Chemistry

9 Cambridge
Term I (2024-2025)
Notes
Worksheets

Teacher: Neelam Inayat

1
Syllabus

2
3
4
5
12.5 Collection of gases and drying agents

6
Chapter 1
States of Matter

7
1.1 Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases
Matter

Substances which have both mas and volume and

also where particles occupy space are called matter.
Matter has defined volume except for gases though
they still contain molecules.

Non-Matter

Substances which has neither mass nor volume and

thus having no spaces (obviously) or we can say that
doesn’t have any appearance but exists.

States of Matter

The three states of matter are:

 Solids
 Liquids
 Gases

Properties of States of Matter

8
Properties of Solids

The particles in solids are:

 Packed close together

 In a regular arrangement
(means repeating pattern)
or lattice (a giant structure)
 Not able to move freely, but simply vibrate in their fixed positions.

Melting

When the temperature is raised, the particles gain energy and vibrate strongly;
the particles occupy more space – the causes the solid to expand.

Eventually the particles have enough energy to break the force holding the lattice
together, and they can move around – the solid melts.

The reverse of melting is

called freezing.

Properties of Liquids

The particles in a liquid are:

 Closely packed
together but not
orderly arranged as
in solids.
 Present in irregular arrangement.
 Able to move around pass each other.

Evaporation and Boiling

On heating the particles move faster and the liquid expands. In the liquid, some
particles have enough energy to escape form the surface – evaporation takes
place.

9
As the temperature rises, more particles have enough energy to escape –
evaporation is faster at higher temperatures.

At the boiling point, the particles have enough energy to break the forces
attracting them together (intermolecular forces) – the particles move very fast
and separate from each other – the liquid boils.

Properties of Gases

The particles in a gas are:

 Arranged totally irregularly.

 Spread very far apart compared to
solids and liquids.
 Able to move randomly.

10
Summary

11
Worksheet 1.1

12
 1.2 Structures of Solids, Liquids and Gases In Terms Of Particles Separation,
Arrangement and Motion

STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Packed tightly together No distinct / Irregular pattern far apart
Particle in a fixed arrangement recognizable
Arrangement / pattern arrangement

No separation / packed Packed closely Widely separated

Separation
tightly
Can only vibrate in a Particles can move Can move freely at great
fixed position (not freely) and speed and collide with each
Motion
slide around each other and with the walls of a
other container
Particle arrangement, separation and motion in states of matter.

KINETIC PARTICLE THEOREY OF MATTER

 Kinetic particle theory tells us about:
 The properties / behavior of the 3 states of matter and the changes
between the states in term of movement of particles.

 The theory is developed on the idea that all matter is made of tiny particles
called atoms. It further can be elaborated as:
 Each element is composed of its own types of atoms.
 Atoms of different elements can combine to form the molecule of a
compound.

13
MAIN POINTS OF KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY:

1. Small Particles:

All matter is made up of very small particles. These small particles can be
atoms, molecules or ions.

2. Effects of Temperature on Particles:

Particles are moving / vibrating all the time.

The higher the temperature


Greater will be the Kinetic energy of particles.

Greater will be the movement of particles.

So, in case of gases, increased temperature will result in increased volume of the
gas.
Thus, Temperature is directly proportional to the volume of gas.
𝑇��∝𝑉�

3. Distinctive Feature of States:

The freedom of movement and the arrangement of the particles is different for
the three states of matter.

4. Effect of Pressure on Particles (only in gases):

14
Pressure of a gas is produced as a result of collision of gas particles with the walls
of container. If the external pressure is increased the volume of gas will decrease
resulting in increased pressure of the gas. Similarly, if the volume is increased, the
pressure of gas will be decreased.
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other.
1
𝑃� ∝ �
𝑉

15
 Worksheet 1.2

Complete the following table

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Packed tightly together Irregular pattern far apart
in a fixed arrangement
Particle / pattern
Arrangement

Widely separated

Separation

Can only vibrate in a

fixed position

Motion

16
17
1.3 Changes in States in Terms of Kinetic Particle Theory
CHANGES IN STATES

Room Temperature

For scientific work, room temperature is taken to be 25 °C

Atmospheric pressure

For scientific work, atmospheric pressure is taken to be 1 atm.

A substance with melting point below 25 °C and boiling point above 25 °C is

liquid at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.

18
The processes of melting, freezing, boiling (vaporization), evaporation and
condensation, that have already been explained, are summarized in the following
figure:

Pure Substance:
A substance consists of only one entity / substance without any contaminating
impurities or a single element / compound. It melts / boils at precise temperature.

Melting and boiling points of few substances:

(Don’t memorize the given table, just see the states of given substances at room
temperature)

19
EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES:

Impurities affect the melting or boiling of a substance at a precise temperature.

Rather the substance melts / freezes boils / condenses at ranges of temperatures.
Water has a b.p = 100 °C at atmospheric pressure.
Its f.p / m.p = 0 °C at atmospheric pressure.

However if we add salt in water, the solution boils at temperatures greater than
100 °C (called increasing of b.p) and its freezes at below 0 °C (called decreasing of
f.p). This phenomenon explains the sprinkling of salt on roads with frozen water.

SUBLIMATION

Changes in states in terms of Kinetic Particle Theory

20
MELTING / FREEZING IN TERMS OF KPT:

Solids have greater inter-molecular forces



When the temperature is increased



The kinetic energy of the molecules also increases



Resulting in comparatively greater movement of particles and weakening of

intermolecular forces.

Reverse happens in case of freezing.

BOILING / CONDENSATION IN TERMS OF KPT:

Liquids have comparatively weak inter-molecular forces than solids but

stronger than gases.


When temperature is increased (at constant pressure)

Kinetic energy of molecules increases. Their movement increases and inter-
molecular forces weaken.


Resulting in conversion into a gaseous state.

Reverse happens in case of condensation.

21
Worksheet 1.3

22
1.4 Explanation and Interpretation of heating and cooling curves in
terms of KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY
Determining The Change In Temperature With State:

Change in temperature, melting point, of a substance can be measured by taking a

solid in narrow tube called fusion tube and setting it on the apparatus shown
below. Change in temperature can be observed through thermometer.

COOLING CURVE:

Cooling of a gas can be interpreted in the form of a graph as follows:

23
Interpretation of Cooling Curve in Terms of Kinetic Particle Theory:

Gas is being cooled

In this region following steps take place:

1. Intermolecular forces become stronger.

2. Kinetic energy of particles decreases.

3. Separation between particles decrease. Till 1 – 3, the temperature is

decreasing. Only gas is present.

4. (the horizontal part) the kinetic energy of the molecules remains the same
as there is no net change in temperature. This is because energy is used in
developing intermolecular forces. During this time both gas and liquid are
present (transition period). At the end of the horizontal part, gas is
completely converted to liquid.

Liquid is being cooled

The following steps take place:
1. Intermolecular forces become even stronger.
24
 2. Kinetic energy of particles decreases even more.
3. Separation between particles decreases. Till 1 – 3, the temperature
decreases. Only liquid is present.
4. (the horizontal part) the kinetic energy of the molecules remains the same
as there is no net change in temperature. This is because energy is used in
developing intermolecular forces.
During this time both liquid and solid are present. This period is called
transition period. At the end of the horizontal part, liquid is completely converted
to solid.

Solid is being cooled:

The following steps take place:
1. The temperature decreases.
2. Kinetic energy of molecules decreases.

HEATING CURVE:

Heating of a solid (conversion from solid to gas) can be seen through following
graph.

25
Interpretation of Heating Curve in Terms of Kinetic Particle Theory:

Solid is being heated:

1. Intermolecular forces become weaker.

2. Kinetic energy of particles increases.

3. Separation between particles decreases. Till 1 – 3, the temperature is

increasing. Only solid is present.

4. (Horizontal part – the solid melts) the kinetic energy of the molecules
remains the same as there is no net change in temperature.

This is because energy is being used to overcome the strong inter-molecular

forces is solids.

During this time both solid and liquid are present (transition period). At the
end of the horizontal part, solid is completely converted to liquid.

Liquid is being Heated:

1. Intermolecular forces become even weaker.

2. Kinetic energy of particles increases. Even more

3. Separation between particles increases.CTill 1 – 3, the temperature

increases. Only liquid is present.

4. (Horizontal part – the liquid boils) the kinetic energy of the molecules
remains the same as there is no net change in temperature.

This is because energy is being used to overcome the strong inter-molecular

forces is liquid.

During this time both liquid and gas are present. This period is called
transition period. At the end of the horizontal part, liquid is completely converted
to gas.

26
Gas is being heated:

• The temperature increases.

• Kinetic energy of molecules increases.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATUE AND PRESSURE ON THE VOLUME OF A GAS IN TERMS

OF KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY:

Effect of Pressure:

Changing the external pressure on a sample of a gas produces a change in volume

that can easily be seen.

• An increase in external pressure produces a ‘contraction’ in volume. The gas

is compressed.

Pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

1
𝑃� ∝ �
𝑉
• A decrease in external pressure produces an increase in volume. The gas
expands.

Effect of Temperature:

The volume of a gas is also altered by changes in temperature.

• An increase in temperature of a gas produces an increase in volume. The

gas expands.

Temperature and volume are directly proportional.

𝑇� ∝ �𝑉

27
• A decrease in temperature produces a contraction of the volume of a gas.

28
Worksheet 1.4

29
30
1.5 Diffusion

Diffusion Defined

Diffusion is the process by which same or different states of matter mix as a result
of motion of their particles from the region of high concentration to the region of
low concentration.

Rate of Diffusion

Examples of Diffusion:

31
1. Solids in Solids: Not possible.

2. Solids in Liquids: Potassium magnate (VII) crystal

in water.

3. Solids in Gas: Camphor in air.

The process includes 2 steps.
Sublimation.
Diffusion.

4. Liquids in Solids: Not possible.

5. Liquids in Liquids: Alcohol in water

6. Liquids in Gas: Bromine (reddish-brown) in air.

The process consists of 2 steps actually
Evaporation
Diffusion

7. Gas in Solids: Not possible.

8. Gas in Liquids: Oxygen in water.

Like oxygen dissolved in marine water to support marine life.
Or CO2 (g) is dissolved in fizzy drinks.

9. Gas in Gas: Hydrogen sulfide gas (smells like rotten eggs) in air.

THE PROCESS OF DIFFUSION IN TERMS OF KPT:

32
The process of diffusion is related to the movement of particles and the tendency
of movement of particles (which depends on kinetic energy of particles) is what
decides the rate of diffusion.

𝐾�𝑖�𝑛�𝑒�𝑡�𝑖�𝑐� 𝑒�𝑛�𝑒�𝑟�𝑔�𝑦� ∝ 𝑅�𝑎�𝑡�𝑒� 𝑜�𝑓� 𝐷�𝑖�𝑓�𝑓�𝑢�𝑠�𝑖�𝑜�𝑛�

It explains why gases show the highest rate of diffusion and solids lowest.

33
Worksheet 1.5a

1. A small amount of liquid bromine is placed in a gas jar, which is then sealed
with a lid. Evaporation of the liquid bromine takes place.

Use the ideas of the kinetic theory to explain why, after about an hour, the
gaseous bromine molecules have spread to evenly occupy the whole
container.

34
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF DIFFUSION:

Rate of diffusion is affected mainly by two factors:

1. Molecular mass.
2. Temperature.

Effect of MOLECULAR MASS:

Lower the molecular mass, greater will be the rate of diffusion.

This can be explained by the reaction of Ammonia and hydrochloric acid through
following experiment.

Ammonium chloride (𝑁𝐻 𝐶𝑙) is formed

on the left side of the tube because rate of diffusion of ammonia is faster than
hydrochloric acid due to the lower molecular mass of ammonia.

35
Effect of Molecular Mass in Terms of KPT:

Kinetic energy is dependent on molecular mass. Greater the molecular mass of

the particle, lower will be its kinetic energy.
Therefore, the movement (rate of diffusion) will decrease with increasing
molecular mass.

Effect Of Temperature:

The rate of diffusion increases with increased temperature.

For example:
A lump of sugar dissolves faster in hot water than in cold water.
Smell disappears much faster in hot weather than in cold weather.

Effect of Temperature in Terms of KPT:

This is because particles can move faster at higher temperatures due to greater
Kinetic energy from the surroundings.

36
Worksheet 1.5b

A student carried out a class demonstration on diffusion similar to that using

ammonia (Mr = 17) and hydrochloric acid (Mr = 36.5).
However, he replaced the ammonia with methylamine (Mr = 31), which reacts in a
similar way to ammonia.
Draw to show where would you predict the position of the smoke ring to be in this
experiment.
Also explain your answer.

37
Comparison of rate of diffusion of different gases

Which gas will diffuse faster? It can be deducted using the following experiment
called porous pot experiment:

Let’s compare the rates of diffusion of air and hydrogen molecules using porous
pot experiment

1. The porous pot is inverted and connected to a U tube containing a blue coloured fluid. Note
that the levels of fluid are at the same height. This means there is no pressure difference in
the U tube.

2. A large inverted beaker is placed in position over the porous pot and the levels should still
be equal. You then pass hydrogen gas up into the beaker where it will accumulate, being less
dense than air. Within a short time the liquid moves away from the porous pot because the
faster moving lower molecular mass molecules of hydrogen diffuse into the pot faster than
the air molecules of nitrogen and oxygen can diffuse out.

38
Let’s compare the rates of diffusion of air and Carbon dioxide molecules using porous pot
experiment

Here the porous pot is inverted, and attached to a simple U tube. A large beaker is held in
position surrounding the porous pot. Note the liquid levels were equal at this point of
experiment. Carbon dioxide gas is passed into the beaker where it will accumulate, being denser
than air. Within a short time the coloured liquid moves towards the porous pot because the
faster lower molecular mass molecules of air (mainly nitrogen and oxygen) diffuse out the
porous pot faster than the slower higher molecular mass molecules of carbon dioxide can move
in.

39
Worksheet 1.5c
1. Rates of diffusion of different gases can be done using porous pot experiment.
A cylinder of porous pot is used through which gas molecules are able to pass. Any change in
pressure in the cylinder pot shows itself in a change of liquid levels in the side tube. When
there is air both inside and outside the pot, the liquid levels are the same.

Explain why the levels of liquid change when hydrogen is placed outside the porous pot
cylinder?

40
Chapter 2
ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND
COMPOUNDS

41
1.1 Difference between elements, compounds and mixtures

Elements

There are now 118 known elements, but most of the known mass of the universe consists of
just two elements, hydrogen (92%) and helium (7%), with all the other elements contributing
only 1% of the total.

How a certain number of these elements concentrate together to form the Earth is of great
interest and significance. There are 94 elements found naturally on Earth rest of the elements is
made artificially in the laboratory.

TYPES OF ELEMENTS

There are mainly two types of elements metals and non-metals.

42
Metals Non metals
Good conductors of heat and Bad conductors of heat and
electricity electricity

Shiny appearance Dull appearance

Metalloids

There are few elements that do not fit in any of the two categories (metals and
non-metals) as their physical and chemical properties fall in between the metal
and the non-metal categories. Such elements are called metalloids.

43
Types of Changes
(interaction of elements)

Elements undergo two types of changes:

 Physical change
 Chemical change
Physical Change Chemical Change

The change in which no new The change in which a new substance is formed
substance is formed (properties are changed).
(properties remain
unchanged).

Example 1:

(Only the states are changed,

the properties remain same)

Properties of product NaCl(s) are completely

different from reactants Na(s) and Cl2

Example 2

44
Mixture Compound
the components, Fe and S, can It can only be converted back to Fe and S
be separated by a physical through a chemical reaction
method (using a magnet)

Differences in Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures Compounds
• Contains more than one • Consists of only one substance
substances (e.g Fe and S) (e.g, FeS)

• No new substance formed • New substance is formed

(properties unchanged). (Properties changed).

• No chemical reaction takes place. • Chemical reaction occurs.

• No fixed composition (e.g any  Fixed composition

quantity of salt + any quantity of
Fe)

• Can be separated through • Can only be separated through a

physical methods e.g filtration chemical reaction.

45
Worksheet 2.1
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures worksheet

1. Which of the boxes contains:

a) Molecules of an element? ________

b) Molecules of a compound?________

c) Atoms of an element?__________

d) Do any of the boxes contain a mixture? Explain your answer.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

e) Draw a box showing a mixture

2. Look at the following substances. Circle the elements and underline the compounds

a) Li b) N2 c) CO d)Cl2 e)S8 f)NaCl

3. How many elements make up each compound?

a) HCl = _____ b) CaCO3 =____ c) HNO3 = _____

d) H2SO4 = ______ e) CH3OH = _________

46
4. How many atoms are there in each of these molecules?

a) N2 = ____ b) CO2 = _____ c) O3 = _____ d) CH4 = _____ e) SO2 = _____ f) C2H4 = _____

5. Circle the molecule with the most atoms, in each pair;

a) HCl or POCl

b) NH3 or HNO3

c) C3H8 or C2H5OH

d) CH3COCH3 or C6H6

6. What is the formula for each molecules shown below

O N
O O O C O H H
H H
H

47
2.2 Structure of An Atom

Atoms

Every substance around us is made up of atoms. They are incredibly small

particles from which all the material world is built.

48
Relative Charges and Masses of Sub-atomic Particle

An atom is electrically neutral as there are equal number of electrons and protons
in an atom.

Simplest Atom

The simplest atom is the Hydrogen atom, which has one proton in its nucleus. It is
the only atom that has no neutrons; it consists of one proton and one electron.

The next simplest atom is Helium. It has 2 protons, 2 electrons and 2 neutrons

49
Proton/Atomic Number
Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called Proton number/Atomic number.

It is represented by symbol Z.

In a neutral atom, proton number is always equal to the number of electrons.

In a neutral atom: Number of protons = number of electrons

50
Mass number / nucleon number

Mass number / nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.

It is represented by the symbol A.

It can also be deduced that:

Number of neutrons = Mass number – Number of protons

Atomic number and Mass number

51
Worksheet 2.2

8. Write down atomic number and mass number of first 20 elements of periodic table in your
notebook.

52
Format for writing Proton number and mass number

53
Worksheet 2.3

• Ca has Atomic number =20 and Nucleon number = 40.

Complete the following:

Number of neutrons =

Number of electrons =

Number of protons =

54
55
Electronic configuration

As we now know electrons are present outside the nucleus revolving around it in
shells.

Number of shell Maximum number of electrons (2n2)

1 2

2 8

3 18 (9th electron goes to the 4th shell. When 4th shell is filled with 8
electrons, the next goes to the 3rd shell until it reaches 18 electrons)

4 32

Electronic configuration of first 20 elements of periodic table

56
Electronic configuration of first 18 elements

Electronic configuration of K

57
Worksheet 2.4

 Write down electronic configuration of first 20 elements of the periodic table. Also draw
their atomic structures.

Ground state = neutral atom (with no charge)

58
Electronic configuration of Ions
 Atoms tend to lose or gain electrons in order to complete their Octet. This is
called Octet rule.
 Due to this loss/gain of electrons, atoms develop charge on them. Now they
are called ions.
 Atoms that have charge (+ or -) on them are called ions.

Cations: Ions with positive charge

Anions: Ions with negative charge

Electronic configuration of Na+

Na (2,8,1) tends to lose 1 electron to complete its octet. It turns to Na+ (2,8) with
ionic structure as:

59
Interpreting the Format for writing proton number and Nucleon Number
for Ions

60
Worksheet 2.5

61
62
Group VIII elements
• Group VIII elements have complete/full electronic shells according to the
Octet rule.

• Therefore they don’t make bonds with other elements. So are very
unreactive gases, known as Noble gases.

Group VIII At Number Electronic Outer shell

electrons
configuration

Helium 2 2 2

Neon 10 2,8 8

Argon 18 2,8,8 8

* Other Group VIII elements (Krypton, Xenon, Radon) also have 8 electrons in
their outermost shells.

63
2.3 Isotopes

Relative Atomic Mass

A single atom cannot be weighed on a balance as it is too light to be weighed on a balance.

In addition to that, mass of a single atom is a very small number to deal with… e.g, 1.994 x
10-23 g

Therefore instead of weighing an atom directly, we compare its mass with the mass of
another atom. Carbon-12 was selected as a suitable atom for this purpose, taken as
standard.

Such a mass is called relative atomic mass (Ar)

Why Carbon as a standard

atom?

There are far more

compounds containing Carbon
than any other element.

Mass Spectrometer
Comparison of masses of different elements with that of Cabon-12 is practically done
through an instrument called mass spectrometer

64
Mass spectrometer:

An instrument in which atoms or molecules are separated with respect to their masses.

It is done in following steps:

1. Conversion of atoms/molecules into ions.

2. The ions are then accelerated (speed up).

3. Detector detects/separates the ions on the basis of their masses.

• Elements exists which have same proton/electron number but have different numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei. Such elements are called isotopes.

In few isotopes, the imbalance of neutrons and protons make their nuclei unstable resulting in
spontaneous breakdown of
the nuclei emitting certain
types of radiations. They are
known as radioisotopes

65
Examples of few Isotopes

Isotopes of Hydrogen

Behavior of isotopes
• Isotopes of the same element have different
physical properties (Physical properties include
color, density, hardness, and melting and boiling
points) but same chemical properties (how it
reacts chemically)

• Why?

This is because chemical properties depend on the

number of electrons, which is same in isotopes of an
element.

Calculating relative Atomic Mass

66
 As we know the elements exist as mixtures of isotopes, however the proportion/abundance
of these isotopes is not equal in nature. Therefore we take average of the masses of these
isotopes of an element keeping in view their relative abundance in nature (i.e, the one with
higher proportion in nature will contribute more to the average)

Let’s work out an example

67
Worksheet 2.6

68
69
2.4 Ions and Ionic Bonds
IONS:
An atom of an element after losing or gaining electron/s converts into an ion.

Losing electron forms positive ion called cation.

Gaining electron forms negative ion called anion.

FORMATION OF CATION:

FORMATION OF ANION:

70
IONIC COMPOUNDS:
 Compounds formed by the give (by metals) and take (by non-metals) of electron/s.

 Results in the formation of +ve (cation) and -ve (anion) ions.

 Positive and negative ions results in the creation of electrostatic force (a force of
attraction between two oppositely charged ion).

 The bond is formed between a metal and a non-metal.

Example (NaCl)

Dot and Cross Diagram

• This diagram is used to show bonding in between atoms to form a molecule.

• A diagram drawn to represent the bonding in a molecule, Or the electrons in an ion;

usually, only the outer electrons are shown and they are represented by dots and
crosses just to differentiate between the electrons of different atoms.

NaCl (Dot and Cross Diagram)

71
MgO (Dot and Cross Diagram)

CaCl2 (Dot and Cross Diagram)

72
73
Worksheet 2.7

Draw dot and cross diagram of Aluminum Chloride (AlCl3)

Draw dot and cross diagram of Calcium chloride (CaCl2)

74
Giant lattice structure of ionic compounds (NaCl)

• Ionic compounds (such as NaCl and MgO) are solids at room temperature.

• The ions arrange themselves in a regular lattice structure.

• In this arrangement each ion is surrounded by the ion of opposite charge.

• The whole structure is held together by the electrostatic force of attraction that occurs
between particles of opposite charges.

Arrangement of Sodium and Chloride ions in Sodium Chloride crystal

Unit Cell (NaCl)

75
Giant lattice structure of ionic compounds (MgO)

Physical Properties shown by Ionic Lattices

• Following are the physical properties shown by most ionic lattices:

• Sliding structures.

76
 • Electrical conduction.

• Dissolve in water.

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

Property Reason

High m.p. and b.p. Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between ions.

Crystalline solids at room temperature. Closely packed ions due to attraction of opposite ions.

Soluble in inorganic solvents (water). Produces ions, water also produce ions H+ and OH- (like
dissolves like).

Organic solvents do not produce ions.

Insoluble in organic solvents (ethanol,
methyl benzene).

Conductors (only in molten state or In the liquid or solution form, the ions are free to move.
when dissolved in water). They can move towards the electrodes when voltage is
applied (will study in electro-chemistry).

77
Worksheet 2.8

Answer the following questions. First one has been done for you.

1. Sodium chloride has high melting and boiling point. Why?

It shows high melting and boiling points because it exhibits:

 Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between Sodium and chloride ions (ionic bond).
 Giant lattice structure which needs higher amount of heat to break the lattice

2. Magnesium chloride has high melting and boiling point. Why?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3.Ionic compounds are good electrical conductors. Why?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

4.Ionic compounds are soluble in water. Why?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

78
2.5 Simple Molecules and Covalent Bonds

Covalent Bond

Single Covalent Bond

Here are few examples of molecules that show single covalent bond:

• Hydrogen molecule (H2)

• Chlorine molecule (Cl2)

• Water (H2O)

• Hydrochloric acid (HCl )

• Ammonia (NH3)

• Methane (CH4 )

• Methanol (CH3OH)

Hydrogen molecule, H2
Hydrogen molecule is formed as a result of sharing of electrons.

79
Chlorine Molecule (Cl2)

Water Molecule (H2O)

80
Methane (CH4)

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

81
Ammonia (NH3)

Methanol (CH3OH)

82
83
Worksheet 2.9

1. Draw dot and cross diagrams of the following molecules:

Methanol, CH3OH

Ammonia, NH3

Methane, CH4

84
Double Covalent Bond
Examples of molecules showing double covalent bond are:

• Ethene (C2H4)

• Oxygen molecule (O2)

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Ethene (C2H4)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

85
Oxygen molecule (O2)

86
Worksheet 2.10

1. Draw dot and cross diagrams of the following molecules:

Oxygen, O2

Carbondioxide, CO2

87
Triple Covalent bond
Examples of molecules showing triple covalent bond are:

• Nitrogen molecule (N2)

• Ethyne (C2H2)

Nitrogen molecule (N2)

Properties of Simple Covalent Compounds:

PROPERTY REASON

They are often liquid / gases at room Forces between the molecules (inter-molecular
temperature. (They have low M.P. / B.P.) forces) are only weak.

Non-conductors of heat and electricity No free electrons present

88
Worksheet 2.11

1. Draw dot and cross diagram of Ethyne (C2H2)

Methane has low melting and boiling point and Sodium chloride has high melting
and boiling points. Why?

It is because:

Methane, CH4, contains weaker bonds (covalent bonds) whereas NaCl has strong
electrostatic forces (ionic bond).

Methane is a simple molecular structure (no giant structure) whereas NaCl exists as lattice
structure (giant structure) which requires more energy to be broken down.

Nitrogen, N2, has low melting and boiling point and Calcium chloride has high
melting and boiling points. Why?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

89
2.6 Giant covalent structures
LATTICES:

Lattices are giant structures in which a structure repeats itself in all directions.

GIANT COVALENT LATTICES:

Giant structures held together by covalent bonds.

Examples:

• Diamond

• Graphite

• Silica

90
Differences between the structure and properties of diamond and
graphite

Properties and Uses of Diamond and Graphite

Uses of diamond and graphite with respect to their properties are as follows:

91
Relating Uses with Structure

Graphene
Single layer of graphite (first isolated by the use of
sticky tape) is called grapheme.

Properties:
• Excellent conductor (300 times better than Cu)

• Doping in plastics can make plastics

conductors.

• May replace Si in computer chips

(semiconductor)

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 • 200 times stronger than steel and is incredibly flexible.

SAND/QUARTZ: (crystalline mineral)

Much of the world's sand is made out of the same stuff, tiny crystals of the mineral quartz,
which is made out of silica and oxygen.

Structure of Quartz
Silicon(IV) oxide found in quartz has a
structure similar to diamond.

Therefore, Structure and physical properties

are same as that of diamond.

Each Silicon atom is attached with 4

Oxygen. Each Oxygen atom is attached with
2 Silicon atoms. So the formula is SiO2

Similarities in Diamond and Silica

Both diamond and Silicon(IV) Oxide have same structure and physical properties.

Structure:

• Both have rigid, tetrahedral arrangement of atoms.

• All the atoms are held together through strong covalent bonds.

Show similar physical properties:

• Both are very hard and have high melting points.

• Both do not conduct electricity as there are no electrons free to move through the
structure

93
Worksheet 2.12

94
95
2.7 Metallic Bonding
Metallic Bonding Defined

Physical Properties of Metals

96
Malleable and Ductile

97
Worksheet

98
Chapter 3
The Periodic Table

99
8.1 Arrangement of Elements
Overview of Periodic Table
Periodic Table can be defined as an arrangement of elements in periods and groups and in order
of increasing proton number / atomic number.

All modern versions of the Periodic Table are based in the table proposed by Mendeleev in
1869.

Periodic Table:

A table of elements arranged in order of increasing proton number (atomic number) to show
the similarities of the chemical elements with related electronic configuration.

In a Periodic Table:

• Elements are arranged in order of increasing proton (atomic) number.

• Vertical columns of elements with similar properties are called groups.

• Horizontal rows are called periods.

The change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period

100
Metalloids
The change from metallic to non-metallic properties in the elements across the period is not as
clear as suggested by drawing the line between the two regions of the Periodic Table.
• The elements close to the line show properties that lie between these extremes.
These elements are referred to as metalloids (or semi-metals).
• These elements have some of the properties of metals and others that are those of
non-metals.
• There are eight elements that are called metalloids.
• They often look like metals but are brittle like non-metals.
• They are neither conductors nor insulators, but make excellent semiconductors. The
prime example of this type of element is Silicon.

Relationship between group number and the charge of the ions formed
from elements in that group

101
Similarities in the chemical properties of elements in the same group of
the Periodic Table in terms of their electronic configuration

For example:
All Group 1 elements are highly reactive as they have only one electron in their outermost shell.

All Group II elements are relatively reactive, but less reactive than Group I elements.

102
Trends in groups

How the position of an element in the Periodic Table can be used to

predict its properties

103
Worksheet 3.1
Color the periodic table below

Metals: Green

Non-metals: Blue

Metalloids: Red

104
Choose the right option:

105
8.2 Group I (Alkali Metals) Properties

Introduction

Trends in Group I (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium)

There are several different trends down this group of elements:

• Melting points and boiling points decrease down the group.

• Metals get softer as we go down the group.

• Densities increase as we go down the group (although this trend is

obscured because the value of Sodium is higher than would be expected;
see footnote to table.

106
Predict the properties of other elements in Group I

Observing the trends in these values for physical properties means we can
predict values for other alkali metals.

Predicting melting point for Rubidium, Cesium and Francium

We would predict the melting point of rubidium to be lower than that of

potassium by about 20-30 oC as the gap between melting points is getting
smaller at each step. This would suggest a value of between 33-43 oC. The
actual value is 39 oC.

For the same reason, caesium has a melting point of 28.5 °C , making it one of
the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature.

Francium has the melting point of 27 oC.

107
Worksheet 3.2

108
8.3 Group VII properties
Introduction
Halogens: elements in Group VII of the Periodic Table – generally the most reactive
group of non-metals.

The common properties of the halogens are:

They are all poisonous and have a similar strong smell.

They are all non-metals.

They all form diatomic molecules (e.g Cl2, Br2, and I2).

They all have a valency of 1. Therefore, they all form negative ions carrying a single charge, e.g
chlorife ion (Cl-), bromide ion (Br-) and iodide ion (I-)

Their compounds with hydrogen are usually strong acids when dissolved in water. (e.g HCl, HBr
and HI).

When they react with elements of other groups, the compounds formed are called halides (e.g
chlorides, bromides and iodides)

General Trends of density, melting point/boiling point and reactivity in

Halogens
Group VII reactivity decreases down the group. For example, fluorine is a dangerously reactive,
pale-yellow gas at room temperature.

There is a steady increase in melting points and boiling points as we go down the group, and the
elements change from gases to solids down the group.

Density of Group VII elements increases down the group as the as the states of elements also
change from gas to solid moving down the group.

Lowest member of this group, Astatine (At), is a rare element.

109
Appearance of Halogens at r.t.p (room temperature and pressure)

Displacement reaction

110
A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive element displaces, or pushes out, a less
reactive element from a compound that contains the less reactive element. After a
displacement reaction, the less reactive element is now left uncombined.

Halogen displacement Reactions

A halogen displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive halogen displaces, or pushes
out, a less reactive halogen from a compound that contains the less reactive halogen. After a
displacement reaction, the less reactive halogen is now left uncombined.

For example if you add chlorine to a solution of potassium bromide, the chlorine displaces
bromine (as chlorine is more reactive than bromine) and potassium chloride is formed.
Potassium bromide solution is colorless. It turns orange when chlorine is added to it.

However, Bromine cannot displace chlorine (as bromine is less reactive than chlorine). Similarly,
iodine can replace neither chlorine nor bromine.

111
Add worksheet here
Q1. What is the collective name for elements in group 7?

____________________________________________________________________________.

Q2. Write down the names along with symbols of Group 7elements.

______________________________________________________________________________
____________

______________________________________________________________________________
____________

______________________________________________________________________________
___________.

Q3. Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons for each element in group 7:

Q4. Are elements in group 7 metals or non-metals?

_____________________________________________________________________________.

Q5. What does the term ‘diatomic’ mean?

_____________________________________________________________________________.

Q6. How many electrons do group 7 elements have on their outer electron shell?

_____________________________________________________________________________.

Q7. Boiling point and melting points of group 7 elements increase or decrease as you go down
the group?

112
_____________________________________________________________________________.

Q8. How does the relative atomic mass of the elements in group 7 change when you move
down the group.

_____________________________________________________________________________.

Q9. How does the reactivity of the elements in group 7 change when you move down the
group.

Q1. Draw the electron shell diagrams for each element in group 7.

Flourine Chlorine Bromine

113
8.4 Transition Elements
Introduction
Transition elements (or transition metals) lie in the form of a block in the center of the periodic
table.

 They are much less reactive than the metals in Group I and II.
 Many of them have excellent corrosion resistance, for example chromium (Cr)
 They have high melting points, for example that of tungsten (W) is 3410 0C. Tungsten is
therefore used in filaments of incandescent light bulbs.
General features of transition metals
 They are hard and strong
 They have high density
 They have high melting and boiling points
Properties of transition elements/metals
 Many of their compounds are coloured
 The transition metals, or their compounds, often act as catalysts. Iron, for example, is
used as a catalyst in the Haber process (for making ammonia)
 They often show more than one valance (variable oxidation number) – they form more
than one type of ion. For example, iron can form compounds containing iron (II) ions
(Fe2+) or Iron (III) ions (Fe3+).

Uses of transition metals

Copper is used to make wires to conduct electricity because it’s a very good conductor, can be
molded into wires (as it is soft) and has high melting point.

Tungsten (W) is used as bulb filament because of its even higher melting point than copper and
is a good conductor of electricity.

114
Worksheet
Q1. Give two physical properties of transition metals.

Q2. Define transition metal.

Q3.

(b) Which of the following is not a transition element:

A. Chromium (Cr)
B. Uranium (U)
C. Magnesium (Mg)
D. Tungsten (W)

115
8.5 Noble gases
All the noble gases are present in the Earth’s atmosphere. Together they make up about 1% of
the total, though Argon is the most common. These gases are particularly unreactive. They are
referred to as the inert gases, meaning they do not react at all.

Properties
Noble gases are unreactive because their Octets are already complete (their outer most shells
are completely filled)

Noble gases are unreactive that is why they exist as mono-atomic gases (independently as a
single atom e.g He, Ne)

The following properties point to the atoms of the noble gases being particularly stable:

 The electronic configurations of the atoms of the noble gases are energetically very
stable.
 This means that they do not react readily with other atoms.
 In many situations where atoms of other elements bond or react chemically, they are
trying to achieve the energetically stable arrangement of electrons found in the noble
gases.

Uses
The uses of the noble gases depend on their unreactivity.

 Helium is used in airships and balloons because it is both light and unreactive.
 Argon is used to fill incandescent light bulbs because it will not react with the filament
even at high temperatures.
 The best known used of noble gases is its use in ‘neon lights’. Different gases give
different colours in neon lights.

116
Worksheet
Q1. Where are the noble gases located in the periodic table?

______________________________________________________________________________.

Q2. Circle the right option

 The elements of Group 0 are all: Brightly coloured / colourless

 The group 0 elements all have: High / low boiling points
 All group 0 elements need to gain / lose / neither gain nor lose electrons to fill their
outer shells

Q3. Explain why noble gases are unreactive

____________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________.

Q4.

Q5.

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  State why copper rather than Tungsten is used for electrical wiring.
_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 Explain why silver is not used for electrical wiring.

_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 State two reasons why Tungsten rather than copper is used to make a bulb filament.
_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 Explain why copper wires are covered with plastic.

_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

118
Chapter 4

Experimental
techniques and chemical
analysis

119
 4.1 Experimental design

Planning an experiment
There are several steps to consider when planning an experimental technique.

Repeatable and reproducibility

Experiment is considered accurate when the results are repeatable and reproducible. Data
is repeatable when the same person has conducted an experiment several times and
obtained similar results. Data is reproducible when several different people have
performed an experiment with similar conditions and obtained same results.

Variables

Variable is a factor or condition that can change during an experiment. In order to conduct
an error free experiment, the variables need to be considered when planning an
experiment. There are three main types of variables:

 Controlled variable
 Independent variable

120
  Dependent variable
Control variable
A variable that is kept the same during an experiment is called constant variable.

Independent variable

The variable that is altered during an experiment is called independent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured during an experiment is called dependent variable.

Let’s workout an birdy example to clear the concept:

In this experiment, the variables are:

Controlled variables: the type of seeds, the location of feeders.

Independent variable: the color of feeders

Dependent variable: Number of birds on different coloured fedders.

Example:

Identify controlled, independent and dependent variables in an experiment that is designed to

investigate the rate of reacton of different metals with an acid.

Controlled variables: Temperature, Concentration of metal and acid.

Independent variable: the metal (we’ll change the metal every ime conducting the experiment)

121
Dependent variable: rate of reaction.

Selecting the correct apparatus

The choice of apparatus requires careful thought. The type of apparatus used in an experiment
will depend on the scale and the accuracy of the results required.

Scale: The scale of an experiment is a measure of the amount of product needed. A small-scale
experiment as carried out in a laboratory may produce milligram or gram amount of a product,
whereas large-scale experiments of the type used in industry will produce many tonnes of
material.

Accuracy: The accuracy is a measure of how close a result is to its true value. The apparatus
chosen for an experiment should give precise results (results that are close to each other).

Equipment for measuring time, mass, temperature and pH

Time
Time is measured using a stopwatch or stopclock. Measurement of time is particularly useful
when determining the rate (speed) of a chemical reaction.

Digital stopwatches are capable of reading to two decimal places, i.e 0.01 seconds.

Mass
Mass can be measured approximately in spatula. Amounts, e.g add one spatula of compound to
2 cm3 of acid. Mass can be measured more accurately using a top-pan balance.

122
A simple balance may have a resolution, e.g 0.1 g whereas more complex balances may have a
higher resolution of 0.001 g or greater.

Resolution: The resolution is the smallest change in a measurement that can be detected.

Temperature
o
Temperatures in a practical works are measured in degrees Celsius ( C) using a thermometer.
Often these are simple liquid thermometers (spirit or mercury), which can be read to the
nearest degree. Temperature probes can also be used that are more precise.

pH

pH can be measured using either universal indicator paper or more accurately with a digital
probe (pH meter).

Volume

Volume can be measured using a beaker, a measuring cylinder, a syringe, a volumetric pipette or
a burette. The equipment used depends on the accuracy needed.

Accuracy level of apparatus for measuring volume

123
Beaker is the least accurate apparatus for measuring volume.
Measuring cylinder will often provide sufficient level of accuracy (greater than beaker but less
than burette and volumetric pipette).
A volumetric pipette is the most accurate piece of apparatus for measuring a fixed volume of
3 3
liquid, i.e, 10 cm or 25 cm .
A burette is the most accurate piece of apparatus for measuring a variable volume (often
between 0 and 50 cm3.

Measurement of Volume of Gas Sample

Besides collecting gases, sometimes we need to measure the volume of gas collected in order to
determine the amount of reactants used, how far a reaction has progressed etc. To measure the
volume of a gas, we use a gas syringe (more accurate) or a measuring cylinder (less accurate).
Before the start of the experiment, the plunger is pressed fully into the barrel to expel any gas
present in the syringe. As gas is produced during a reaction and enters the syringe, the plunger
is pushed outwards and the volume of the gas produced can be measured:

124
4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of experimental method and
Apparatus

Advantages and disadvantages of the experimental method

Advantages Disadvantages
 Ability to change independent  Can produce artificial results
variable.  Expensive
 Ability to use control variables  Subject to human error
 Ability to develop controlled  Results may only apply to one
environment situation and may be difficult to
 Replicable and reproducible process. replicate
 Field experiments possible.  Ethical limitations

Advantages and disadvantages of Apparatus

4.1Worksheet

125
126
127
Write

128
4.3 Commonly used terms in Purification and extraction:

a. Solvent

Solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute.

b. Solute

Solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent.

129
Examples

Sugar, salt

c. Mixture

A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances, which may be

solid, liqid or gas. The individual substances added retain their properties. In
some, the different states are completely mixed to become one single state,
this is called solution.

d. Solution

Solution is a mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent

e. Saturated solution

Saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum concentration of a

solute dissolved in the solvent at a specified temperature.

Examples

 Glucose dissolved in water

 Salt in water

f. residue
Residue is a substance that remains after evaporation, distillation, filtration or any similar
process.

130
f. filtrate
Filtrate is a liquid or solution that has passed through a filter.

g. Pure substance

A single chemical element or compound is called a pure substance. It has a fixed melting and
boiling point.

131
 4.4 Separation and purification

A mixture can be separated using physical processes. Different types of mixtures require
different standard techniques, including:

 Using a suitable solvent

 Filtration
 Crystallization
 Simple distillation
 Fractional distillation
 Chromatography

a. Using suitable solvent

Differences in solubilities can be used as a simple method for separating mixtures of solids.
Compounds with different types of structures will show different solubilities.

For example,

 Metallic structures are insoluble in all solvents.

 Ionic compounds are often very soluble in water.
 Simple molecular substances like halogens are soluble in hexane and water.
 Organic compounds (compounds having Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in them) are
soluble in hexane but insoluble in water.
 Giant covalent compounds like diamond and silicon dioxide are insoluble.

When separating a mixture of two solids, the method is to select a solvent in which one is
soluble and the other is insoluble. After adding the solvent, the mixture should be filtered.
This gives a residue (the insoluble material) on the filter paper which can be dried and a
solution of the soluble compound. The soluble compound can be recovered by evaporating
the solvent.

For example for separating a mixture of sulfur (molecular structure) and iron fillings
(metal), toluene is added as a solvent. The mixture is then filtered and solvent evaporated.
The iron fillings are insoluble and so are left behind on the filter paper. The sulfur dissolved
into the toluene and is produced after evaporation of the toluene.

b. Filtration
 By filtration we can separate out insoluble solid from a liquid. (e.g sand in water, chalk in
 water)

132
 Mixture is poured through a filter paper.
 Tiny holes of filter paper allow the liquid to pass through as filtrate whereas large solid
 particles cannot pass through the filter paper and is obtained as residue.

133
Worksheet 4.2

134
b. Crystallization and Evaporation
If we have a soluble solid in a liquid we can perform evaporation and crystallization.

If a mixture of solids has soluble and insoluble solid then it is separated by dissolving, filtering,
evaporation and crystallization.

Evaporation to Dryness

Separation of dissolved solid from solution can be done as crystals of salt by evaporating all the
liquid off.

Crystallization

Separation of dissolved solid from a solution as well formed crystals.

Why Crystallization occurs?

Solubility of most solutes decreases as the temperature decreases. When solution cools, it can’t
hold more solute, so the extra solute separates as pure crystals.

Process of Crystallization

135
The solution of soluble solid in a liquid is heated in an open container

● The solvent molecules start evaporating, leaving behind the solutes.

● The solution becomes saturated.

● When the solution cools, crystals of solute start to form.

● Remove the crystals by filtering.

● Then rinse them with distilled water and dry them with filter paper.

Choosing a solvent

When we have a mixture of solids, we add a solvent to it.

● One of them dissolves in the solvent and other does not.

● The insoluble substance is separated by filtration.

● The filtrate is taken in evaporating dish, which is heated to crystallization point.

● The evaporated solution is allowed to cool.

● Crystals are formed. Solvent is decanted and crystals are dried using filter paper.

Uses of Crystallization

Crystallization is employed as a separation technique in order to obtain pure crystals of a

substance from an impure mixture. Another important application of crystallization is its use to
obtain pure salt from seawater.

c. Sublimation
Separation of mixture of solids, from which one solid sublimes i.e directly turns into vapour
without passing through liquid state.

136
Mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride is heated, ammonium chloride sublimes
(turns into vapour directly) then cools and crystallize when it touches the sides of cold funnel.

Non volatile sodium chloride remains in the beaker.

Examples of solids that sublime

Iodine, Naphthalene, Dry ice, Ammonium salts, dry FeCl3, dry AlCl3

d. Simple Distillation
This is a way to obtain the solvent from the solution. It could be used to obtain water from salt
water.

 Heat the solution in the flask. As it boils water vapour rises into the condenser, leaving
salt behind.
 The condenser is cold, so the vapour condenses to water in it.
 The water drips into the beaker. It is called distilled water. It is almost pure and is
collected in receiving flask as distillate.

137
  Dissolved solutes donot evaporate due to their high boiling point and remain in the flask.

We can also obtain drinking water from seawater in this way.

It could also be used to purify water containing insoluble impurities.

Flame is generally used to heat the flask but electric heater is used when the liquid is
flammable.

138
Worksheet 4.3

139
e. Fractional Distillation
It involves the separation of two or more miscible liquids (liquids which mix into each other) on
the basis of difference of their boiling points. E.g (ethanol and water).

Liquids with lowest boiling point is distilled first while liquid with highest boiling point is distilled
last. Fractionating column is used to separate them.

● Pour the liquid mixture into the distillation flask and heat it.

● At about 78oC the ethanol begins to boil. Some water evaporates too. So a mixture of ethanol
and water vapours rise up the column.

● When the beads in the fractionating column reach about 78oC, ethanol vapour no longer
condenses on them only water vapour does. So water drips back into the flask.

● The ethanol vapour goes into the condenser. There it condenses and converts into liquid. Pure
liquid ethanol drips into the beaker.

● When the entire ethanol has distilled over, the temperature will rise again,

● The receiver is changed to collect water which will distil over ar 100oC.

Use of fractionating column

● It separates the miscible liquids on the basis of difference in their boiling points.

● It contains glass beads that provide larger surface area so that vapour can undergo repeated
condensation and vaporization as it rises up the fractionating column.

Use of Condenser

It cools the vapours and converts them to liquid.

Uses of fractional distillation

 Separates pure oxygen and pure nitrogen from liquefied air.

 Separates substances in petroleum (crude oil) into fractions.

140
Worksheet 4.4

141
f. Use of Separating Funnel
● Separating funnel is used to separate immiscible (incapable
of mixing) liquids.
● Pour the mixture into separating funnel.
● Allow the two liquids to separate into two layers.
● The less dense oil will form the upper layer and water, the
lower layer.
● Open the tap to run out the bottom water layer into beaker.
● Use another beaker to collect the upper layer.

g. Chromatography
A method of separating and identifying mixtures that may or may
not be coloured.

Principle

Different solutes have different solubility into particular solvent.

Why do we need to perform chromatography?

● Separates and identify mixtures of coloured substances in dyes.

● Identification and separation of amino acids.

● Separates substances in urine, drugs & blood for medicinal uses.

● To find out whether athletes have been using banned drugs.

● Obtain a dye (mixture) sample.

● Put a drop of the sample on a pencil line drawn on the filter paper.

● Dip the paper into a solvent such that the spot is above solvent level.

● The solvent rises in paper.

142
● The dyes will dissolve in the solvent. As different dyes have different solubility in the solvent
so the components travel up the paper at different speeds (more soluble travels faster).

● Hence, they are separated. A chromatogram with the separated components is obtained.

Identifying mixtures of coloured substances

Drop of the sample is placed on the pencil line. The results shows that:

● The original sample dye (X) is made up of 3 colours.

● 2 comparison dyes ( A & C) are present in the original dyes. As spots have travelled equal
distance.

● A comparison dye (B) isn’t part of sample, as it’s spot do not match with any spot of sample.

Important Details
The mixture components must be soluble in the solvent

● The base line should be drawn with a pencil and not ink as the dyes in the ink may be soluble
in the solvent, affecting the results of the chromatogram.

● While dipping the paper, the original spot must be above solvent level otherwise it’s
components will dissolve in solvent of container which results in a poor chromatogram.

● The solvent should be allowed to run as far up as possible to ensure complete separation.

143
Separating and Identifying Mixtures of Colourless Substances

When the components of the sample are colourless, a locating agent is used to make

chromatogram visible.

Locating Agent

A substance that reacts with a substance (e.g. amino acids) on the paper to produce a coloured
product.

It is used to visualize colourless components on the paper. For example, ninhydrin is used as a

locating agent for amino acids which produce purple spots by reacting with amino acids.

Rf Values

A ratio called a retention front.A dye has constant Rf value under identical conditions.

In the above diagram, Rf value for dye A will be = 5/8

Rf value of any component will always be less than 1.

Rf values can be used to identify unknown chemicals if they can be compared to a range of
reference substances. The Rf value for a particular substance is always the same if the same
solvent is used.

Interpretation of Chromatogram

144
145
Worksheet 4.5

146
147
4.5 Suitable separation and purification techniques, given information
about the substances involved
The method of separation selected depends on the states of the chemicals involved.

To separate a mixture containing a solid and liquid, e.g. fine mud particles from water requires
filtration.

To separate a mixture of two or more liquids with different boiling points require distillation.

To remove water from a solution to give a salt (ionic compound) requires crystallization.

It may be possible to separate two solids using a suitable solvent that will dissolve one solid and
not the other. e.g. separation of salt and sand. The salt would dissolve in water giving a solution,
whereas the sand is insoluble and could then be removed by filtration.

The following table provides an overview of which technique to use for a range of two-
component mixtures.

148
Worksheet 4.6

149
4.6

Identify substances and assess their purity using melting point and
boiling point information

Purity of Substances
A simple test for purity is to measure a melting point or boiling point and compare this to a
standard reference value given in books.

For example pure water (ice) melts at 0oC and boils at 100oC, pure copper melts at 1085oC.

Therefore melting and boiling points can be used to identify a substance.

When a substance is impure, the melting point and boiling point will change.

Impure substances have no fixed melting and boiling points. They melt and boil in a range of
temperatures e.g Coconut oil starts melting at 14oC, and completes melting at 22oC

Impurity LOWERS the melting point and RAISES boiling points of pure substances e.g

Frozen sea water melts around -2.5oC and boils at 104oC. Pure substances produce only one
spot on chromatographic paper.

4.7 Collection of Gases and drying agents

Gas collection

Gases may sometimes be produced during chemical reactions. By collecting and measuring
the volumes of gas produced, we can know more about the reaction which had taken place
and may also use it as a reactant for another reaction.

The method used to collect a particular gas is dependent on its:

 Solubility – its ability to dissolve in water and

 Density – how “heavy” it is as compared to air.

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Some common gases’ solubility in water

 More common gases i.e oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen are nearly insoluble in
water.
 More “chim” gases ( those which our young siblings do not know) i.e ammonia,
hydrogen chloride and chlorine gases are soluble.

Some common gases’ density (relative to air)

 Hydrogen, Ammonia –> less dense ( you can remember Handsome Admirer Likes
Damsel)
 Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride and chlorine gas –> More dense ( you
can remember CD, Heavy Cat and Cat sinks in water )
 Oxygen –> Equally dense

Collection of Gases methods

Three common methods to collect a sample of gas are shown below:

 Displacement of Water
 Upwards Delivery
 Downwards Delivery

Displacement of Water

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This method is suitable for collecting gases which are insoluble or only slightly soluble in water.

As the gases cannot dissolve in water and are lighter in density than water, they would rise to
the top of the gas jar and be collected there. Some examples of gases collected via this way
include H2, O2 and CO2.

Upwards Delivery

This method is used to collect gases which are soluble in water and has a lighter density as
compared to air. NH4 is one of the gases which can be collected this way.

Here is a picture of the set-up:

Downwards Delivery

This method is used to collect gases which are soluble in water and has a heavier density as
compared to air. Some examples of gases collected this way include Cl2, HCl and SO2

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Some common drying agents for gas

 Concentrated sulfuric acid ( used for acidic gas)

 Quick lime aka Calcium oxide (used for alkaline gas i.e ammonia).
 Fused calcium chloride ( used for general gases like hydrogen and oxygen as it is neutral in
nature)

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Worksheet

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