ∗ ℎ𝑐 ∗ 𝐴

Where A is the vertical projection area of the curved surface.

𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑉
Where V is the volume of water over the curved surface up to the water surface.

Resultant force

𝑅 = √𝐹𝐻2 + 𝐹𝑉2

The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal is

𝐹
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝑉 )
𝐹𝐻
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example

Determine the resultant force exerted by sea water (sp.gr.=1.025) on the curved port in AB of an
oil tanker as shown in figure. Also determine the direction of action of the force. Consider 1m
width perpendicular to paper.

Sol.

𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾 ∗ ℎ𝑐 ∗ 𝐴 = (1.025*9800) * 17 * (4*1) = 683060N →

𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑉
V = VBCDE + VABE
𝜋∗42
𝐹𝑉= (1.025*9800) { (15*4) + ( )} = 728929.2N ↓
4

𝑅 = √𝐹𝐻2 + 𝐹𝑉2

= √(683060)2 + (728929.2)2 = 998953.823N

𝐹𝑉
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝐹𝐻
728929.2
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 46.86º
683060
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

CHAPTER THREE
FLUID DYNAMICS (BASIC EQUATIONS)
1. Introduction
This section discusses the analysis of fluid in motion - fluid dynamics. The motion of fluids can
be predicted in the same way as the motion of solids are predicted using the fundamental laws of
physics together with the physical properties of the fluid.

2. Types of flow
Under some circumstances the flow will not be as changeable as this. He following terms
describes the states which are used to classify fluid flow:
o Uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point in the
fluid it is said to be uniform.
o Non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the flow is
non-uniform.
o Steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section)
may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.
o Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described
as unsteady.
Combining the above we can classify any flow in to one of four types:
1. Steady Uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time.
An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
2. Steady Non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not
change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet -
velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
3. Unsteady Uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the
same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter connected to a
pump pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off.
4. Unsteady Non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from point to point
and with time at every point. For example waves in a channel.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

3. Flow (Discharge)
3.1 Mass flow rate
If we want to measure the rate at which water is flowing along a pipe. A very simple way of
doing this is to catch all the water coming out of the pipe in a bucket over a fixed time period.
Measuring the weight of the water in the bucket and dividing this by the time taken to collect this
water gives a rate of accumulation of mass. This is known as the mass flow rate.
For example an empty bucket weighs 2.0kg. After 7 seconds of collecting water the bucket
weighs 8.0kg, then:
mass of fluid in bucket 8−2
mass flow rate m = = = 0.857 kg/sec.
time taken to collect the fluid 7

Performing a similar calculation, if we know the mass flow is 1.7kg/s, how long will it take to
fill a container with 8kg of fluid?

3.2 Volume flow rate - Discharge.

More commonly we need to know the volume flow rate - this is more commonly known as
discharge. (It is also commonly, but inaccurately, simply called flow rate). The symbol normally
used for discharge is Q. The discharge is the volume of fluid flowing per unit time. Multiplying
this by the density of the fluid gives us the mass flow rate. Consequently, if the density of the
fluid in the above example is 850kg/m3 then
volume of fluid mass of fluid mass flow rate 0.857
Q= = = = = 0 .001008 m3 /sec ≈ 1 lps (litre/s)
time densitytime density 850

3.3 Discharge and velocity

If we know the size of a pipe, and we know the discharge, we can deduce the velocity
𝑄 = 𝑣 ∙𝐴
So if the cross-section area, A, is 1.2×10-3 m2 and and the discharge, Q is 24 l/s then the velocity
Q 24 ×10 −3
(v) is v 𝑣 = = = 20 𝑚/𝑠
A 1.2 × 10 −3
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

4. Basic equations
4.1 Continuity equation
We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross sections which change along their
length. Consider the diagram below of a pipe with a contraction:

Q 1 = Q2 = Q3 =….= Qn

This is the form of the continuity equation most often used. Where Q= v. A
A is the cross-sectional area of the flow section (pipe) and v is the mean velocity.
This equation is a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics and will be used repeatedly throughout
the rest of this course.
A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the same direction. By the
continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the same at each section - the mass going into
the pipe is equal to the mass going out of the pipe. So we can write:
A1v1ρ1 = A2v2ρ2
(With the sub-scripts 1 and 2 indicating the values at the two sections)
As we are considering a liquid, usually water, which is not very compressible, the density
changes very little so we can say ρ 1 = ρ 2= ρ This also says that the volume flow rate is
constant or that Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section 2
Q1 = Q2
A1v1 = A2v2
For example if the area A1 =10*10-3 m2 and A2 =3*10-3 m2 and the upstream mean velocity is v1 is
2.1m/s ,then the downstream velocity can be calculated by
𝐴 1 𝑣1
𝑣2 = = 7m/s
𝐴2
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Notice how the downstream velocity only changes from the upstream by the ratio of the two
areas of the pipe. As the area of the circular pipe is a function of the diameter we can reduce the
calculation further,
𝜋 2
𝐴1 𝑑1 𝑑12 𝑑1
𝑣2 = 4
𝑣1 = 𝜋 𝑣1 = 2 𝑣1 = ( )2 𝑣1
𝐴2 𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2
4 2
Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands or diverges as in the figure below,

If the diameter at section 1 is d1 = 30 mm and at section 2 d2 = 40 mm and the mean velocity at

section 2 is v 2 = 3m /s. The velocity entering the diffuser is given by,
40
v1 = (30 )2 × 3 = 5.3m/s

Another example of the use of the continuity principle is to determine the velocities in pipes
coming from a junction.

Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the junction
ρ1 Q1= ρ2 Q2 + ρ3 Q3
When the flow is incompressible (e.g. if it is water) ρ 1 = ρ 2= ρ

Q1 = Q2 + Q3 → A1v1 = A2v2 + A3v3

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean velocity 2m/s, pipe 2 diameter 40mm takes 30% of total
discharge and pipe 3 diameter 60mm. What are the values of discharge and mean velocity in
each pipe?
𝜋
Q1 = A1v1 = 𝑑12 * v1 = 0.00392m3/s
4

Q2 = 0.3Q 1 = 0.001178m3 /s
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 , Q3= Q1 ̶ 0.3Q1 = 0.7Q1 → Q 3 = 0.00275 m3 /s

Q2 = A2v2 → v2 = 0.936m/s

Q3 = A3v3 → v3 = 0.972m/s

Example
As in figure the diameter at cross-section (1) is equal to (12 cm), the diameter at cross-section (2)
is equal to (8 cm). If the velocity at section (1) is 1.5 m/s, calculate the velocity at section (2).
Sol.
𝜋
The cross-section area at (1) is A1 = 𝑑12 = 𝜋4 (0.12)2 = 0.0113m2
4
𝜋 𝜋
A2 = 4 𝑑22 = (0.08)2 = 5.026*10-3 m2
4
𝐴1 0.0113
A1v1 = A2v2 → 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 = *1.5 = 3.375m/s
𝐴2 5.026∗10 −3

4.2 Energy equation (Euler equation)

The first law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but it
can change from one form to another. It follows that all forms of energy are equivalent.
The flow conveyance between two points could happen because of acting of the following
energy types below:
1- Potential energy (m)
Potential energy depends on the object’s elevation above an arbitrary datum.
2- Flow energy (Pressure head) (m)
𝑃
A fluid particle has energy due to its pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. = 𝛾

𝑉2
3- Kinetic energy = (m)
2𝑔
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

 Bernoulli’s Equation
This equation relates the pressure, velocity and height in the steady motion of an ideal fluid.
In driving Bernoulli’s equation, we will assume:
1- Viscous (friction) effects are negligible (Ideal fluid).
2- The flow is steady (constant with respect to time).
3- The fluid is incompressible.
4- No energy is added or removed from the fluid.
If we apply the three energies above on the figure below, then we will obtain:

E.L
𝑉22
2𝑔

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = Constant
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

The Energy Grade Line, also called the Energy Line or simply EL, is a plot of the sum
of the three terms in the work-energy equation, which is also the Bernoulli sum.

# If the fluid is static, the velocities are zero, and Bernoulli’s equation reduces to:
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

Applying Bernoulli to Points 1,2 in the fluid:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
But, P1 = P2 = atmospheric pressure = 0 gage pressure.
𝑣2 ≈ 0 ≅ (Still water surface in a large tank with
small outlet pipe).
So,

𝑉12
0 + + 𝑧1 = 0 + 0 + 𝑧2
2𝑔
𝑉21
∴
2𝑔
= (Z2 ̶ Z1 )

Or 𝑉1 = √2𝑔ℎ where h is (Z2 ̶ Z1 )

 Step Method of Approaching Flow Problems

1- Choose a convenient datum.
2- Note locations/sections where the velocity is known.

3- Note locations/sections where pressure is known.

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example:
A 6m long pipe is inclined at angle of 20 with the horizontal. The smaller section of the pipe
which is at lower level is of 100mm and the larger section of pipe is of 300 mm diameter as
shown in figure. If the pipe is uniformly tapering and the velocity of water at the smaller section
is 1.8 m/s determine the difference of pressures between the two sections.

Sol.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
a) Determine the velocity of efflux from the nozzle in the wall of the reservoir as in figure.
b) Find the discharge at the nozzle.
Sol.

With pressure datum as local atmospheric

pressure, p1 =p2 =0 & z2 =0, z1 =H, the velocity on
the surface of the reservoir is zero.

Example
Water flows from a garden hose nozzle with a velocity of 15m/s. What is the maximum height
that it can reach above the nozzle?

Sol.

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
But , p1 , p2 , v2 are equal to zero

Thus

𝑣2
1 15 2
ℎ= = = 11.5m
2𝑔 2𝑔
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in figure. For the given 0.2m difference in
manometer level, determine the flow-rate as a function of the diameter of the small pipe, D

Sol. Stagnation
point

z1=z2, v1 = 0 (stagnation point)

Thus,
𝑝1 −𝑝2
𝑣2 = √2𝑔 , but p 1=γh1 & p2=γh2
𝛾

so that p 1 ̶ p2 = γ (h1 ̶ h2) = 0.2γ

0.2𝛾
Then 𝑣2 = √2𝑔 = 𝑣2 = √2𝑔 ∗ 0.2
𝛾

Or Q = A2v2 = 𝜋4 𝐷 2 𝑣2 = 𝜋4 𝐷 2 √2𝑔 ∗ 0.2 = 1.56 D2 m3/s where D in m

Example
Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in figure. For the given 0.2m difference in
manometer level, determine the flow-rate as a function of the diameter of the small pipe, D
Sol.

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
With
𝜋 2
𝐷
4 1 0.1
A1v1 = A2v2 or 𝑣2 = 𝜋 2 𝑣1 = ( 𝐷 )2 𝑣1
𝐷
4 2
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

0.1 4
𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑣2 2
2 −𝑣1
{( ) −1} 𝑣12
𝐷
Thus, z1=z2 = =
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

but p1=γh1 & p2=γh2 so that p 1 ̶ p2 = γ (h1 ̶ h2) = 0.2γ

Then
0.1 4
0.2𝛾 {( ) −1} 𝑣2
1 2𝑔∗0.2
𝐷
= or 𝑣1 = √ 0.1 4 and,
𝛾 2𝑔 {( ) −1}
𝐷

2𝑔∗0.2 0.0156𝐷2
Q = A1v1 = 𝜋4 (0.1)2 √ 4 or 𝑄 = where D in m
{(0.1) −1} √(0.1)4 −𝐷4
𝐷

4.3 Conservation of Momentum (Momentum equation)

In Newtonian mechanics, the conservation of momentum is defined by Newton’s second law of
motion. The 2nd law of motion states as:
 The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impressed action and
takes place in the direction of the impressed action.
 If a force acts on the body, linear momentum is implied.
 If a torque (moment) acts on the body angular momentum is implied.
Newton’s 2nd Law can be written:
The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on the body,
and takes place in the direction of the force.
The force exerted by the fluid using Newton’s 2nd Law is equal to the rate of change of
momentum. So
Force = rate of change of momentum\
F = ρ Q (vOut ̶ vIn) = ρ Q (v2 ̶ v1)
This force is acting in the direction of the flow of the fluid. v2

v1
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

This analysis assumed that the inlet and outlet velocities were in the same direction - i.e. a one
dimensional system. What happens when this is not the case?
Consider the two dimensional system in the figure below:

At the inlet the velocity vector, v1 , makes an angle, θ1 , with the x-axis, while at the outlet v2
make an angle θ2 . In this case we consider the forces by resolving in the directions of the
coordinate axes.
The force in the x-direction
Fx = Rate of change of momentum in x – direction
= Rate of change of mass × change in velocity in x – direction

= ρ Q (v2x ̶ v1x) = ρ Q (v2 cos θ2 ̶ v1 cos θ1 )

And the force in the y-direction

Fy = ρ Q (v2y ̶ v1y ) = ρ Q (v2 sin θ2 ̶ v1 sin θ1)
We then find the resultant force by combining these vectorially:

𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2

𝐹𝑦
ᶲ = tan−1 ( )
𝐹𝑥
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

4.4Application of the Momentum Equation

4.4.1The forces due the flow around a pipe bend

Consider a pipe bend with a constant cross section lying in the horizontal plane and turning
through an angle of (θ)

In summary we can say:

The total force exerted on the fluid = rate of change of momentum through the control volume
F = ρ Q (vout ̶ vin)
Steps to analysis:
1. Draw a control volume
2. Decide on co-ordinate axis system
3. Calculate the total force
4. Calculate the pressure force
5. Calculate the body force
6. Calculate the resultant force
1. Draw a control volume
The control volume is draw in the above figure, with faces at the inlet and outlet of the bend and
encompassing the pipe walls.
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2. Decide on co-ordinate axis system

It is convenient to choose the co-ordinate axis so that one is pointing in the direction of the inlet
velocity. In the above figure the x-axis points in the direction of the inlet velocity.

3. Calculate the total force

In the x-direction:
𝐹𝑇𝑥 = ρ Q (v2x ̶ v1x)

v1x = v1
v2x = v2 cos θ
𝐹𝑇𝑥 = ρ Q (v2 cos θ ̶ v1)

In the y-direction:
𝐹𝑇𝑦 = ρ Q (v2y ̶ v1y )

v1y = v1 sin θ = 0
v2y = v2 sin θ
𝐹𝑇𝑦 = ρ Q (v2 sin θ)

4. Calculate the pressure force

FP = pressure force at 1 ̶ pressure force at 2
𝐹𝑃𝑥 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 cos 0 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃
𝐹𝑃𝑦 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 sin 0 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃 = − 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃

5. Calculate the body force

There are no body forces in the x or y directions. The only body force is that exerted by gravity
(which acts into the paper in this example - a direction we do not need to consider).

FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)

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6. Calculate the resultant force

𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝐵𝑥

𝐹𝑇𝑦 = 𝐹𝑅𝑦 + 𝐹𝑃𝑦 + 𝐹𝐵𝑦

𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹𝑇𝑥 − 𝐹𝑃𝑥 − 0 = ρ Q (v2 cos θ ̶ v1) ̶ 𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃

𝐹𝑅𝑦 = 𝐹𝑇𝑦 − 𝐹𝑃𝑦 − 0 = ρ Q (v2 sin θ) + 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

𝑅 = √𝐹𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑅𝑦 2

And the direction of application is

𝐹 𝑅𝑦
ᶲ = tan−1 ( )
𝐹 𝑅𝑥

The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction.

4.4.2 Force on a pipe nozzle

Force on the nozzle at the outlet of a pipe. Because the fluid is contracted at the nozzle forces are
induced in the nozzle. Anything holding the nozzle (e.g. a fireman) must be strong enough to
withstand these forces.
The analysis takes the same procedure as above:
1. Draw a control volume
2. Decide on co-ordinate axis system
3. Calculate the total force
4. Calculate the pressure force
5. Calculate the body force
6. Calculate the resultant force

1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

axis are shown in the figure.\

Notice how this is a one dimensional system which greatly simplifies matters.

3. Calculate the total force

𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇𝑥 = ρ Q (v2 ̶ v1)
1 1
By continuity, Q = A1 v1 = A2 v2 , So 𝐹𝑇𝑥 = ρ Q2 [ − ]
𝐴2 𝐴1

4. Calculate the pressure force

𝐹𝑃 = 𝐹𝑃𝑥 = pressure force at 1 ̶ pressure force at 2
We use the Bernoulli equation to calculate the pressure
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
The nozzle is horizontal, z1=z2 , and the pressure outside is atmospheric, p2 = 0,
And with continuity gives
ρ Q2 1 1
p1 = [ − ]
2 𝐴2
2 𝐴2
1

5. Calculate the body force

The only body force is the weight due to gravity in the y-direction - but we need not consider
this as the only forces we are considering are in the x-direction.
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)

6. Calculate the resultant force

𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝐵𝑥
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹𝑇𝑥 − 𝐹𝑃𝑥 − 0
1 1 ρ Q2 1 1
𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝑅𝑥 = ρ Q2 [ − ]− [ − ]
𝐴2 𝐴1 2 𝐴2
2 𝐴2
1
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

4.4.3Impact of a Jet on a Plane

We will first consider a jet hitting a flat plate (a plane) at an angle of 90°, as shown in the figure
below. We want to find the reaction force of the plate i.e. the force the plate will have to apply to
stay in the same position.
𝐹𝑇𝑥 = ρ Q (v2x ̶ v1x)

= ̶ ρ Q v1x
As the system is symmetrical the forces in the
y-direction cancel i.e.
𝐹𝑇𝑦 = 0
Note: The pressure force is zero as the pressure at both the
inlet and the outlets to the control volume are
Atmospheric and the control volume is small we can ignore
the body force due to the weight of gravity.
The resultant force is exerted on the fluid.
𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝑅𝑥 = ̶ ρ Q v1x

The force on the plane is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction.

4.4.4Force due to a jet hitting an inclined plane

We have seen above the forces involved when a jet hits a plane at right angles. If the plane is
tilted to an angle the analysis becomes a little more involved. This is demonstrated below.
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(Note that for simplicity gravity and friction will be neglected from this analysis.)
We want to find the reaction force normal to the plate so we choose the axis system a s above so
that is normal to the plane. The diagram may be rotated to align it with these axes and help
comprehension, as shown below

We do not know the velocities of flow in each direction. To find these we can apply Bernoulli
equation

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃3 𝑉32

+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧3
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
The height differences are negligible i.e. z1 = z2 = z3 and the pressures are all atmospheric = 0. So
v1 = v2 = v3 = v
By continuity
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 i.e A1 v1 = A2 v2 + A3 v3 → A1 = A2 + A3
Q1 = A1 v1 & Q 2 = A2 v2
Q3 = (A1 ̶ A2 ) v
Using this we can calculate the forces in the same way as before.
1. Calculate the total force
2. Calculate the pressure force
3. Calculate the body force
4. Calculate the resultant force
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

1. Calculate the total force in the x-direction.

Remember that the co-ordinate system is normal to the plate.
𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝜌 [(𝑄2 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑄3 𝑣3𝑥 ) − 𝑄1 𝑣1𝑥 ]
But 𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣3𝑥 = 0 as the jets are parallel to the plate with no component in the x-direction.

𝑣1𝑥 = 𝑣1 cos θ , So

𝐹𝑇𝑥 = − 𝜌 𝑄1 𝑣1 cos θ

2. Calculate the pressure force

All zero as the pressure is everywhere atmospheric.

3. Calculate the body force

As the control volume is small, hence the weight of fluid is small, we can ignore the body forces.

4. Calculate the resultant force

𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝐵𝑥
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹𝑇𝑥 − 0 − 0 = − 𝜌 𝑄1 𝑣1 cos θ
The force on the plate is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction (𝜌 𝑄1 𝑣1 cos θ).

 We can find out how much discharge goes along in each direction on the plate. Along the
plate, in the y-direction, the total force must be zero, 𝐹𝑇𝑦 = 0
Also in the y-direction:
𝑣1𝑦 = 𝑣1 sin θ 𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣2 𝑣3𝑦 = −𝑣3 , So

𝐹𝑇𝑦 = 𝜌 [(𝑄2 𝑣2𝑦 + 𝑄3 𝑣3𝑦 ) − 𝑄1 𝑣1𝑦 ]

𝐹𝑇𝑦 = 𝜌 [(𝑄2 𝑣2 − 𝑄3 𝑣3 ) − 𝑄1 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ]

As forces parallel to the plate are zero,
0 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑣22 − 𝜌𝐴3 𝑣32 − 𝜌𝐴1 𝑣12 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
From above v1 = v2 = v3
0 = A2 ̶ A3 ̶ A1 sinθ
and from above we have A1 = A2 + A3
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Sin θ
Sin θ)

As
v2 = v3 = v

So we know the discharge in each direction

Example
A 600 mm diameter pipeline carries water under a head of 30 m with velocity of 3 m/s. This
water main is fitted with a horizontal bend which turns the axis of the pipeline through 75º.
Calculate the resultant force on the bend and its angle to the horizontal.( Gravity force = 0).
Sol.
0.6
A1 = A2 = 𝜋 ( 2 )2 = 0.283m2

v1 = v2 = 3 m/s
p1 = γ h = 9800 * 30 = 294300N/m2
A1 v1 = A2 v2 = 0.283 * 3 = 0.849m3 /sec
Fx = ρ Q (v2 cos θ ̶ v1) + 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 ̶ 𝑝1 𝐴1

= 1000 * ( 3*cos75 ̶ 3) + 294300 * 0.283 * cos75 ̶ 294300 * 0.283 = ̶ 63.618 kN

Fy = ρ Q (v2 sin θ) + 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃

= 1000 * ( 3*sin75 ) + 294300 * 0.283 * sins75 = 82.9kN
Then Rx = 63.618 kN Ry = ̶ 82.9kN

𝑅 = √𝐹𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑅𝑦 2 = √(63.618)2 + ( ̶ 82.9)2 = 104.5 kN

𝐹𝑅𝑦 ̶ 82.9
ᶲ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = ̶ 52.5 º
𝐹𝑅𝑥 63.618
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
A pipe bend tapers from a diameter d, of (500) mm at inlet to a diameter d2 of (250mm) at
outlet and turns the flow through an angle (θ) of 45º. Measurements of (p1 & p2) at inlet and
outlet are 40 kN/m2 and 23 kN/m2 . If the pipe is conveying oil which has a density ρ=850 kg/m3 .
Calculate the magnitude and direction of resultant force on the bend when the oil is flowing at
the rate of (0.45) m3 /s. The bend is in a horizontal plan. (Gravity force=0)

Sol.

Fx = ρ Q (v2x ̶ v1x )−( 𝑝1 𝐴1 ̶ 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 )

𝜋 𝜋
Fx = 850 * 0.45 ((9.16 * cos 45) ̶ 2.29 ) ̶ (40*103 * 4 (0.5)2 ̶ 23*103 * 4 (0.25)2 cos 45)

Fx = 7055.65N
Fy = ρ Q (v2y ̶ v1y ) + 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃
𝜋
= 850 * 0.45 (9.16 * sin 45 ̶ 0 ) + 23*103 * 4 (0.25)2 * sin 45 = 18740.9N

→ Ry = ̶ 18740.9N

R = √FRx 2 + FRy 2 = √( 7055.65)2 + ( ̶18740.9)2 = 20643 N

𝐹𝑅𝑦 ̶ 18740.9
ᶲ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = 65 º
𝐹𝑅𝑥 ̶ 8657
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
Consider a jet that is deflected by a stationary vane, such as is given in figure. If the jet speed and
diameter are 25 m/s &25 cm, respectively and jet is deflected 60º, what force is exerted by the jet?

Sol.
First solve for Fx , the x-component of force of the vane on the jet

Therefore Fx = (1000) (1.227) (12.5 ̶ 25) = ̶ 15.3398 kN

Similarly determined, the y-component of force on the jet is

Then the force on the vane will be the reactions to the forces of the vane on the jet as
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

CHAPTER FOUR
FLOW IN CONDUITS
1. Real Fluids
The flow of real fluids exhibits viscous effect, which are they tend to “stick” to solid surfaces
and have stresses within their body
You might remember from earlier in the course Newton’s law of viscosity:

This tells us that the shear stress, t, in a fluid is proportional to the velocity gradient - the rate of
change of velocity across the fluid path. For a “Newtonian” fluid we can write:

Where the constant of proportionality,µ, is known as the coefficient of viscosity (or simply
viscosity). We saw that for some fluids - sometimes known as exotic fluids - the value of µ
changes with stress or velocity gradient. We shall only deal with Newtonian fluids.
In his lecture we shall look at how the forces due to momentum changes on the fluid and viscous
forces compare and what changes take place.

Laminar and turbulent flow

If we were to take a pipe of free flowing water and inject a dye into the middle of the stream,
what would we expect to happen?
Actually both would happen - but for different flow rates.
The lower occurs when the fluid is flowing fast and the top when
it is flowing slowly.
The top situation is known as laminar flow and the lower as
turbulent flow.
In laminar flow the motion of the particles of fluid is very
orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the
pipe walls.
But what
After manyisexperiments
fast or slow? And at
Reynolds sawwhat
that speed does the flow
this expression:
pattern change? And why might we want to know this?
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇 𝜈
Where ρ= Mass density, v = mean velocity, D = diameter ,µ = dynamic viscosity and
ν=kinematic viscosity.
This value is known as the Reynolds number, Re:

What are the units of this Reynolds number? We can fill in the equation with SI units:
𝜌 =kg/m3 v = m/sec D= m µ = kg/(m.sec)

𝜌𝑣𝐷 kg. m. m. s. m
𝑅𝑒 = = =1
𝜇 m3 . s. kg
i.e. it has no units. A quantity that has no units is known as a non-dimensional (or dimensionless)
quantity. Thus the Reynolds number, Re, is a non-dimensional number.
We can go through an example to discover at what velocity the flow in a pipe stops being
laminar.
If the pipe and the fluid have the following properties:

We want to know the maximum velocity when the Re is 2000.

𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜇 𝑅𝑒 0.55∗ 10 −3 ∗2000
𝑅𝑒 = = 2000 →→ 𝑣 = = = 0.0022 m/s
𝜇 𝜌𝐷 1000 ∗0.5

In practice it very rarely occurs in a piped water system - the velocities of flow are much greater.
Laminar flow does occur in situations with fluids of greater viscosity - e.g. in bearing with oil as
the lubricant.
We can say that the number has a physical meaning, by doing so it helps to understand some of
the reasons for the changes from laminar to turbulent flow.
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

It can be interpreted that when the inertial forces dominate over the viscous forces (when the
fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger) then the flow is turbulent. When the viscous forces are
dominant (slow flow, low Re) they are sufficient enough to keep all the fluid particles in line,
then the flow is laminar.
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2. Modified Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
per unit mass is constant along a streamline. In most cases in closed pipes, all streamlines can be
assumed to have the same energy level.
Bernoulli, in his procedure to simplify his equation didn’t take into account:
1. The head loss by the fluid due to friction
2. The change in velocity distribution along any cross-section
3. He assumed that no energy is added or removed from the system, so, he didn’t consider
having pumps (adding energy) or turbines (extracting energy).

For those reasons, Bernoulli’s Equation can be modified to take account of friction effects, hf:

Where:
hf is the “head” loss due to friction.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

The head loss (hf) term in equation above is responsible for head loss due to fluid shear at the
pipe wall, called pipe friction, The head loss due to pipe friction is always present throughout
the length of the pipe.
And additional head loss caused by local disruptions of the fluid stream. The local disruptions,
called local losses, are caused by valves, pipe bends, and other such fittings. Local losses may
also be called minor losses if their effect, individually and/or collectively, will not contribute
significantly in the determination of the flow; indeed, sometimes minor losses are expected to be
inconsequential and are neglected. Or a preliminary survey of design alternatives may ignore the
local or minor losses, considering them only in a later design stage. Each type of head loss will
now be considered further.

DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION
The completely general functional relation τ w = F(V, D, ρ, μ, e) between the wall shear stress τw
and the mean velocity V, pipe diameter D, fluid density ρ, and viscosity μ, and the equivalent
sand-grain roughness e can be reduced by dimensional analysis to

&
𝐿 𝑣2 𝐿 𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔𝐴 2

In this equation, the friction factor (𝑓) is a function of the pipe Reynolds number (Re=ρvD/µ =
𝑒
vD/ν) and the equivalent sand-grain roughness factor(𝐷).
𝑒
For each pipe material either a single value or range of (𝐷) values has been established; Table

below presents common values for several materials.

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The Moody diagram for the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor f.

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Because commercially available pipes of any material display some heterogeneity or unevenness
in roughness, any friction factor or its empirical equivalents cannot be known with multiple-digit
precision. The functional behavior of (f) is displayed fully in the Moody diagram.
In the Moody diagram, we see several zones that characterize different kinds of pipe flow. First
we note that the plot is logarithmic along both axes. Below the Reynolds number Re = 2100
(some authors prefer 2300) there is only one line, which can be derived solely from the laminar,
viscous flow equations without experimental input; the resulting friction factor for laminar flow
is f = 64/Re. Because there is only one line in this region, we say all pipes are hydraulically
smooth in laminar flow. Then for Reynolds numbers up to, say, 4000 is a so-called "critical"
zone in which the flow changes from laminar flow to weakly turbulent flow.

EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
Empirical head loss equations have a long and honorable history of use in pipeline problems.
Their initial use preceded by decades the development of the Moody diagram, and they are still
commonly used today in professional practice. Some prefer to continue to use such an equation
owing simply to force of habit, while others prefer it to avoid some of the difficulties of
determining the friction factor in the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Table below summarizes the relations that describe the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (f).

DARCY-WEISBACH FRICTION EQUATIONS

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

3. Simple Pipe Problem

Six variables enter into the problem for incompressible fluid, which are Q, L, D, hf, v, and e.
Three of them are given (L, V, and e) and three will be find. Now, the problems type can be
solved as follows,
Problem Given To find (unknown)
I Q, L, D, v, e hf
II hf, L, D, v, e Q
III Q, L, hf, v, e D

In each of the above problem the following are used to find the unknown quantity
i. The Darcy – Weisbach Equation.
ii. The Continuity Equation.
iii. The Moody diagram.

In place of the Moody diagram, the following explicit formula for (f) may be utilized with the
restrictions placed on it

The last equation is given by Haaland which varies less than 2% from Moody chart.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

3. Solution Procedures.
I. Solution for head loss (𝒉𝒇 ).
With Q, e, and D are known
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜈
And f may be looked up Moody diagram or calculated from empirical equations given.

Example
Determine the head (energy) loss (friction losses) for flow of 140 l/s of oil ν=0.00001 m2 /s
through 400 m of 200 mm, diameter cost–iron pipe (e=0.25m).
Sol.
𝑄 𝑄 0.14
v= = 𝜋 2 = 𝜋 = 4.456m/s
𝐴 𝐷 0.22
4 4
𝑣𝐷 4.456 ×0.2
𝑅𝑒 = = = 89127
𝜈 0.00001

The relation roughness is e/D= 0.25/200= 0.00125 from a given diagram by interpolation
1.325
f= 0.023 or by equation 𝑓 = 2 = 0.0234
𝑒
[ln ( + 5.74 )]
3.7𝐷 𝑅𝑒0.9

𝐿 𝑣2 400 4.456 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔 = 0.023 0.2 × = 46.58m.
2𝑔

II. Solution for discharge (Q)

v & f Are unknown then Darcy – Weisbach equation and moody diagram must be used
simultaneously to find their values.
1. Givens: e/D
(f) Value is assumed by inspection of the Moody diagram.
2. Substitution of this trail f into the Darcy – equation produce a trial value of (v).
3. From v a trial Re is computed.
4. An improved value of ( f ) is found from moody diagram with help of Re.
5- When ( f ) has been found correct the corresponding v and Q is determined by multiplying by
the area.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
Water at 15 ºC (ν = 1.13*10 ̶6 m2 /s) flow through a 300mm diameter riveted steel pipe, e=3mm
with a head loss of 6 m in 300 m. Determine the flow.
Sol.
The relative roughness is e/d = 0.003/0.3=0.01, and from diagram a trial f is taken as (0.038). By
substituting into Darcy equation:
𝐿 𝑣2 300 𝑣2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔 = 0.038 0.3 × 2(9.81) →→→ v = 1.76m/s
𝑣𝐷 1.715 ×0.3
𝑅𝑒 = = = 467278
𝜈 1.13×10 −6

From the Moody diagram at (Re & e/D) f=0.038

ℎ𝑓 ∗𝐷∗2𝑔 6∗0.3∗2∗9.81
And from Darcy → 𝑣 = √ =√ = 1.76m/s
𝑓∗𝐿 0.038∗300

6∗0.3∗2∗9.81 𝜋 0.32
∴ 𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴 = √
0.038∗300
∗ 4
= 0.1245m3 /s

III. Solution for Diameter (D)

Three unknowns in Darcy-equation f, v, D, two in the continuity equation v, D and three in the
Re number equation. To element the velocity in Darcy equation & in the expression for Re,
simplifies the problem as follows.
𝐿 𝑄2 8𝐿𝑄2 𝑓𝐿𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷2 𝜋
2 Or 𝐷 5 = 2
𝑓 (( ∴ 𝐷 5 = in S.I units))
𝐷 ℎ𝑓 𝑔 𝜋 12.1ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 ( )
4

The solution is now affected by the following procedure:

1- Assume the value of ( f ).
𝑓𝐿𝑄2
2- Solve for (D) using 𝐷 5 = .
12.1ℎ𝑓

3- Find Re.
4- Find the relative roughness e/D.
5- With Re and e/D, Look up new f from Moody diagram.
6- Use the new f, and repeat the procedure.
7- When the value of f does not change in the two significant steps, all equations are satisfied and
the problem is solved.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
Determine the size of clean wrought- iron pipe (e=0.00015 ft) required to convey 8.93 cfs oil,
ν=0.0001 ft2 /s , 10000 ft with a head loss of 75 ft .lb/lb.
Sol.
If f=0.02 (assumed value)
8𝐿𝑄2 8∗10000∗8.93 2 𝑒
𝐷5 = 2
𝑓= ∗ 0.02 →→ D= 1.35 ft. ∴ = 0.00011
ℎ𝑓 𝑔 𝜋 75∗32.2∗ 𝜋 2 𝐷

𝑣𝐷 4𝑄 1 4∗8.93 1
𝑅𝑒 = = = = 81400
𝜈 𝜋𝜈 𝐷 𝜋∗0.0001 1.35
𝑒
Applying = 0.00011 & 𝑅𝑒 =81400 on Moody diagram we can get f value
𝐷

∴ 𝑓 = 0.0191
In repeating the procedure, D = 1.37 ft →→ Re = 82991 →→f = 0.019
Therefore
D = 1.382 * 12 = 16.6 in.

4. Pumps & Turbines

If a pump is placed between the two points then the equation is modified to take account of the
energy addition due to the pump.

hP is the pressure head rise through the pump.

N m3 N.m
PP = γ * Q* hP ( ∗ ∗ m) = = Watt "W"
m3 s s

Where (PP ) is the power of pump and also named water power.
The mechanical power to operate the pump must be larger; it is called the brake horsepower
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
The power = =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 η

If a turbine is placed between

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

the two points then the equation is further modified to take account of the energy extraction due
to the turbine:

hT is the pressure head drop through the turbine.

N m3 N.m
PT = γ * Q* hT ( ∗ ∗ m) = = Watt "W"
m3 s s

Where (PT ) is the power of turbine

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 η
The power = =
𝑃𝑇 𝑃𝑇

Example
A pump delivers water (ν=1.007*10-6 m2 /s) from a tank (A) (water surface elevation=110m) to
tank B (water surface elevation= 170m). The suction pipe is 45m long and 35cm in diameter the
delivered pipe -is 950m long 25cm in diameter. Loss head due to friction hf1 = 5m and hf2 = 3m
If the piping are from
Pipe (1) = steel sheet metal (e1 = 0.05mm)
Pipe (2) = stainless – steel (e2 = 0.002mm)
Calculate the following
i) The discharge in the pipeline ii) The power delivered by the pump.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Sol.
D1 = 35 cm = 0.35m; D2 = 25cm = 0.25m
L1 = 45m; L2 = 950m
𝑒1 0.05 𝑒2 0.002
= = 1.428 ∗ 10−4 , = = 8 ∗ 10−6
𝐷1 350 𝐷2 250
Assume f 1 = 0.013; f 2 = 0.008
𝐿1 𝑣2
1 45 𝑣12
ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑓1 ∴ 5 = 0.013 × → 𝑣1 = 7.66𝑚/𝑠
𝐷1 2𝑔 0.35 2(9.81)
𝑣𝐷 7.66×0.35
𝑅𝑒1 = = = 2662363 = 2.66*106
𝜈 1.007×10 −6

𝐿2 𝑣22 950 𝑣2
2
ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑓2 ∴ 3 = 0.008 × → 𝑣2 = 1.39𝑚/𝑠
𝐷2 2𝑔 0.25 2(9.81)
𝑣𝐷 1.39×0.25
𝑅𝑒2 = = = 2662363 = 3.45*105
𝜈 1.007×10 −6

1st. Trial
𝑒1 𝑒2
(𝑅𝑒1 & ) →→ 𝑓1 = 0.0138 (𝑅𝑒2 & ) →→ 𝑓2 = 0.014
𝐷1 𝐷2

Then,
45 𝑣2 𝑚
∴ ℎ𝑓1 = 5 = 0.0138 × 1
→ 𝑣1 = 7.435 → 𝑅𝑒1 = 2.58 ∗ 106
0.35 2(9.81) 𝑠

950 𝑣12 𝑚
∴ ℎ𝑓2 = 3 = 0.014 × → 𝑣2 = 1.051 → 𝑅𝑒2 = 2.6 ∗ 105
0.25 2(9.81) 𝑠
2nd. Trial
𝑒 𝑒
(𝑅𝑒1 & 𝐷1 ) →→ 𝑓1 = 0.0165 (𝑅𝑒2 & 𝐷2 ) →→ 𝑓2 = 0.015
1 2

45 𝑣2 𝑚
∴ ℎ𝑓1 = 5 = 0.0165 × 1
→ 𝑣1 = 6.8 → 𝑅𝑒1 = 2.36 ∗ 106
0.35 2(9.81) 𝑠

950 𝑣2 𝑚
∴ ℎ𝑓2 = 3 = 0.015 × 1
→ 𝑣2 = 1.01 → 𝑅𝑒2 = 2.52 ∗ 105
0.25 2(9.81) 𝑠

3rd. Trial
𝑒 𝑒
(𝑅𝑒1 & 𝐷1 ) →→ 𝑓1 = 0.0169 (𝑅𝑒2 & 𝐷2 ) →→ 𝑓2 = 0.015
1 2

45 𝑣2
1 𝑚
∴ ℎ𝑓1 = 5 = 0.0169 × → 𝑣1 = 6.72
0.35 2(9.81) 𝑠
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

950 𝑣12 𝑚
∴ ℎ𝑓2 = 3 = 0.015 × → 𝑣2 = 1.01
0.25 2(9.81) 𝑠
Q= A2 v2 = 0.6462 m3 /s
From energy equation

0 0
68m
68m

Example
In a pipeline of diameter 350mm and length 75m, water is flowing at a velocity of 2.8 m/s. Find
the head lost due to friction, using Darcy-Eq.& Moody chart, pipe material is Steel–Riveted
(e=3mm) ,kinematic viscosity ν= 0.012 stoke.
Sol.

𝐿 𝑣2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 , D = 0.35m, L = 75m; v = 2.8 m/s , e/D= 0.003/0.35= 8.57*10-3
𝐷 2𝑔
𝑚2 𝑚2
1 = 104 stoke ∴ ν = 0012 × 10−4
𝑠 𝑠

vD 2.8×0.35
Re = = = 816666 ≈ 8.1 × 105
ν 0012×10−4
𝑒
𝐴𝑡 𝑅𝑒 & we can find f from Moody diagram f = 0.0358
𝐷

75 (2.8 )2
∴ ℎ𝑓 = 0.0358 × = 3.0 m
0.35 2(9.81)
𝑒 1.11
1 6.9 𝐷
By determine the value of f by 1 ≈ −1.8 log [ +( ) ]
𝑓 ⁄2 𝑅𝑒 𝐷 3.7
0.003 1.11
1 6.9 0.35
∴ 1 ≈ −1.8log [ +( ) ] = 5.2646
𝑓 ⁄2 8.1×10 5 ×0.35 3.7

Then f = 0.036 i.e. f difference = 0.0002

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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
Oil having absolute viscosity 0.1 Pa.s and relative density 0.85 flow through an iron pipe with
diameter 305mm and length 3048 m with flow rate 44.4*10-3 m3 /s . Determine the head loss in
pipe.
Sol.
𝑄 𝑄 44.4×10 −3 ρvD 850×0.61×0.305
v= = 𝜋 2 = 𝜋
(0.305 )2
= 0.61m/s Re = = = 1580
𝐴
4
𝐷
4
μ 0.1

i.e. the flow is Laminar

𝐿 𝑣2 3048 (0.61)2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 0.0407 × = 7.71𝑚
𝐷 2𝑔 0.305 2(9.81)

5. Minor Losses.
A local loss is any energy loss, in addition to that of pipe friction alone, caused by some
localized disruption of the flow by some flow appurtenances, such as valves, bends, and other
fittings. The actual dissipation of this energy occurs over a finite but not necessarily short
longitudinal section of the pipe line, but it is an accepted convention in hydraulics to lump or
concentrate the entire amount of this loss at the location of the device that causes the flow
disruption and loss. If a loss is sufficiently small in comparison with other energy losses and with
pipe friction, it may be regarded as a minor loss. Often minor losses are neglected in preliminary
studies or when they are known to be quite small, as will often happen when the pipes are very
long. However, some local losses can be so large or significant that they will never be termed a
minor loss, and they must be retained; one example is a valve that is only partly open.
Normally, theory alone is unable to quantify the magnitudes of the energy losses caused by
these devices, so the representation of these losses depends heavily upon experimental data.
The losses which occur in pipelines because of bend, elbows, joints, valves, etc, are called
minor losses hm. the total losses in pipeline are
ℎL = ℎf + ℎm
𝑣2
Local losses are usually computed from the equation: ℎ𝑚 = 𝑘 2𝑔
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Also, others minor losses can be explain as follows,

A. Losses due to sudden expansion in pipe.

𝑣 21
ℎ𝑚 = 𝑘
2𝑔
𝐴1 2 𝐷1 2
𝑘 = (1 − ) = (1 − )
𝐴2 𝐷2
𝐷1 2
If sudden expansion from pipe to a reservoir = 0 Then ℎ𝑚 = 𝑣2𝑔1
𝐷2

B. Head loss due to a sudden contraction in the pipe cross section.

𝑣2 2
ℎ𝑚 = 𝑘 2𝑔

2
1
𝑘 = ( − 1)
𝐶𝐶
AC is the cross – sectional area of the vena-contracts
𝐴𝐶
CC is the coefficient of contraction is defined by 𝐶𝐶 =
𝐴2

C. The head loss at the entrance to a pipe line.

From a reservoir the head losses is usually taken as

Table below lists the loss coefficient K for four types of valve, three angles of elbow fitting and
two tee connections. Fitting may be connected by either internal screws or flanges, hence the two
are listings.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Entrance losses are highly dependent upon entrance geometry, but exit losses are not. Sharp
edges or protrusions in the entrance cause large zones of flow separation and large losses as
shown in figure.

Entrance and exit loss

coefficients,
(a) Reentrant inlets,
(b) Rounded and
beveled inlets.
Exit losses are K=1.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

As in Fig. 7.10, a bend or curve in a pipe, always induces a loss larger than the simple Moody
friction loss, due to flow separation at the walls and a swirling secondary flow arising from
centripetal acceleration.

Example
Water, ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft3 , and ν= 1.1*10-5 ft2 /s , is pumped between two reservoir at 0.2 ft3 /s
through 400ft. of 2in. diameter pipe and several minor losses, as shown in figure. The roughness
ratio is e/D = 0.001. Compute the horse power required.
Fitting K
The minor loss coefficients are as shown .
Sharp entrance 0.5
Open globe valve 6.9
12-in bend 0.15
Regular 90 elbow 0.95
Half – closed gate valve 3.8
Sharp exit 1
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Sol.
Write the steady- flow energy equation between section 1 &2 the two reservoir surface:

Where hP is the head increase across the pump & p1 = p2 , v1 = v2 ≈ 0,

Solve for the pump head

2
vD 9.17×
12
Calculate the Re and pipe friction factor Re = = = 139000
ν 1.1×10 −5

∑ 𝑘 = 13.3

For e/D = 0.001, from the Moody chart read f = 0.0216

( 9.17 ) 2 0.0216 ( 400 )

∴ ℎ𝑃 = 100 + [ 2 + 13.3] ∴ ℎ𝑃 = 184𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
2( 32.2) ( )
12

ft lb
PP = ρg* Q* hP = 1.94(32.2) * 0.2 * 184 = 2300 sec
ft lb 2300
1 h.p. = 550 then horsepower = = 4.2 h.p.
sec 550
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Example
Find the discharge through the pipeline as in below figure for H=10m,.(Kentrance = 0.5 , K elbow=
0.26 , Kvalve = 10 ). Roughness =0.26mm. ν = 1.01*10-6 m2 /s

Sol.
The energy equation applied between points 1 & 2, including all the losses, may be written
I)
𝑣22 𝑣2 102 𝑣22 𝑣2 𝑣2
10 + 0 + 0 = + 0 + 0 + 0.5 2 + 𝑓 + 2 × 0.26 2 + 10 2
2𝑔 2𝑔 0.2032 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑣22
∴ 10 = ( 6.32 + 502 𝑓) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
2𝑔
e/D = 0.26/203.2 = 1.28*10-3
Assume f = 0.0205
Apply on eqn (1)
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

𝑣22
10 = ( 6.32 + 502 × 0.0205) →→ 𝑣2 = 3.43𝑚/𝑠
2𝑔
vD 3.43×0.2032
e/D = 0.00128 Re = = = 391000
ν 1.01×10 −6

From Moody chart at (e/D = 0.00128 & Re = 391000) →→ f = 0.021

Repeating the procedure gives v2 = 2.6m/s
Re= 380000 & f = 0.023
The discharge is
𝜋
Q= A2 v2 = 4 (0.2032)2 × 2.6 = 84.3l/𝑠

6. Pipe in Series
In this typical series–pipe system as in figure shown, the H (head) is required for a given Q or the
Q wanted for a given H. Applying the energy equation from A to B including all losses gives:

𝑣12 𝐿 𝑣 2 (𝑣 − 𝑣1 )2 𝐿 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝐻 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 𝐾𝑒 + 𝑓1 1 1 + 2 + 𝑓2 2 2 + 2
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔
From continuity eqn.
𝑣1 𝐷12 = 𝑣2 𝐷22
So,
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

𝑣2 𝐿 𝐷 2 2 𝐿 𝐷 4 𝐷 4
𝐻 = 2𝑔1 {𝐾𝑒 + 𝑓1 𝐷1 + [1 − (𝐷1 ) ] + 𝑓2 𝐷2 (𝐷1 ) + (𝐷1 ) } ………(1)
1 2 2 2 2

For known lengths and sizes of pipes this reduces to

𝑣2
𝐻 = 2𝑔1 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑓1 + 𝐶3 𝑓2 ) ……………………(2)

Where 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶3 are known.

 Q is given then Re is computed and f may be looked up in Moody diagram then H is

found by direct substitution.
 For a given H, the values of v1 , f 1 , f 2 are unknown in the equation (2)
By Assuming values of f 1 & f 2 (may be equaled) then v1 is found 1st. trail and from v1 → Re's are
determined and values of f 1 & f 2 look up from Moody diagram.
From these values, a better v1 is computed from Eq. (1)since f varies so slightly with Re the trial
solution converges very rapidly. The same procedures apply for more than two pieces in series.

Example
From figure in (Page 77), given : K e = 0.5 , L1 =300m , D1 =600mm , e1 =2mm , L2 =240m ,
D2 =1m , e2 =0.3mm , ν = 3*10-6 m2 /s , and H=6m. Determine the discharge through the system.
Sol.
From energy equation:
2
𝑣12 𝐿1 𝐷1 2 𝐿 2 𝐷1 4 𝐷1 4
𝐻= {𝐾 + 𝑓1 + [1 − ( ) ] + 𝑓2 ( ) + ( ) }
2𝑔 𝑒 𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷2 𝐷2 𝐷2
2
𝑣2 300 0.6 2 240 0.6 4 0.6 4
6 = 1 {0.5 + 𝑓1 + [1 − ( ) ] + 𝑓2 ( ) + ( ) }
2𝑔 0.6 1 1 1 1

After simplifying
𝑣12
6= (1.0329 + 500𝑓1 + 31.104𝑓2 )
2𝑔
From e1 /D1 = 0.0033 & e2 /D2 = 0.0003, and Moody diagram values of f’s are assumed for the
fully turbulent range.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

7. Pipes in Parallel.
The second type of pipe- system is the parallel flow type, in this case as shown in figure below ,
the head losses are same in any of the lines and the total flow is the sum of flow rate in each pipe.
The minor losses are added into the lengths of each pipe as equivalent lengths. From the figure,
the conditions to be satisfied are

𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝐵
ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3 = + 𝑧𝐴 − ( + 𝑧𝐵 )
𝛾 𝛾

𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 𝑄𝐵
zA & zB are the elevations of point A&B. Q is the discharge through the approach pipes.
Two types of problems occur
1) The elevations of HGL at A&B are known, to find the discharge.
2) Q is known, to find the distribution of flow and the head loss, size of pipe, fluid properties and
roughness's are assumed to be known.
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Case-1. as the simple pipe problem. Since, head loss is the drop in HGL. These discharges are
added to determine the total discharge.
Case-2. The recommended procedure is as follows.
1. Assume a discharge 𝑄′ , through pipe 1.
2. Solve for ℎ𝑓′1 using assumed discharge.

3. Using ℎ𝑓′1 find 𝑄′ 2 , 𝑄′ 3 .

4. With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given Q is split
up among the pipes in the same proportion as 𝑄′ 1 , 𝑄′ , 𝑄′ 3 thus
2

𝑄′ 1 𝑄′ 2 𝑄′ 3
𝑄1 = ∑ 𝑄 ; 𝑄2 = ∑ 𝑄 ; 𝑄3 = ∑ 𝑄
𝑄′ 𝑄′ 𝑄′

5. Check the correctness of these discharges by computing ℎ𝑓1 , ℎ𝑓2 ,ℎ𝑓3 for the computing

𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄3

Example
In the last figure , L1 =3000ft , D1 =1ft, e1 = 0.001ft.
L2 =2000ft, D2 =8in., e2 = 0.0001ft
L3 =4000ft, D3 =16in., e3 = 0.0008ft
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑓𝑡2
𝜌 = 2.00 𝜈 = 0.00003
𝑓𝑡3 𝑠

𝑝𝐴 = 80𝑝𝑠𝑖 , 𝑧𝐴 = 100𝑓𝑡. , 𝑧𝐵 = 80𝑓𝑡.

For a total flow of 12 cfs, determine the flow through each pipe and the pressure at B.
Sol.
For pipe 1

Assume 𝑄′ 1 = 3𝑐𝑓𝑠 ,, then 𝑣 ′ 1 = 3.82𝑓𝑡/𝑠

3.82×1
𝑅𝑒 ′ 1 = = 127000
0.00003

𝑒1 0.001
= 0.001 From Moody chart 𝑓 ′ 1= 0.022
𝐷1 1
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

For pipe 2

Assume 𝑓 ′ 1 = 0.020 (Recommended fully turbulent flow)

𝑒2
= 0.00015
𝐷2

For pipe 3

𝑒3
= 0.0006
𝐷3
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FLUID MECHANICS Dr.Yasir Al-Ani

Check the values of ℎ𝑓1 , ℎ𝑓2 , ℎ𝑓3

𝑒1
𝑅𝑒1 (152000)& (0.001) →→→ 𝑓1 = 0.021 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑓 = 20.4𝑓𝑡.
𝐷1 1

𝑒2
𝑅𝑒2 (109200)& (0.00015) →→→ 𝑓2 = 0.019 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑓 = 21.6𝑓𝑡.
𝐷2 2

𝑒3
𝑅𝑒3 (213000)& (0.0006) →→→ 𝑓3 = 0.019 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑓 = 20.4𝑓𝑡.
𝐷3 3

is about midway between 0.018 & 0.019. to satisfy the condition ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3

ft.