Rhetoric and argumentation

What is rhetoric?

 According to Aristotle (384-322 BC), rhetoric is

“the faculty of observing in any given case the
available means of persuasion.”
 Using language effectively to persuade, inform,
educate, or entertain
It refers to two things:
 The art of analyzing all the language choices that
writer, speaker, reader, listener might make in a
given situation so that the text becomes
meaningful, purposeful, and effective.
Cont.

 The specific features of text, written or

spoken, that cause them to be
meaningful, purposeful, and effective
for readers or listeners in a given
situation.
 What does being skilled at rhetoric mean?

 Being able to make good speeches and write good

papers, but also having the ability to read other
people’s works and listen to their spoken words with
a discerning eye and critical ear.
 Reading not only to understand the main and
supporting points of what someone else writes, but
also to analyze the decisions the author makes as
he/she works to accomplish a purpose for a specific
audience.
What does being skilled at rhetoric mean?

 Being able to plan then write

papers/communicate ideas, not just write
them.
 Being able to examine a situation and
determine what has already been said
and written, what remains unresolved, and
what you might say or write to continue
the conversation or persuade readers to
take action.
An effective speech:

 Context: the occasion or the time and place it was written or

spoken
 Purpose-goal that the speaker or writer wants to achieve
❖ win agreement
❖ persuade us to take action
❖ evoke sympathy, make someone laugh
❖ inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate
❖ put forth a proposal, secure support
❖ bring about a favorable decision
Points to consider

 Thesis, claim, assertion, argument: main idea

 Subject: Writers or speakers evaluate what they
already know, what others have said, and what
kind of evidence develops their position
 Speaker (Persona): the character the speaker
creates when s/he writes or speaks-depending on
the context, purpose, subject, and audience
 Audience: Each audience requires the
speaker/writer to use different information to
shape the argument effectively.
The Aristotelian triangle

 Aristotle described the

interaction among
subject, speaker, and
audience (or subject,
writer, and reader), as
well as how this
interaction determines
the structure and
language of the
argument (a text or
image that establishes a
position).
The Rhetorical Triangle

Speaker
(Persona)

Audience Subject
Key #1: Understanding Persona

If you understand persona, you are able to do two

things:
 Speak or write so the audience perceives you
as a distinct character, usually one who is
educated, trustworthy, and well-intentioned.
 Make inferences or judgments about the
character and personality of another speaker
or writer, and analyze how that writer appeals
to the audience, how he invites the audience
to interact with material, and how he wants
them to act afterwards.
Key #1: Understanding Persona

 Writers usually want the persona they

develop and the voice they use to be
genuine and reflect who they really are.
 Sometimes they use another voice for
comic effect, or to underscore the
seriousness of a situation.
 Writers use their voices to affect a reader’s
understanding and belief.
Key #2: Understanding Appeals to the Audience

 Ethos (character): Demonstrates credibility of

speaker; shows that he/she knows important and
relevant information about the topic at hand, and
is a good person with the audience’s best interests
in mind. Emphasizes shared values between the
speaker and the audience.
 Logos (reason): Offers clear, rational ideas and
develops them with appropriate reasoning,
examples, or details.
 Pathos (emotion): Draws on the emotions and
interests of the audience so they will be
sympathetic to his/her central ideas and
arguments.
Revised Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker
(Persona)

Context

Purpose

Audience Subject
 Conducting a
Rhetorical Analysis
Goal of Rhetorical Analysis

 Break down the text as a whole into the sum of its

parts

 What is the writer trying to achieve?

 What strategies is he using to meet this goal?

 Are these strategies effective?

 Questions to Ask While
Reading Critically
 What is the general subject of the
text?
 Does it have meaning to you?
 Is it controversial?
 Does it bring up other associations in
your mind?
 What is the thesis?
 How does the thesis comment on
the subject?
…Questions to Ask While
Reading Critically
 What is the purpose of the argument?
 What is the author hoping to achieve?
 What is the tone of the text?
 How is that tone developed
throughout the piece?
 Is the tone effective in achieving the
purpose?
 Who is the audience for this argument?
Three Appeals to consider

 Refer to any opinion article in the

daily newspapers:
 Does the author consider the
Rhetorical Triangle?
 If not, where does the author fail
in this regard
 If so, what are the strongest
appeals and how do they affect
the success of the piece?
…Three Appeals

 Appeals to Ethos
 Does the author establish
credibility?
 Does the author seem
trustworthy?
 How does the author handle the
subject and/or the audience?
…Three Appeals

 Appeals to Pathos
 Does the author make an
emotional appeal?
 What techniques does he use to
reach the audience emotionally?
 Is the appeal to emotion primary
or secondary to the author’s
purpose?
…Three Appeals

 Appeals to Logos
 What facts (if any) are used in the
argument?
 What facts are left out of the
argument that might affect the
piece?
 Does the argument rely on logic?
Cont.

 Whatclaims are made in the

argument?
 What techniques or devices does
the author use to establish these
claims?
 Whatissues are raised in the
piece?
Considering the Context

What are the contexts considered in the

piece:
• Social
• Political
• Historical
• Cultural
Whose interests do these contexts serve?
Who gains or loses as a result of the
argument?
Shape of the Argument

 How does the shape or arrangement of the piece

affect the argument?
 Does the argument go from specific to general?
 Inductive reasoning – makes a claim based on
looking at a number of specific examples. Small to
big.
 Does the argument go from general to specific?
 Deductive reasoning – makes a claim based on a
general principal then applying to a specific case.
 Are there headings or divisions in the writing?
 Guide for Constructing an
Argument

1. Introduction
a. Hook
b. Thesis
2. Body Paragraph 1
a. Claim
b. Evidence
c. Commentary
3. Body Paragraph 2
a. Claim
b. Evidence
2
c. Commentary 5
 Guide for Constructing an
Argument

4. Body Paragraph 3
a. Claim
b. Evidence
c. Commentary
5. Conclusion
a. Refutation – (slight CONCESSION)
b. Make it memorable (CALL TO ACTION)
2
6
 Success or Failure of
Arguments

 Arguments need. . .
An issue
An arguer
An audience
Common ground
A forum
Audience outcomes

Arguments fail with. . .

No disagreement or reason to argue
Risky or trivial issues
Difficulty establishing common ground 2
Standoffs or fights that result in negative
outcomes 7
Writing extended arguments

 Writing extended arguments involves presenting a logical and

well-supported case for a specific position on a particular issue.
Whether you're working on an essay, research paper, or any
form of extended argument, here are some general steps to
guide you through the process:
Choose a Topic:
Select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your
assignment or course.
Define Your Thesis Statement:
Clearly state your main argument or position on the issue in a
concise thesis statement. This will serve as the central claim that
you'll be defending throughout your extended argument.
Cont.

Conduct Research:
Gather information and evidence to support your
thesis. This may include data, statistics, expert opinions,
examples, and relevant literature.
Analyze Your Audience:
Consider your target audience. Tailor your argument to their level of
understanding, and anticipate potential objections or questions they
might have.
Outline Your Argument:
Create a structured outline that organizes your main points
logically. This will help you ensure a smooth flow and coherence
in your writing.
Cont.

1. Introduction:
 Begin with an engaging introduction that provides background
information on the issue and introduces your thesis statement.
2. Body Paragraphs:
 Each paragraph in the body of your argument should focus on a specific
aspect or supporting point. Make sure to include evidence and
reasoning to strengthen your position. Use topic sentences to clearly
convey the main idea of each paragraph.
3. Counterarguments:
 Address potential counterarguments or opposing views. Acknowledge
and respond to these counterpoints, demonstrating why your position is
more valid or reasonable.
Cont.

4. Evidence and Examples:

Support your claims with credible
evidence and relevant examples. Be
specific and ensure that your evidence
directly relates to the point you're making.
5. Logical Structure:
Ensure a logical flow in your argument. Each
point should build upon the previous one,
leading the reader to your ultimate
conclusion.
Cont.

6. Transitions:
Use transitional phrases and sentences to
guide the reader through your argument
smoothly. This helps maintain coherence
and clarity.
7. Conclusion:
Summarize your main points and restate
your thesis in the conclusion. Emphasize the
significance of your argument and suggest
potential implications or applications.
Cont.

9. Revise and Edit:

 Review your extended argument for clarity,
coherence, and consistency. Check for grammar
and spelling errors. Consider seeking feedback from
peers or instructors.
10. Citations:
 Ensure proper citation of sources using the
appropriate citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago,
etc.).
Cont.

11. Final Review:

 Take one final look at your extended argument
before submission to make sure it meets all the
requirements and effectively communicates your
position.
 NB: An effective extended argument not only
presents a compelling case but also anticipates and
addresses potential challenges to your position.
Sample extended arguments

 https://www.fool.com/investing/2017/10/22/3-
arguments-for-and-against-legalizing-
marijuana.aspx
Critical Thinking skills

Critical thinking Involves Mastering the following key skills:

 Identification and evaluation of evidence to guide in
decision making
 Careful application of reason in the determination of
whether a claim is true
 Awareness of alternative standpoints
 Ability to defend own stance through debate and
argument
 Ability to surface underlying assumptions or arguments
 Identifying relationships among abstract concepts to
discern patterns, themes and trends
Cont.

 Ability to abstract and stand back from a situation

 Constant questioning and interrogation of evidence
and conclusions
 Ability to problem solve and to communicate solutions
effectively
 Ability to recognize and fill gaps in knowledge
 Ability to reason using experience and evidence from
the literature and to be able to marry the two
 Mastery of threshold concepts
 Independent thinking, analysis and engagement
 Interpretive analysis
References

 Chaffee, J. (2011) Thinking Critically. 10th edition. Houghton

Mifflin.
 Paul, R. and L. Elder (ed) (2014) Critical thinking: Tools for taking
charge of your professional and personal life. New Jersey: Pearson
Education.
 Sinnott-Armstrong, W., & Fogelin, R. J. (2009) Understanding
arguments: An introduction to informal logic. New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.