Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Vehicular Communications
www.elsevier.com/locate/vehcom

A tutorial survey on vehicular communication state of the art, and

future research directions
Pranav Kumar Singh a,b,∗, Sunit Kumar Nandi a,c, Sukumar Nandi a
a
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, 781039, India
b
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CIT Kokrajhar, 783370, India
c
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIT Arunachal Pradesh, 791112, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s tr a c t

Article history:
Vehicular communication enables a variety of safety, infotainment, mobility, and environmental appl-
Received 14 April 2018
ications. Vehicular communication is one of the leading research areas because of its specific applications
Received in revised form 24 March 2019
and characteristics and has attracted great interest from academia, industries, and governments. Our
Accepted 29 May 2019
Available online 26 June 2019 paper is a comprehensive survey of vehicular communication that covers the state of the art and future
research directions. The article is a new contribution in the similar category of tutorials/surveys of
Keywords: the vehicular communication domain with the latest details. State of the art presents the architecture,
Vehicular communication applications, emerging radio access technologies, standardization, and project activities. We review the
Intelligent transportation systems protocol stacks of the intelligent transportation system (ITS) in the USA, Japan, and Europe with their
Communication architecture latest standards. In this paper, we present the emerging radio access technologies such as visible
Applications
light communication, mmWave, Cellular-V2X, and 5G for connected and autonomous vehicles and their
Cellular-V2X
associated challenges. The new research directions in the emerging areas of this domain, such as seamless
Connected and autonomous vehicle
connectivity, edge, fog, software-defined and named data network, and security are also present. We
believe that our work will help the researchers, developers and government agencies to become familiar
with the latest features of the domain.
 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
is exchanged between vehicles and other communication entities.
This type of communication is referred to as Vehicle-to-everything
The history of the vehicular communication system centered (V2X) communication [2]. It incorporates communications such as
around the model proposed by Norman Bel Geddes, in ‘Futurama.’ Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I), Vehicle- to-
Futurama was an exhibition held at the New York World’s Fair in Network (V2N), Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P), Vehicle-to-Device (V2D)
1939. The concept of this model was to build automated road- etc.
ways with the help of communication and control. The four key
objectives of this design are safety, efficiency, comfort, and speed Vehicle-to-Vehicle. V2V communication is purely adhoc in nature.
[1]. The prototype of the proposed automated highway system This mode of communications is well known with the term Ve-
was built in 1960 by its sponsor General Motors Corporation. hicular Adhoc NETwork (VANET) and Inter-vehicle communication
The vehicular communication system includes vehicles and (IVC). If two vehicles are in their communication range, they com-
other communication entities around it such as roadside units, municate directly; if not, they use multi-hop communication to
clouds, grid and fog networks, the Internet, devices carried by an forward data.
individual and a pedestrian, etc. The objective of vehicular com- Vehicle-to-Infrastructure/Network. In this mode, communication
munication is to ensure road safety, avoid road accidents, reduce takes place between the vehicle and the roadside communica-
fuel consumption and carbon emissions, save time and offer a tion/network infrastructure and vice versa. The radio access net-
new level of driving comfort. To achieve these goals, information work infrastructure consists of roadside units (RSUs), Hotspots
(HT) and cellular base stations. The core network infrastructure
includes wired infrastructure and middleboxes such as switches
*Corresponding author. and routers. The network infrastructure could be cloud, fog, and
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P.K. Singh), [email protected]
grid networks and server farms at service providers, manufactur-
(S.K. Nandi), [email protected] (S. Nandi).
ers, and legal authorities.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vehcom.2019.100164
2214-2096/ 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 1
Geographical summary of (country-by-country count) of
connected vehicle projects [6].

Fig. 1. Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) scenario.

Vehicle-to-Pedestrian/Device. V2P is another possible mode of com-

munication that allows communication between a vehicle and a
device carried by a pedestrian, a passenger, and a cyclist.
Thus, V2X enables vehicles to communicate with their sur-
roundings. As shown in Fig. 1, V2I, V2N, V2V, and V2P helps to
optimize traffic flow, and congestion, access cloud, and Internet
services warn vehicles in its proximity for hazards and accidents
and alert pedestrian for possible collision, respectively.
The ITS technologies available today are just a fraction of fu-
ture technologies. Connected and automated vehicle technologies
are some of the main components of future ITS.
The Connected Vehicle (CV) technology uses V2X communication worldwide take place in the low-and-middle income developing
that allows vehicles to communicate with each other and entities countries where there is no sign of Intelligent Transportation Sys-
around them. The connected vehicle technology helps to supply tem (ITS).
useful information to the driver, occupants, transportation agen- From Table 1 it is apparent that the USA, Japan, and Germany
cies, cloud and objects in its surrounding (pedestrian, cyclist) for are the leading countries, who are contributing significantly to-
safety and non-safety related services and applications. wards ITS-related research and development [6]. Vehicular com-
munication is a vital part of the ITS that can help increase road
The Automated Vehicle (AV) concept is defined by the U.S. De-
safety, improve traffic management and reduce environmental im-
partment of Transportation’s National Highway Traffic Safety Ad-
pact. To achieve these objectives the research and development
ministration (NHTSA). As per the Society of Automotive Engineers
community of developing nations should contribute to this increas-
(SAE) [3] six levels of automation are defined (Level 0 to Level 5).
ingly important area of research.
In Level 0 there is no automation at all, and the driver does every-
thing. Level 1 automation assists the drivers. Currently, available
automation to the public is Level 2 automation, which is partial, 1.1. Related works
and where hands on the wheels are musts. Level 5 is fully au-
tomated, or self-driving car and does not require a human driver. We have found several excellent surveys/tutorials on the vehic-
ular network/VANET. We categorize these works into two main
Level 3 to Level 5 automation technologies are in the research categories: a primer and layer-specific surveys. The major sur-
phase. Vehicles with any level of automation have to incorporate veys/tutorials in the primer category are listed in Table 2. The layer-
connected vehicle technologies because it is a mainstream reality. specific surveys cover topics ranging from MAC layer [7,8], routing
The connected vehicle technology can make future ITS more pro- protocols [9–14], applications [15–17], mobility models [18,19],
ductive, efficient and serve regulatory and consumer demand for security and privacy [20–23] etc.
safety, infotainment, and other services.
The impact on safety alone makes vehicular communication a 1.2. Contribution
vital area of research. In this regard, we present the Global sta-
tus report on road safety 2013 [4]. The report covers 182 countries The challenges related to vehicular network (different mobility
or almost 99 percent of the world’s population. The total num- patterns, varying speed, traffic conditions, obstacles, and dynamic
ber of deaths in road traffic across these countries is unacceptably network topology) and its use-cases (related to safety, non-safety,
high and is around 1.24 million per year. More details regarding and infotainment) have attracted considerable interest from the re-
the breakdown of road fatalities including road, user type, and the search community to work in this domain. Our survey paper is
country can be found in [4]. the latest version in the primer category that provides the state
Due to urbanization, on-road vehicles have increased consider- of the art of vehicular communication. State of the art covers all
ably, increasing CO 2 emissions, accident rates, and fuel consump- essential entities such as vehicular network architecture, appli-
tion. According to the WHO report [5], 90 percent of road accidents cations, radio access technologies for connected and autonomous
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 3

Table 2 tion), smaller (less fuel consumption and low emission, easier to
Related surveys/tutorials. park), connected (V2V and V2I connectivity for traffic info and
Year Ref. Topics covered entertainment), green (electric vehicle) and fun to drive. Their pro-
2008 [24] Application and their requirements, associated challenges, posal is based on three primary trends – growing urbanization,
topology channel feature and models, protocols, architectures the electrification of energy and mobility systems, and the ongoing
and standards, security and privacy. digital revolution in telecommunications and information [32]. The
2009 [25] Overview, project activities (EU), on-board equipment, wireless
in-vehicle components depend on the types of vehicle: connected
data link (IEEE 802.11p, WiFi, Cellular, Infrared), networking
protocols, applications, future outlook. vehicle or automated vehicle. An intra-vehicle system includes the
2011 [26] Characteristics and applications, standardization efforts, ITS Communications Control Unit (CCU), the On-board Unit (OBU) and
programs, projects and architectures, associated challenges, the Human Machine Interface (HMI).
networking solutions.
The CCU handles Layer-1 (Physical Layer) to Layer-3 (Net-
2012 [27] Overview, wireless access standards (DSRC), Routing protocols,
QoS, broadcasting, security, trials, and deployments in the USA,
work Layer) Communication. The CCU contains transceiver mod-
Japan, EU, simulation models, tools, and platforms, research ules with radio frequency antenna for each communication inter-
challenges. face to enable interactions with different wireless access technolo-
2014 [28] Architecture, Communication domains, Wireless access tech- gies such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ad), WiMAX,
nology, (GSM,WiFi, DSRC/WAVE, WiMAX, CALM M5), Charac-
Wi-Fi Hotspots (IEEE 802.11u), Dedicated Short-Range Communi-
teristics, Challenges and, requirements, simulation.
2014 [29] Architecture, standards (DSRC, WAVE), routing protocol, secu- cation (DSRC), and cellular connectivity (3G/4G/LTE-A). It enables
rity, projects in USA, Europe and Japan, simulators, mobility integration to different in-vehicle sensors, the global positioning
models, applications and future research scope. system (GPS), RADAR, Camera, and Light Detection and Radar (Li-
DAR). It provides data derived from internal communication (via a
vehicles, standardization status, and protocol stacks in the USA, Controller Area Network (CAN)) as well as external communication
Japan, and Europe. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first to the OBU.
survey that covers the latest details of all three dedicated protocol The OBU is equipped with hardware (processing, memory, stor-
stacks: the connected vehicle of the USA, cooperative ITS of Europe age, interfacing and communication capabilities) and software to
and ARIB STD-T109 of Japan. We discuss in detail about the ITS run various applications. It is also responsible for reliable data
standardization efforts at the international and regional level. We transmission, security, IP mobility, and other essential features
also discuss ITS deployment initiatives in developed regions and [30]. This computing system is designed to support a wide variety
their main projects. This study also presents the details of radio of ITS applications and services such as hazard-warning, a naviga-
access technologies available in the different regions (Wi-Fi, LTE, tion system, route information, traffic information, voice, and text
DSRC/IEEE 802.11p) as well as next-generation technologies includ- messaging, etc. The OBU provides an interface to HMI for driver
ing visible light communication (VLC), millimeter wave (mmWave), interaction with the system.
Cellular-V2X (C-V2X). The next generation mobile communication The HMI is a user interface that enables drivers to utilize the
technology 5G is going to play a significant role in future ITS de- capabilities of OBU (Hardware and Software) and CCU (Commu-
ployments, so we cover the details of 5G network architecture: nication and control) for different use-cases and provide relevant
how it is evolving and what are the technologies to be integrated. information to the vehicle driver and other occupants. It facilitates
We try to maintain the balance in paper organization aiming read- the interaction between driver and vehicle. In case of safety-related
ers of diverse backgrounds. All the main features surrounding this events, the driver gets assistance via a display screen/speaker in
domain are present in one solid document. The introduction, ar- the form of text, voice or video message. This interface incorpo-
chitecture, and applications section are mainly for readers who are rates a display, sound system, touch screen, gesture support, voice
new in this field and rest other sections for those researchers who recognition, and other intelligence to provide better assistance and
seek details in this domain. The article starts from the importance interaction.
of vehicular communication, its objectives, and state of the art, and
ends up with new research directions. 2.2. Adhoc domain
1.3. Survey paper organization
The adhoc domain is a special class of Mobile Ad-hoc Network
The organization of our paper is in the graphical form and (MANET), where the wireless network is created spontaneously for
shown in Fig. 2. The aim is to enable readers to quickly understand inter-vehicle communication. The two main components are ve-
the topics covered in our survey and help them navigate easily in hicle and RSU. The communication between vehicles can be one
their area of interest. hop or multi-hop and is of adhoc type. The presence of RSUs can
sometimes help extend the range of communication and take part
2. Vehicular network architecture in forwarding the messages to other vehicles.

In this section, we present the underlying system architecture

2.3. Infrastructure domain
of the vehicular network, which is shown in Fig. 3. The communi-
cation scenario illustrated in this architecture is very similar to the
Car-2-Car communication consortium (C2C-CC) [30] proposal. We The infrastructure domain includes the roadside wireless in-
describe the given architecture components and types of wireless frastructure and the backbone wired network with middleboxes.
access mechanisms used for communication between them. The roadside wireless infrastructure can be RSUs (DSRC), Base Sta-
The system architecture model consists of four distinct com- tions (eNB) and Wi-Fi Hotspots. The wired network infrastructure
ponents: In-vehicle domain, Adhoc domain, Infrastructure domain, components can be access switches, routers, open flow switches
and Service domain. and controllers (in case of Software Defined Network), edge nodes,
fog nodes, and gateways deployed as a virtual private network
2.1. In-vehicle domain (VPN). These wired and wireless components can be deployed by
ITS authorities, telecoms/service providers, and manufacturers. The
The authors of the book [32] have proposed the design of a wireless infrastructure is connected to the wired infrastructure to
new automobile era with vehicles that are smart (with automa- provide connectivity between vehicles and the service domain.
4 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Fig. 2. Organization of the survey paper (graphical view).

2.4. Service domain • Traffic-related services provided by the road administration

authorities in urban, rural, and highway zones.
The service domain is the top layer of the architecture that • Generic services such as the Internet, subscription-based ser-
provides services to the vehicles using the infrastructure do- vices, enterprise based service (voice, video, data), an equip-
main via V2I/I2V connectivity. We can classify it into two main ment manufacturer based services, energy service (from the
classes: smart grid) and other cloud-based services.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 5

Fig. 3. Vehicular network architecture [30,31].

3. Vehicular communication applications

speed limit, weather status, and other factors [34]. Safety can be
provided using both V2V and V2I mode of communication. The
In this section, we present various applications of connected ve-
V2V mode of communication is designed mainly for safety-critical,
hicular technologies. The primary goal of vehicular communication
and V2I is for safety-related applications.
is to provide safety, comfort, and an environment-friendly free flow
Consider an example shown in Fig. 5.a), a Post-crash or haz-
movement. Based on data from various studies, surveys, polls and
ard warning: Assuming that a vehicle on the road encounters an
drivers’ experience, hundreds of applications can be suggested.
accident with another vehicle, the automatic onboard sensor gets
The categorization of these applications depends on various fac-
activated and broadcasts an alert or warning message to other ve-
tors such as:
hicles using the Ad-hoc communication mode. After obtaining the
warning message, other vehicles approaching the location of the
• Target use based: driver-oriented, vehicle-oriented, passenger accident on the same route to slow down their speed to prevent
oriented and infrastructure-oriented.
another crash. Such mishaps occur mainly on highways or express-
• Transmission mode based: Event Driven (ED) or Periodic (P) ways when visibility is low due to dense fog or bad weather. An
[33].
accident in such condition results in a series of vehicle collisions.
• Communication mode based: V2V, V2I, V2P, and V2N.
Safety applications of vehicular communication (V2V and V2I/I2V)
• Radio access technology based: DSRC, Wi-Fi, and cellular.
can play an immense role in safeguarding human lives under such
• Delay-tolerance based: delay sensitive, delay-tolerance. circumstances.
• Vehicle technology based: Connected or autonomous vehicle. Examples of V2V and V2I communication-based safety appli-
cations are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, respectively. Few other
This section outlines the various applications of vehicular commu-
examples and details of safety applications based on these two
nications. As illustrated in Fig. 4, most of the vehicular applications
communications (Comm.) are given in the Table 3 [35]. The com-
fall into two broad categories: safety and non-safety.
munication requirements in terms of maximum allowable latency
(L A ) in milliseconds (msec) and the maximum range required for
3.1. Safety applications communication (R M ) in meter (m) is also given for these applica-
tions.
Safety applications advance drivers’ knowledge of their direct
environment, which helps prevent road accidents. Drivers’ direct 3.2. Non-safety applications
environment factors include road accidents, unexpected animals,
obstacles, pedestrians, drivers going in the wrong direction, road
Apart from providing safety, vehicular network technologies al-
construction and maintenance, road surface, road topology, legal
low incorporating many other services related to mobility, envi-
6 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Fig. 4. Connected vehicle applications.

Fig. 5. V2V-based safety applications.

Fig. 6. V2I/I2V-based safety applications.

Table 3
Safety applications [35].
Comm. Safety alert/services LA RM
V2V Collision Warning: Post-crash, Pre-crash,
∼20 msec ∼50 m to
Forward, Cooperative to ∼0.5 sec ∼300 m
Blind Spot/Merge Warning ∼100 msec 150 m
Do Not Pass Warning ∼100 msec 300 m
Lane Change Warning ∼100 msec 150 m
Emergency Electronic Brake Lights ∼100 msec 300 m
Assistance: Intersection Movement,
Left Turn, ∼100 msec ∼300 m
Co-operative merging

V2I/I2V Reduced Speed/Work Zone Warning ∼ 1 sec ∼300 m

Pedestrian in Signalized Crosswalk Warning ∼100 msec ∼200 m
Curve Speed Warning ∼1 sec ∼200 m
Stop Sign Violation Warning ∼100 msec ∼ 250 m
Stop Sign Gap Assistance ∼100 msec ∼300 m
Traffic Signal Violation Warning ∼100 msec ∼250 m
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 7

Fig. 7. Non-safety applications.

ronment, infotainment, vehicular social networking, maintenance,

istence/inter-networking of existing and other radio access tech-
payment, etc. [36]. We club all these services together into Non-
nologies may play an essential role in connected and automated
safety applications category.
vehicle network. In this section, we discuss RATs for the connected
Fig. 7 portrays a non-safety application: Fig. 7.a) represents con-
and autonomous vehicle.
gestion warning scenario in I2V mode. Fig. 7.b) Roadside service
finder: A roadside unit provides information to vehicles in transit
4.1. RATs for connected vehicles
by periodic broadcasting [35]. Suppose a car is in a new location
and needs fuel or some repairs. This app helps the driver find
As discussed, connected vehicle RATs allow vehicles to com-
those and related services nearby.
municate in the V2X mode for safety and non-safety applications.
Fig. 7.c) illustrates traffic signal management and optimal speed
In this survey, we do not cover RATs for intra-vehicle (in-vehicle)
advisory, which is based on Traffic-Light-To-Vehicle Communica-
wireless communications such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, Radio Fre-
tion (TLVC) [37]. In this method, a traffic light controller periodi-
quency Identification (RFID), Near Field Communication (NFC) and
cally broadcasts the light scheduling information to nearby vehicles
Ultra-Broadband (UWB). More details of intra-vehicle RATs provid-
in I2V mode. Drivers after receiving this information can adjust
ing wireless communication between in-vehicle components, for
their speed so that they can pass the traffic signal when it is green.
example, connecting in-vehicle sensors with CCU in wireless mode
This entire mechanism can help avoid stopping and braking and
are available in [41].
reduce fuel consumption and carbon emission [37].
V2V communication helps to efficiently disseminate its col-
The Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) mechanism en-
lected information from in-vehicle components (from sensors) to
ables the vehicle to drive in platoon [38,39]. The automated pla-
other vehicles via one-hop or multi-hop depending on reachabil-
tooning system can also be made possible with Level-2 automation
ity. The V2V mode of communication is a key enabler to pro-
by V2V communication. As shown in 7.d), if vehicles can commu-
vide safety applications. RATs such as DSRC, Cellular Vehicle-to-
nicate with each other in V2V mode, drivers can exchange
Everything (C-V2X) and Visible Light Communication (VLC) are the
informa- tion and cooperate. This V2V communication can make
potential candidates for V2V communication.
the overall traffic much smoother. If there is a free flow
Infrastructure and network connectivity is a key feature of con-
movement on the road, the fuel consumption and CO 2 emission can
nected vehicles. This connectivity is required for Internet access,
be reduced. Ve- hicles drive together in a compact group (close and
safety-related information, infotainment applications, eco-friendly
safely) face less air resistance [38].
drive, ITS and cloud-based services. The telecoms industry and
In infotainment services, the driver can access many services
academia focus on the development of better RATs that can en-
from its dashboard such as audio, video on demand, live TV, soft-
able connectivity between vehicles and roadside communication
ware updates, route guidance, navigation, messaging, calling, and
infrastructures. The RATs for V2V (DSRC, C-V2X, VLC) also supports
many more. Many of these applications are similar to the appli-
V2I/I2V communication with some modification at various layers
cations that we use on smart-phones. However, Quality of Service
(PHY, MAC, Network, etc.) of their protocol stack. Apart from these
(QoS) and Quality of Experience (QoE) is an essential issue in ve-
RATs, the other two promising candidates for infrastructure based
hicular communication because of its high mobility and dynamic
communications are Wi-Fi and Long-Term Evolution-Advance (LTE-
network topology.
A). In the following subsections, we discuss RATs for inter-vehicle
The communication required for most of the non-safety appli-
and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications.
cations is based on V2I or I2V mode. However, there are some
applications in this category, such as CACC that relies on V2V
4.1.1. DSRC/IEEE802.11p
communications. Safety applications have a higher priority over non-
The primary radio access technology enabling V2X communi-
safety applications for accessing communication channels. Dif- ferent
cation in a connected vehicle network is DSRC. The main moti-
types of non-safety applications are shown in Fig. 8.
vation for DSRC deployment is to ensure road safety and traffic
efficiency. The DSRC spectrum is allocated by the Federal Com-
4. Vehicular Radio Access Technologies (RATs)
munication Commission (FCC) in the USA, the Electronic Commu-
nications Committee (ECC) of the European Conference of Postal
Many car-manufacturing companies such as BMW, Ford, Audi,
and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) in Europe and the
Mercedes, Fiat, Toyota, Nissan, and General Motors are already ex-
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC) in Japan.
perimenting with the available wireless technologies to provide
The DSRC standards are developed by the IEEE and the Ameri-
both safety and non-safety (mainly Internet access) applications.
can Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) in the
Audi and General Motors have the most vehicles with embedded in-
USA, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
car 3G or 4G/LTE-powered wireless access for the Internet. Tech-
and European Committee for Standardization (CEN) in Europe, and
nology companies like Google, Microsoft, and Apple are competing
the Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) in Japan.
with each other to provide the best solution for connected car plat-
The DSRC standards developed in these regions are not compatible
forms. The two leading radio access technologies (RATs) for V2X
with each other and vary considerably. The current deployment
communication are DSRC and cellular networks [40]. Soon, coex-
(in use), allocation and the potential of DSRC spectrum in North
8 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Fig. 8. Non-safety application types [36].

In Europe, the DSRC spectrum of 30 MHZ (5.875-5.905 GHz) al-

located in 2008 for road safety and traffic efficiency applications
of ITS. Parameters related to the use of this DSRC band are cov-
ered by the European Commission (EC) Decision 2008/671/EC. The
30 MHz DSRC allocation is referred to as ITS-G5A (G5 stands for
the 5 GHz frequency band). ITS-G5A is divided into three 10 MHz
channels. Channel 180 is a control channel (CCH) and used primar-
ily for safety-related applications. The other two channels, channel
176 and 178 are service channels (SCH) and are used for traf-
fic efficiency. ITS-G5B, the 20 MHz (5.855-5.875 GHz) spectrum
is reserved for non-safety Cooperative-ITS applications. It has two
service channels of 10 MHz widths each. ITS-G5C is restricted to
V2I communication and shared with the radio local area network
(RLAN) band, which is used by the Wi-Fi devices. ITS-G5C can
have a channel width of 10 or 20 MHz. In ITS-G5D category, two
more service channels of 5 MHz width each are reserved for fu-
ture Cooperative-ITS systems. These allocations and reservations of
frequency bands for ITS in Europe are shown in Fig. 11 [45].
Fig. 9. DSRC spectrum allocation in North America, Europe and Japan [43].
In Japan, the DSRC spectrum of 80 MHz (5.770-5.850 GHz) has
been used with ARIB STD-T55 (ETC), ARIB STD-T75 (DSRC) and
America, Europe, and Japan as per International Telecommunica- ARIB STD-T88 (DSRC Application Sub-Layer (ASL)). ARIB STD-T55
tion Union Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Recommendation and STD-T75 are only available for V2I communications and de-
M.1453 [42] are shown in Fig. 9. fine standardization on layers 1, 2 and 7 of the base OSI reference
The DSRC bands which are already in use for electronic toll col- model. At the physical (PHY) layer, ARIB STD-T75 uses 14 separate
lection (ETC) applications are given as follows: channels of 4.4 MHz widths each. Out of 14 channels, seven chan-
nels are used for the downlink and remaining seven for the uplink.
• North America: 902-928 MHz (ASTM E2158-01) ARIB STD-T88 developed mainly to support applications based on
• Europe: 5795-5815 MHz (CEN DSRC) V2V and V2I communication. In ARIB STD-T88, the new DSRC-ASL
• Japan: 5770-5850 MHz (ARIB STD-T55) layer is added on top of the application layer of the ARIB STD-T75
protocol stack. This new standard is primarily intended to provide
In the USA, the allocated DSRC spectrum of the 75 MHz (5.850- multi-application services based on ARIB STD-T75 [46] more eas-
5.925 GHz) is divided into seven 10 MHz channels. One of which is a ily. The DSRC-ASL can handle both IP and non-IP applications. In
control channel (CCH), the other six are service channels (SCH). In addition to these three standards, a new standard ARIB STD-T109
addition to these seven channels, 5 MHz is reserved for future use (700 MHz Band Intelligent Transport Systems) developed for “Driv-
[44], as shown in Fig. 10. The CCH is assigned num- ber 178, ing Safety Support Systems.” In 2011, the new frequency range of
which is the default and highest priority channel and mainly used 755.5-764.5 MHz allocated to ARIB STD-T109 for various types of
for critical safety applications. SCH channels can be used for safety ITS applications.
as well as non-safety applications. The DSRC uses channel width of IEEE 802.11p To utilize the DSRC spectrum in a vehicular net-
10 MHz that supports a bandwidth of 3 Mbps to 27 Mbps. It also work, the IEEE 802.11p and Wireless Access in Vehicular Envi-
allows two SCHs to be combined to form 20 MHz channel width to ronments (WAVE) protocol stack [47] have been developed. The
provide a higher data rate of 54 Mbps. For ex- ample, channels 174 IEEE 802.11p is an amendment to IEEE 802.11 (IEEE 802.11a) stan-
and 176 (used for medium range services), as well as channels 180 dard, standardized in 2010 [48] and revised in 2012 [49] to fa-
and 182 (short range services), may be com- bined to form a single 20 cilitate V2V and V2I communication. The IEEE 802.11p includes
MHz channel for supporting high data rates. DSRC based on ASTM E2213-03 standard [50], which specifies the
Medium Access Control (MAC) sub-layer and the PHY layer of the
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 9

Fig. 10. USA DSRC spectrum allocations and its applications [33].

Fig. 11. Europe DSRC spectrum allocations and its applications [45].

Table 4
IEEE 802.11a/p PHY parameter comparison [51].

Parameters IEEE 802.11a IEEE 802.11p Changes

Channel Width (MHz) 20 10 Half
Signaling OFDM OFDM No Change
Bit rate (Mbps) 6,9,12,18,24,36,48,54 3,4.5,6,9,12,18,24,27 Half
Modulation mode BPSK, QPSK,16QAM, 64QAM BPSK, QPSK,16QAM, 64QAM No change
Code rate 1/2, 2/3, 3/4 1/2, 2/3, 3/4 No change
Number of subcarriers 52 52 No change
Symbol duration 4 μs 8 μs Double
Guard time 0.8 μs 1.6 μs Double
FFT period 3.2 μs 6.4 μs Double
Preamble duration 16 μs 32 μs Double
Subcarrier spacing 0.3125 MHz 0.15625 MHz Half

WAVE protocol stack. The PHY layer parameters of IEEE 802.11p

The IEEE 802.11p/ITS-G5 protocol is mostly used in the U.S. and
and its comparison with IEEE 802.11a is shown in Table 4.
Europe. In Japan, the IEEE 802.11p is not used with their frequency
The IEEE 802.11p MAC extension layer is based on the IEEE
band of 5.8 GHz because Japanese law allows only legacy protocols
802.11e Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) (IEEE, 2003)
for use [54].
[52], which is an enhanced version and uses the contention and
a prioritization mechanism for QoS support. There are four access
4.1.2. 4G/LTE-A
categories (ACs) to assign priorities to different data traffic. They
3G and earlier 3G technologies (GSM, EDGE, UMTS, HSPA, etc.)
are AC3 for Voice (VO), AC2 for Video (VI), AC1 for Best-Effort (BE)
maintain two data paths one for voice and another for data. The
and AC0 for Background (BK) Traffic. In a vehicular network, these
phone calls and SMS were circuit-switched while Internet connec-
ACs can be mapped to different safety and not-safety applica-
tivity was packet-switched. The first version of LTE was launched
tions. Each AC behaves as an independent distributed coordination
in 2008 and is called the LTE Third Generation Partnership Project
function (DCF) node and contend for Transmission Opportunities
(3GPP) version 8 (LTE Rel-8). LTE uses a “all-in-one” approach, ev-
(TXOP) [53]. Each AC queue has its own EDCA Function (EDCAF)
erything over IP including voice. The next 3GPP release, Release-9,
and uses different Arbitration Inter-Frame Space Number (AIFSN)
offered substantial improvements and the key features are as fol-
and Contention Window (CW) values (CWmin, and CWmax) as
lows:
a contention parameter for the different class of traffic. The IEEE
802.11p defines different contention parameters and AIFS duration
• Enhanced throughput.
for CCH and SCH intervals for different ACs [33,51]. The AIFS du-
• Multi-input Multi-output (MIMO) allows spatial multiplexing
ration helps in implementation of transmission prioritization. The (use of multiple channels in parallel).
AC with the least AIFS duration (waiting time) tries to access the
• Inter-cell Interference Coordination (ICIC) for better coordina-
medium first. AC3 (Voice) is the highest priority traffic. tion between base stations.
10 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

• Use of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access

(OFDMA) in the downlink.
• Use of Single-Carrier OFDMA (SC-FDMA) in the uplink.
• Support for both FDD and TDD.
• Significant enhancement in spectrum efficiency.
• Support of small cell deployments: femtocells and picocells.
• High mobility support (terminals speed up to 350 km/h).

LTE-Advanced has been specified in 3GPP Release 10, revised

and enhanced in Release 11 and 12 to further expand the LTE ca-
pabilities. The key feature of the LTE-A is carrier aggregation (CA),
which combines multiple channels either in the same bands or the
different part of the spectrum to provide higher data rate support.
It significantly reduces handover latency by minimizing connection Fig. 12. ProSe D2D reference architecture [57].

setup time. In addition to these, it supports higher spectral effi-

ciency (bps/Hz) by utilizing receive diversity and more antennas in network scheduled mechanism where UE request resources and
MIMO. For the downlink, MIMO of 8X8 and for uplink MIMO of Evolved Node B (eNB) provides it for transmission. Mode 2 is an
4X4 is used. LTE-A uses advanced interference management coor- autonomous mode in which eNB configures D2D resources and
dinated multipoint (CoMP) to minimize adjacent cell interference. broadcasts it, and UE selects required resources for the transmis-
The authors of [55] have investigated the suitability of LTE for sion. Similarly, for D2D discovery, we have Type 1 (autonomous)
different vehicular services including traffic efficiency, safety, and Type 2 (network scheduled) mode. In Type 1, UE selects a
com- fort, and infotainment. In [56], the authors did the study of resource from the resource pool, and eNB configures this chosen
various aspects of LTE technology to provide V2X communication. resource for D2D discovery. In Type 2, resources required for dis-
With its high deployment and support for high mobility and covery are provided by the eNB. Another challenge for D2D is
bandwidth, LTE-A is one of the most promising candidates for V2I synchronization of UEs, which is important for effective commu-
communi- cation. nication. UEs can deliver some synchronization sequence to its
neighbor UEs (out-of-coverage), or some distributed protocol can
4.1.3. LTE-A ProSe (3GPP Release 12/13) and C-V2X (3GPP Release 14) be used for local synchronization. The reference architecture of
The device-to-device (D2D) communication is direct communi- ProSe D2D is shown in Fig. 12 [57], an advanced LTE architec-
cation between user equipment (UEs) of a cellular network with- ture (LTE-A) with ProSe. LTE-A ProSe has additional entities such
out the transmission via its base station. Unlike unlicensed spec- as ProSe function and ProSe server that is connected to other com-
trum based device-to-device communication such as Wi-Fi Direct ponents via new interfaces PC2 to PC4. To implement D2D
and Bluetooth, the D2D communication operates in licensed spec- commu- nication between UEs, the PC5 interface is introduced and
trum. The LTE D2D communications defined as part of proximity known as sidelink at the PHY layer. More details about this
services (ProSe), introduced and revised in the specification of the architecture can be found in [57,59].
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Release 12 and Release C-V2X The initial standard of C-V2X for inclusion in the 3GPP
13, respectively [57]. D2D technology is initially introduced for Release 14 completed in September 2016. It is an improved ver-
commercial and public safety services. At present, ProSe is being sion of the LTE based D2D communication (ProSe) introduced in
enhanced to provide V2V communication for safety-related ser- 3GPP Release 12. Initially, It focuses on V2V communication and
vices. Device-to-Device (D2D) communication in 5G is envisioned later on further enhancements to support V2X based safety and
as an alternative technology that can compete with, and some- non-safety service requirements [58]. The D2D interface PC5 intro-
times complement, IEEE 802.11p/DSRC for vehicular communica- duced in Release 12/13 is not suitable for V2X services and needs
tion. to be modified. Thus, to enable V2V communication and address
The C-V2X is another means for vehicles to communicate with the two main challenges of a vehicular network: high-speed (up
each other in a wide range of ITS use cases and applications. The C- to 250Kph) and high density (thousands of nodes) [58], a new in-
V2X is the first LTE technology expansion that focuses on au- terface is introduced in Release 14 with changes at the link and
tomotive services and first introduced by 3GPP in its Release 14 system level [60]. The solutions provided by C-V2X that address
specification [58]. From Release 14 onwards, 3GPP is adding addi- these two challenges are given in Table 5. This overall new design
tional functionalities in its LTE network to provide V2X communi- is scalable for different bandwidths including the bandwidth of 10
cation. Features are enhanced at radio access network as well as at MHz. In Release 14, ITS 5.9 GHz band support is also added for C-
the core network. The primary objective of C-V2X development is V2X.
to cover all the ITS use-cases supported by IEEE 802.11p/DSRC and
then expand it to other possibilities. 4.1.4. Wi-Fi
ProSe D2D In Release 12/13, D2D communication is specified in There are approximately 250 million hotspots available world-
three scenarios: in-coverage, partial-coverage, and out-of-coverage. wide that account for commercial, community (residential and
The primary use cases of ProSe are public safety and other com- commercial) and service provider hotspots [61]. The smart city de-
mercial applications. The D2D spectrum is an overlay to cellular velopments are one of the key drivers of Wi-Fi deployments. The
licensed (3GPP Release 12/13) technology. D2D ProSe user equip- primary goal of a smart city Wi-Fi setup is to provide a fast, secure,
ment (UE) operates in half-duplex mode, and their communication seamless and highly available Wi-Fi service to its citizens, whether
is based on single-carrier frequency-division multiple access (SC- static or mobile. Wi-Fi in an unlicensed band (2.4 and 5 GHz) car-
FDMA) in the uplink. It supports both frequency division duplex ries more traffic than the cellular in a licensed band. Wi-Fi is one
(FDD) and time division duplex (TDD). ProSe D2D communication of the complementary RATs to provide different services, including
can be either unicast or broadcast. ITS services. Recently, Google has bagged its first Wi-Fi deployment
In Release 13, the QoS support is specified by assigning prior- contract under the smart-city mission of India. In the first phase,
ity to each packet. The resource allocation for D2D communication Google Station platform to be deployed [62] at 200 strategic lo-
is supported by two modes: Mode 1 and Mode 2. Mode 1 is a cations across the city. With the urbanization and development of
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 11

Table 5
C-V2X solutions to V2X challenges [58].
V2X Challenges Solutions by C-V2X
Significant Doppler shift due to high
Enhanced Link Level Design: Number of DeModulation
speed
Reference Signal (DMRS) symbol increased that allows
better tracking of the channel at high speed.
Excessive resource collisions due to
Enhanced System Level Performance: Enhanced trans-
random resource allocation mecha-
mission mechanism and efficient resources allocation
nism in high density scenario
mechanism used to support high density and meeting
the latency requirements of V2V. Data and associated
scheduling assignments (SA) are now present in the ad-
jacent resource block in the same subframe to reduce in-
band emissions. For better resource allocation, a dis-
tributed algorithm is designed which is based on sensing
with a semi-persistent transmission. It not only senses
congestion on a resource but also estimates future con-
gestion on that resource.
Lack of source for synchronization in
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is used for
out-of-coverage scenario (no infras-
time synchronization in both in-coverage and out-
tructure)
coverage scenario.

smart cities, there is a rapid growth in Wi-Fi deployments that

lights and illuminated roadside devices such as traffic lights and
make Wi-Fi a complementary and low-cost solution for V2I/I2V
streetlights work as a transmitter. There are two types of receiver
connectivity.
that can be used in this context: image sensor and the photodiode
The protocol stack of Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac) is not de-
(PD). These two technologies have their advantages and drawbacks.
signed for vehicular mobility context. However, various amend-
There are three different PHY levels defined in IEEE 802.15.7
ments to the IEEE 802.11 standard is bringing advancements in Wi-
specification: PHY I, PHY II and PHY III. These levels differ in terms
Fi, such as Fast Basic Service Set Transition (FT-BSS) for fast roam-
of modulation and coding scheme and support data rates ranging
ing via IEEE 802.11r, assisted roaming support by IEEE 802.11k,
from 11.67 kbps to 96 Mbps for indoor and outdoor communica-
better network performance with IEEE 802.11v, protection of man-
tion in different topologies. For outdoor applications, PHY I level is
agement frames by IEEE 802.11w, and better bandwidth, security,
suggested that uses on-off keying (OOK) or variable pulse-position
and services-on-demand by Hotspot 2.0 based on IEEE 802.11u.
modulation (VPPM) modulation and allow data rate from 11.67
These advancements make Wi-Fi a potential and competitive can-
kbps to 266.6 kbps. Thus, in vehicular communication, the max-
didate to provide seamless and secure vehicular connectivity. imum data rate is presently limited to a maximum of 266.6 kbps
[70].
4.1.5. Visible Light Communication (VLC) based on LED There are four MAC layer options defined in IEEE 802.15.7 stan-
As mentioned above, now there is competition in radio fre- dard:
quency based solutions such as DSRC/IEEE802.11p and Cellular-V2X (i) Beacon-enabled slotted random access with carrier sensing mul-
for vehicular communication. Today, a new wireless optical com- tiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
munication (OWC) technology called visible light communication (ii) Beacon-enabled slotted random access without CSMA/CA.
(VLC) is of great interest to researchers and engineers. VLC is a (iii) Nonbeacon-enabled unslotted random access with CSMA/CA.
variant of OWC, which uses visible light between 380 and 800 (iv) Nonbeacon-enabled unslotted random access without CSMA/CA.
THz (380-780 nm). The VLC technology uses light-emitting diodes For ad-hoc communication (V2V) nonbeacon-enabled access
(LEDs) which can be modulated at high speed. Therefore, this tech- and infrastructure based communication (V2I/I2V) beacon-enabled
nology has a dual application: lighting (illumination) and commu- access appears better option [70].
nication. Different from the RF-based solutions (DSRC, C-V2X) that
have a complex structure, licensed and congested band, and high 4.2. RAT for autonomous vehicles
deployment cost, the LED-based VLC is a less complex, unlicensed,
low cost, reliable, reduced energy, highly efficient, secured [63] and The fully automated vehicle tested by Google and Tesla as a
interference-free solution [64]. Since LED has the characteristics driverless car relies solely on data collected from its sensors. The
of a directional line of sight (LOS) (high directivity) propagation, raw and multi-domain sensed data is processed by the centralized
it can help provide the most accurate position of neighbors [65, controller, the results of which allow the vehicles to make their
66] and can also be a key enabler for full-duplex communication. own driving decisions. Since they do not rely on other vehicle’s
These two features are hard to realize in RF solutions. The scien- data, they can see up to a certain distance. These vehicles are au-
tist at Intel sees an excellent opportunity for VLC in automobiles tomated, but not connected and have limited sensing capabilities.
for various safety applications such as positioning, adaptive cruise The connected RATs can allow automated vehicles to communicate
control, collision avoidance, and cooperative driving and also for and enable them to see beyond their sensing capabilities in dif-
autonomous driving [67]. Thus, LED-based VLC is one of the po- ferent directions by leveraging other vehicle’s sensed or processed
tential candidates for future V2X communications. data [71]. The automated vehicle with V2X integration referred to
VLC Standardization, PHY and MAC Layer The standard for VLC as Connected-and-Automated Vehicles (CAV). To cope with com-
is a part of IEEE Wireless Personal Area Networks working group plex, overcrowded and different road conditions and provide better
(IEEE 802.15) and developed and revised as IEEE 802.15.7 standard safety than today, fully automated vehicles must cooperate and
[68]. The standard mainly focuses on the PHY and MAC layer spec- rely on other CAV’s data as well. The key technologies of CAV
ification of VLC. This short-range OWC (sometimes vary to medium such as Light Detection and Radar (LiDAR), RADAR, visual cameras,
range) technology has been proposed to provide both V2V (inter- high precision position estimators and V2X technology are shown
vehicle) and V2I (roadside infrastructure) communication [69]. In in Fig. 13. The combination of connectivity and automation can
improve levels of safety, coordination of traffic, comfort, and fuel
VLC based vehicular communication, vehicle’s LED headlight, rear
efficiency.
12 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Fig. 13. Components of connected and automated vehicle.

The data generation rate of the sensors of the autonomous vehi-

rate) communication support to the next generation of V2X and
cle is in TeraByte per hour driving [71]. The RATs for the connected
CAV using mmWave, the research community, manufacturers, and
vehicle (V2V) such as DSRC, VLC and LTE-A D2D (Release 13/14)
telecoms companies are exploring three different possibilities:
having data rate support in few Mbps cannot support the required
gigabit-per-second (Gbps) data rate. For example, if raw images
of the visual cameras to be exchanged (uncompressed), the RAT
• Use of mmWave in an unlicensed band with modification of
PHY and MAC layer of IEEE 802.11ad.
should support 100-700 Mbps throughput [71]. Similarly, in case
of obtaining high-resolution map data in real time from a map
• Use of mmWave as cellular based solution: 5G mmWave
• Use of mmWave as a dedicated spectrum and implementation
server, latency and throughput are critical factors. Thus, the RAT
of new protocol stack: mmWave-V2X
for CAV must have the capabilities that can deliver the informa-
tion or raw data at high speed in a reliable way, and within the
4.2.1. IEEE 802.11ad
defined time limit. Although the technical requirements of CAV ap-
The IEEE 802.11ad is the first WLAN technology in the IEEE
plications are not yet defined, RAT must support low latency, high
802.11 family that uses mmWave in a 60 GHz frequency band and
data throughput (in Gbps), high reliability, high mobility, and high
a wider channel width of 2.16 GHz size. It supports multi-Gbps
density. These requirements are mandatory for the exchange of raw
data rate (up to 7 Gbps) over short distances (in the range of 10
sensor data and processed data between CAVs. Such communica-
m). The signal transmitted in the frequency band of 60 GHz re-
tion not only allows the exchange of data but also extend their
quires LOS propagation. These signals are susceptible to mobility
sensing capabilities to make better decisions for safety. Millimeter- and blockage. Fig. 14 shows the 60 GHz frequency allocation of
Wave (mmWave) in extremely high frequency (EHF) can be one of mmWave in different regions, the frequency range of IEEE 802.11ad
the viable solutions for inter-CAV and CAV-to-infrastructure com- channels (Channel 1 to Channel 4), and its center frequency (Fc).
munication. In addition to DSRC, C-V2X, and VLC, mmWave can be The PHY and MAC layer details of IEEE 802.11ad are given as fol-
one of the future RAT solutions for connected vehicle technology lows:
as well. PHY Layer: There are four different operating modes defined in
Millimeter-Wave (mmWave). The region of the mmWave spectrum the IEEE 802.11ad PHY layer, which are given as follows:
is vast that corresponds to 30 GHz to the 300 GHz radio frequency
band, which is much higher (x10) than the spectrum range of • Control (C) PHY,
existing RATs for vehicular communication (below 6 GHz). With • Single Carrier (SC) PHY,
mmWave in EHF range, larger and wider channels can be utilized • Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) PHY, and
for communication. These wider spectral channels if facilitated • Low-Power Single Carrier (LPSC) PHY
with better modulations and coding schemes (MCS), beamform-
ing, and MIMO techniques can help reduce interference, improve These PHY modes are designed to meet diverse requirements in
spectral reuse, and provide higher data rate support. terms of data rate, power consumption, antenna design complex-
MmWave is not a new radio access technology. It was first ity, and processing capabilities [76]. These modes use the common
introduced and tested 120 years ago, in the year 1897, by an In- frame format that consists four parts: preamble, physical layer con-
dian scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose [72]. The European project vergence procedure (PLCP) header, payload (MAC header + data),
ITS PROMETHEUS sought to develop V2V communication at 57 and optional beamforming training (TRN) field. The common frame
GHz between 1987 and 1994. Mmwave has been tested for inter- structure of IEEE 802.11ad is shown in Fig. 15. The preamble field
vehicle communication in the year 2001 [73] and also available of the frame comprises a short training field (STF) and a channel
as IEEE 802.11ad [74]. The IEEE 802.11ad (amendment of IEEE estimation field (CEF) to synchronize time and channel, respec-
802.11-2007) approved in 2012, which defines the PHY and MAC tively and also to detect the type of PHY mode [76]. These PHY
layers to enable high-throughput operation in an unlicensed 60 modes use different Golay complementary sequences (Tc) [77,78]
GHz frequency band. MmWave technology is also used in the cur- in its preamble for synchronization, data spreading, phase and gain
rent autonomous vehicle in its automotive RADAR (70-90 GHz). tracking, beamforming training, and automatic gain control (AGC)
[79]. From Table 6, it is visible that each PHY mode has a different
RADAR frequency bands range is as follows: 76-77 GHz for long-
MCS range and use modulation techniques for the different por-
range radar (LRR), 77-81 GHz for medium range radar (MRR), and
tion of the frame. The LPSC PHY uses Reed-Solomon (RS) and Block
77-81 GHz for short-range radar (SRR) [75].
code (BC) while the rest PHY modes use Low-Density Parity-Check
The realization of mmWave for CAV and V2X communication
(LDPC) codes for error correction. From the given MCS index only
is an emerging area of research. To provide high-speed (Gbps data
0-4 are mandatory. Thus, C PHY (MCS 0) and SC-PHY (MCS 4) are
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 13

Fig. 14. IEEE 802.11ad: country wide frequency allocations.

Fig. 15. IEEE 802.11ad: general frame structure.

Fig. 16. mmWave cellular framework.

mandatory for IEEE 802.11ad capable devices to support the data
rate of 1.15 Gbps. The other two PHY modes OFDM and LPSC are
optional. layer served as the foundation for IEEE 802.11p development
MAC Layer: IEEE 802.11ad introduces new features at the MAC (shown in Table 4) similarly IEEE 802.11ad PHY and MAC features
layer to support high throughput communication on mmWave. can also serve as a basis for Gbps data rate support in a vehicular
The new set of Directional Multi-Gigabit (DMG) features of IEEE network. Thus, IEEE 802.11ad can be exploited for mmWave-based
802.11ad are given as follows: V2X communications.

• Hybrid Medium Access, 4.2.2. mmWave as cellular based solution

• Clustering, Fig. 16 illustrates the framework of cellular infrastructure to
support vehicular communication of gigabit-per-second data rates
• Relaying,
using mmWave. Inter-vehicle communication (V2V) via PC5 and
• Fast Session Transfer (FST)
the infrastructure based communication (V2I) via the Uu interface
• Multi-band operation,
has already been introduced from 3GPP Release 12 (LTE-A) on-
• Beamforming Protocol (BFT), and
wards. To set up mmWave links, control plane of 4G cellular can be
• Spatial Sharing
exploited. MmWave for V2X communications can be used by intel-
ligently redesigning the PHY and MAC layer of the existing cellular
IEEE 802.11ad on mmWave uses directional transmission and
framework.
reception of the data with beamforming. Thus, legacy CSMA/CA
The Authors in [81,82] have proposed mmWave channel
medium access mechanism of WLAN that works well with omni-
model- ing at PHY layer that incorporates spatial clusters, path
directional information may not be suitable for IEEE 802.11ad be-
dynamics, antenna patterns, channel tracking and beamforming
cause it may generate false information with the directional beam.
algorithms. The Authors in [83] proposed a novel mmWave MAC
IEEE 802.11ad uses DMG access mechanism in place of legacy DCF
layer frame structure that incorporates several enhancements to
with CSMA/CA. The two access mechanisms incorporated in IEEE
the current LTE network. It includes flexible transmission time
802.11ad are service period (SP) and dynamic period (DP) chan-
interval (TTI) duration, dynamic control signal locations, highly
nel access. In SP, the communication is scheduled. The two nodes
granular trans- mission times, extended control messaging, and
communicate with the reserved channel (allocated reserved time
dynamic hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) to efficiently
slot), so they do not have to contend for the channel. In DP, polling
respond to vari- ations in channel quality. However, the proposed
based access mechanism is used to allocate channel dynamically. It
PHY and MAC layer needs to be intelligently enhanced to support
is a centralized approach that uses a master-slave protocol. Polling
D2D commu- nication, high mobility, ultra-low latency, and Gigabit
is performed periodically by the master node (e.g. AP), for any
data rates required for autonomous vehicle communication.
transmission request by the slave. In both the access mechanism
node is aware of its peer node beam direction, hence it can steer
4.2.3. mmWave as a dedicated spectrum
its antenna beam towards it [80]. More detail about other MAC
The third option to exploit mmWave for V2X communication is
layer features mentioned above can be found in [74].
to have a dedicated spectrum like DSRC. However, a new mmWave
IEEE 802.11ad PHY and MAC layer protocols are designed pri-
standard dedicated to the V2X requires everything new includ-
marily for indoor use, and it can be revised for highly mobile
ing roadside communication infrastructure, transceivers in vehicles
vehicular network scenarios. The way in which IEEE 802.11a PHY
and signal processing techniques [71].
14 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 6
IEEE 802.11ad: overview of different PHY modes.

4.3. Next generation RAT: 5G

to 50.2 GHz, 50.4 to 52.6 GHz and 59.3 to 71 GHz for consider-
ation at WRC-19. In addition to the 5G cellular frequency band,
The existing RATs, including 4G, does not support latency (1
next-generation 5G RATs for ITS use cases may be a new agenda
ms), reliability (nearly 100 percent) and data rate (in Gbps) re-
in WRC-19. Most unlicensed band technologies such as Wi-Fi, LTE-
quired to exchange information between the fully automated ve-
Unlicensed (LTE-U), LTE-Licensed Assisted Access (LTE-LAA) are not
hicle and the infrastructure. To play a driverless vehicle in diverse
part of the IMT but can play an immense role in ITS based on a
geographies and road conditions, we need to have a highly reliable,
5G heterogeneous network (HetNet).
scalable, available and flexible network. 5G is intended to meet the
requirements of the autonomous vehicle communication for differ-
ent services, which are impossible with RATs we have today. In this 4.3.2. 5G visions and use cases
subsection, we provide various details of the next generation RAT There are many organizations/bodies/forums who have devel-
5G. oped visions of 5G, such as:

4.3.1. 5G spectrum • Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN) (NGMN Alliance,

The Radio Regulations (RR), an international treaty comprise February 2015), [86].
the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which defines • The 5G Forum of Korea (5G Service Roadmap 2022) [87].
the radio spectrum for worldwide use. The ITU identifies some • ITU-R (Recommendation ITU-R M.2083-0, “IMT-2020”) [88].
of the specific spectrum band allocated for mobile service for In- • 3GPP SMARTER (Technical Report 22.891 v14.2.0) [89].
ternational Mobile Telecommunications (IMT). The existing mobile • 5G-PPP (5G Infrastructure Association, February 2015) [90].
communication technologies, 3G and 4G are called IMT-2000 and
• 5G Americas (The Voice of the 5G for the Americas) [91].
IMT-Advanced respectively. IMT-2020 is an extension of the IMT
family and will be adopted for the next generation of 5G com- The 5G use cases defined by the first four bodies mentioned
munication. The standardization of IMT-2020 is expected to be above are shown in Fig. 17. The autonomous driving is present in
completed by 2020. all 5G vision (marked inside the red rounded rectangle). 3GPP con-
The revisions of the RR are made every four years at the World ducts the study on new services and markets technology enablers
Radiocommunication Conferences (WRCs). The resolution on the
(SMARTER) [92] to identify new vertical and market segments. The
identification of the frequency band for future IMT development
use-case development and identification of related service and op-
has already been taken (Resolution 238) at its previous conference
erational requirements for 5G started in Release 13 (Stage 1) [89]
(WRC-15) in 2015 [84]. The frequency bands 24.25 to 27.5 GHz,
and are very likely to continue with the upcoming 3GPP releases
31.8 to 33.4 GHz, 37 to 40.5 GHz, and 40.5 to 42.5 GHz for 5G cel-
(Release 15 and 16). Studies of 5G vision documents prepared by
lular [85] already included in the agenda (item 1.13) of the next
other organizations, including ITU-R, 5G-PPP, NGMN, etc., helped
WRC (WRC-19) to be commenced in 2019 [84]. US FCC has pro-
3GPP to identify and develop the use cases and requirements of
posed 5G spectrum ranges 27.5 to 29.5 GHz, 37 to 40.5 GHz, 47.2
the 5G.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 15

Fig. 17. 5G Vision: use cases defined by different bodies. (For interpretation of the colors in the figure(s), the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

4.3.3. 5G technical requirements

The 5G network must have the capabilities to support the ex-
tremely diverse set of use cases, applications, and services de-
ployed in different network scenarios. It must provide QoS and
QoE to manifold applications and services and at the same time
must be reliable and secure. In its vision document “IMT-2020
Vision” [88], ITU-R defines 5G communication capabilities for its
intended use cases in terms of latency, mobility, peak data rate,
spectrum efficiency, and so on. The IMT-2020 (envisioned 5G)
capabilities in comparison to IMT-Advanced (existing 4G)
capabilities are shown in Fig. 18.
The key performance indicators (KPI) define the technical re-
quirements and depend on the particular use-case. IMT-2020 use
cases, such as enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), requires higher
network capacity and a higher peak data rate, ultra-reliable and
low latency communications (URLLC) communications requires
very low latency and high reliability and massive machine type
communications (mMTC) demands energy efficiency and connec-
tion density.

4.3.4. 5G status
ITU-R and 3GPP are the two major organizations working to Fig. 18. Key capabilities of IMT-2020: comparison to IMT-advance [88].

standardize the next generation of mobile communication technol-

ogy. ITU-R defines requirements and invites technological propos-
for eMBB, mMTC and URLLC use cases, 3GPP has a two-phase de-
als from 3GPP. ITU-R evaluates the received proposals against its
velopment plan for deployment of 5G radio access. Each phase is
requirements for approval. To meet ITU’s IMT-2020 requirements
divided into three stages, stage 1 (overall service description), stage
16 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

2 (architecture definition) and stage 3 (final implementation of the

dard to be developed in Phase 2 will be the final submission to
functionality and the protocol).
ITU for approval.
5G Phase 1: The study of the potential requirements of 5G New Ra- To satisfy a wide variety of requirements to the services de-
dio (NR) started in 2015 and standardization activity initiated in ployed in diverse scenarios, several technological transformations
September 2016 [93]. Phase 1 of 5G development corresponds to at the RAN, and in the NGC network of the 5G will take place [97–
3GPP Release 15, began in March 2017 and is expected to end in 101] in Phase 1 and Phase 2. Transformations at 5G RAN in- clude:
September 2018 (Release 15 freeze time). Phase 1 focuses primar-
ily on all use cases of eMBB and some portion of URLLC (mission- • Utilization of new spectrum above 6 GHz (mmWave up to 100
critical applications). GHz) [102].
5G NR is expected to provide new levels of efficiency and ca- • Advanced beamforming [103] and tracking.
pacity for eMBB use cases and beyond using Non-Standalone (NSA) • Advanced channel coding (LDPC codes for data channels and
or Standalone (SA) modes of operation. Both NSA and SA modes Polar codes for control channels) [104].
are under development in Phase 1. The expected completion time • Massive MIMO [99].
of Phase 1 (stage 3) of the 5G NSA mode was March 2018, and • Advanced multiple access mechanisms (non-orthogonal multi-
for the 5G SA mode, it is September 2018. However, Vodafone and ple access (NOMA) [105,106] and contention-based protocols).
Huawei have jointly completed the world’s first call using the NSA • Enhanced frame structure design (low latency and self-cont-
3GPP 5G NR standard and sub 6 GHz spectrum [94]. After the ained sub-frame) [107].
completion of Phase 1, now 5G radio access to be commercially • Advanced interference management [108–110] (coordinated
released for all eMBB use cases, and some URLLC use cases. multipoint (CoMP) communication).
NSA Mode: The NSA mode uses two RATs, LTE (Release 15 ver- • Scalable radio numerology [111,112].
sion) and 5G NR. 5G NR carriers work as secondary carriers that
help boost data-rate, enhance capacity and reduce latency. The NSA The Phase 2 RAT is expected to include common design for up-
mode requires a radio level aggregation of the two RATs to provide link, downlink, backhaul and sidelink, unlicensed spectrum access,
dual connectivity between LTE and 5G NR. The 3GPP 5G archi- D2D communication etc. The RAN shall allow new features to be
tecture shown in Fig. 19.a) result in twelve possible options for added to the 5G NGC network. New features of the 5G core net-
deployment [95]. Option 1 is a legacy 4G architecture in which LTE work that are being studied and expected to be included are as
eNB is connected to EPC. Thus, there are eleven options left for the follows:
5G deployment. In Phase 1, four options selected for the NSA mode
are 3, 3a, 7, and 7a. The two highest priority NSA architectures for • Network slicing [113];
deployment are Non-Standalone/”LTE assisted” EPC connected op- • Network Function Virtualization (NFV) [114,115].
tion 3 and 3a. These two architectures are illustrated in Fig. 19.b), • Software Defined Network (SDN) [115].
and 19.c), respectively. In NSA modes, the 5G base station (gNB) is • Self Organizing network (SON: Self-Configuration, Self-Opti-
located together with an LTE base station (eNB). In Option 3, the mization and Self-Healing)
LTE eNB is the master of the 5G gNB. The eNB and gNB are con- • Integration of edge and fog computing [116].
nected to each other using a new interface Xn. In Option 3a, the • Flexible QoS support [117].
5G NR gNB is connected directly to the LTE EPC via a new inter- • Multi-connectivity [118,119] support across 5G, DSRC, LTE, and
face (1A). The LTE Evolved Packet Core (EPC) works as the core Wi-Fi.
network while the 5G Next Generation Core (NGC) not deployed • Multi-RAT, multi-tier handover (intra-5G and inter-RAT han-
for the use. In addition to the LTE user plane (S1_UP) and the LTE dover) support [120,121].
control plane (S1_CP), there is an additional next-generation user • Multi-vendor interoperability support [122,123].
plane (NG_UP) that connects gNB to UE. We do not cover the other • Operator-controlled sidelink (D2D) and operation support (in-
two NSA architecture options, 7 and 7a. coverage and out-of-coverage) [124].
• Rapid and efficient deployment of network and services and
SA Mode: This mode is a new evolution of mobile communi-
ultra-dense networks [125,126].
cation technology that will deploy both 5G NR and 5G next gen-
eration core (NGC) network. The scenario of Option 2 shown in
As already mentioned, there is a massive interest in 5G-based
Fig. 19.d) to be used for the standalone architecture. It will be
automotive use cases. 5G technology is envisioned to provide bet-
a new 5G system (5G NR, NG interfaces, 5G NGC network) with
ter vehicle automation and better connectivity for transportation
no backward compatibility and no LTE support. Although different
operation and infotainment services. 5G features such as ultra-low
groups are trying to complete the SA mode by September 2018,
latency, high mobility, and high bandwidth make it more appeal-
however, due to delay in the development of 5G NG Core, it is ex-
ing for automotive use cases. In particular, the mmWave-based 5G
pected to be part of Phase 2.
can be very useful for raw sensor data exchange, high-definition
Unlike the backward compatibility history of 3GPP standardiza-
streaming, 3D map downloading, and many more applications.
tion, the 5G development of the NR and NGC standards in Phase 1
will be forward compatible with 3GPP Release 16 and beyond [96].
4.4. Challenges
The forward compatibility ensures that more features and the re-
maining use cases can be easily integrated and supported in the
The main features of the RATs mentioned above are listed in
future (in Phase 2).
Table 7. There are many challenges associated with RATs to fulfill
5G Phase 2: Phase 2 of the 5G development corresponds to 3GPP the unique vehicular communication requirements such as highly
Release 16. It will be the full compliance with ITU IMT-2020 re- available and reliable performance (i.e., always best connected) in
quirements and expected to support all identified use cases (eMBB, high mobility, varying density, and non-line-of-sight environments.
mMTC, and URLLC). Phase 2 will be the enhancements to the ca- Some of the significant challenges associated with these technolo-
pabilities and features of the Release 15 developments. The 5G gies are given as follows:
evolution studies of Phase 2 have already started in March 2017 Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi has a small coverage and is not designed for high
and stage 3 scheduled to complete in December 2019. The stan- mobility context, so delay spread due to high mobility is a prob-
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 17

Fig. 19. 5G Architectures: a) possible migration paths, b) option 3: NSA mode (Xn), c) option 3a): NSA mode (1A), d) SA mode.

lem. The residence time of a vehicle in one wireless AP is very

and multipath effects in densely deployed Wi-Fi of urban scenarios
short. The discovery of appropriate access point in minimum time
are some of the most significant challenges.
is a challenging task. When APs are densely deployed in the urban
DSRC/IEEE 802.11p: DSRC/IEEE 802.11p is a half clocked IEEE
area, there will be frequent handover and may interrupt ongoing
802.11a with small modifications at PHY and MAC layer. Many
communications. It may also increase interference and might re-
researchers claim that DSRC is more reliable, secure, mature and
duce the handover decision quality. The Layer-2 handover latency
ready to deploy the technology. However, research communities
in Wi-Fi may disrupt many delay-sensitive applications. Minimiz-
still see room for improvements to the current DSRC solutions at
ing the handover latency to the extent that it allows uninterrupted
PHY and MAC layer [129]. It can provide speeds up to 54 Mbps,
communication is a significant challenge. Providing security, QoS
so providing high-speed V2I connectivity and inter-CAV commu-
and seamless connectivity and dealing with Doppler shift, spread
nication are some of the significant challenges. Its performance
18 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 7
Radio access technologies for vehicular communications, adapted from [127,128].

in Non-Line-Of-Sight (NLOS), high-density scenarios and when the

challenges are: managing resources in high-density scenarios (ran-
excessive delay spread is present needs to be tested.
dom allocation of resources may result in excessive collisions) and
VLC: The DSRC based solution has very low market penetra-
ensuring reliability for in-coverage and out-coverage communica-
tion, which is the biggest challenge and it can block the deploy-
tion.
ment. Because LED-based lighting is now being integrated into
mmWave: Although mmWave has generated a lot of interest in
vehicles, roadside infrastructures (traffic lights), buildings, etc., the
vehicular communication, the characteristics of mmWave channels
VLC technology can be a cost-effective solution and can also have
raise many concerns. These challenges are detailed in the study
the largest market penetration. However, VLC technology is still in
[132] and are given as follows: Frequent beam formation and pe-
its infancy and requires a lot of efforts to overcome the associ-
riodic beam tracking are needed to track vehicles over time and
ated challenges and to make it suitable for vehicular communi-
maintain beam alignment. It is essential but incurs overhead be-
cations (outdoor). There are challenges associated with LED-based
cause of the high mobility. mmWave has a very small range of
VLC [130] because of its high directivity, short range (smaller than
communication and rapid and sudden channel variations. Thus, the
DSRC) and the requirement of LOS. The short range OWC sig-
residence time of the vehicles in a mmWave cell is very short
nal propagation is more sensitive to weather conditions, such as
and is subject to frequent handovers. Other challenges are Doppler
rain, fog, and snow [66]. These weather conditions, mainly fog can
spread due to high mobility and channel variations, highly sensi-
severely affect the performance because it blocks the passage or
tive to blockage (high penetration loss), and traffic density, inaccu-
deviates the LED lights. These deviations and disturbance are due
rate context information, high path loss etc.
to the combination of scattering, reflection and absorption [131].
5G: 5G is an emerging technology, which is unexplored for ap-
Some of the research areas could be: how to increase the cover-
plications that require ultra-reliable low-latency communication.
age (from 10 s of meters to 100 s of meters) and data rate support,
5G architecture for vehicular communication is expected to be
how to make it robust to the noise (other light sources such as
multi-tier (a mixture of macro, Pico, and femtocells) and multi-
sun, lamps, etc.), and enhance its performance in mobility (aligning
RAT (LTE, Wi-Fi, DSRC, mmWave) based approach. Such a hetero-
emitter and receiver) and in weather conditions (fog, rain droplets,
geneous network may pose considerable and diverse challenges.
snow etc.).
Some of them could be ensured fairness, availability, reliability and
Cellular-V2X: The DSRC/IEEE 802.11p allows reliable low la-
seamless connectivity, support for diverse QoS requirements, re-
tency V2V and V2I communication for the basic safety messages
source provisioning, interference cancellation, coexistence and in-
exchange. While DSRC/ITS-G5 seems imminent in the U.S.A and
tegration of diverse technologies etc.
Europe, the researchers believe that C-V2X to show steady growth
in future. 3GPP stakeholders and many other working groups are
5. Standardization activities
trying to enhance C-V2X’s initial design and architecture for its
widespread adoption. The main challenge for C-V2X is to have ded-
In this section, we describe ITS standardization activities car-
icated spectrum needed for V2V communication. The inter-vehicle
ried out in international standardization organizations (SDOs) and
communication at high relative speeds via C-V2X may face two key
regional SDOs in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Table 8
challenges: higher Doppler spread and frequency shift. Other key
lists the main SDOs at the international and regional levels. Inter-
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 19

national SDOs work on ITS related recommendation, reports, and ture aspects for ITS standardization. It also takes into account ITS
standardization. In many countries, ITS studies on advanced radio standard related development work of other international SDOs,
and V2X communications are underway to improve road safety, including SAE, ITU, IEEE, etc. The scope of ITS related standardiza-
transport efficiency, and comfort. At the regional level, the main tion defined in ISO TC 204 is as follows: “The standardization of
ITS developments emerge from the USA, Europe, and Japan, and information, communication and control systems in the field of ur-
contribute significantly to the ITS deployment. ban and rural surface transportation that includes intermodal and
multimodal aspect, public and commercial transport, traveler infor-
5.1. International level SDOs mation, emergency, and commercial services in ITS field.” TC 204
has subcommittees in which Working Groups (WGs) are present.
At the International level, ITU, ISO, and IEEE are the main SDOs As listed in Table 10, twelve WGs are currently active under TC
involved in the standardization process of the ITS. Their objective is 204, which are led by nine countries. ISO TC 204 has published 247
to accelerate the ITS deployment process and provide harmonized standards, and 88 standards are under development (As of October
ITS standard across the globe by minimizing variations, reducing 2017). ISO TC 204 has twenty-eight participating (P) members and
the cost and proving interoperability between architectures and twenty-nine observing (O) members.
equipment. Apart from ISO TC 204, there is another ISO technical commit-
tee, TC 22, which works for the standardization of road vehicles. It
5.1.1. ITU is one of the oldest TC founded in 1947 (time of the ISO Founda-
ITU is an ICTs specialized agency of the United Nations (UN). tion). ISO TC 22 has published 855 international standards, and 235
ITU is based on public-private partnership and currently has a ISO standards are under development (As of September 2017). ISO
membership from 193 countries (Member States) and nearly 800 TC 22 has twenty-eight P-members and forty-three O-members.
private sector and academic institutions (Sector Members, Asso- Under TC 22, there are eleven subcommittees (SCs) that corre-
ciates, and Academia). spond to SC 31 to SC 41.
ITU comprises three sectors, ITU-R (Radiocommunications), ITU- Since TC 22 and TC 204 both carryout automobiles related stan-
T (Telecommunications Standardization) and ITU-D (Telecommuni- dardization, TC 22 has pointed out duplicated contents in stan-
cations Development). dardization activities related to the driving control. Thus, in June
ITU-R Study Groups (SGs) develop the technical agendas for WRC 2014 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) signed between ISO
and global standards (Recommendations) and prepare reports and TC 22 and TC 204 to cooperate to solve the duplicate standard de-
handbooks on radiocommunication matters. ITU-R Study Group 5 velopment related issues and promote standardization activities.
(SG 5) focuses on Terrestrial services, and its lower body Working
Party 5A (WP 5A) [133] deals with the standardization of ITS and 5.1.3. IEEE
develop recommendations. The WP 5A covers studies related to the The IEEE is the world’s largest technical professional organiza-
land mobile service, wireless access to the fixed service, amateur tion for the advancement of technology [144]. It is incorporated
and amateur-satellite services. It does not cover IMT systems. The under the Not-for-Profit Corporation Law of the state of New York
WP 5D [134] covers IMT Systems such as IMT-2000, IMT-Advanced [145]. It has more than 423,000 members in more than 160 coun-
and IMT-2020. tries around the world. The association aims to promote innova-
ITU-R initiated ITS standardization process in 1995. Subse- tions, create and expand international markets, protect the health
quently, in 1997, ITU-R Recommendation “M.1310” [135] presented and public safety, enable advancements of education and technol-
wireless requirement aspects of ITS in the objectives and require- ogy for humanity and the profession.
ments of Transport Information and Control Systems (TICS). Ta- The IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) is a leading consen-
sus building and standard making organization, not formally au-
ble 9 outlines various ITU-R recommendations for ITS. In addi-
thorized by any government. IEEE-SA contributes to the develop-
tion to these recommendations, ITU-R published the report, ITU-R
ment and advancement of global technologies through the IEEE.
M.2228-0, and ITU-R M.2228-1 [136] in 2011 and 2015, respec-
IEEE-SA facilitates the development of national and international
tively. These reports cover characteristics, requirements and the
standards in health care and biomedical, power and energy, in-
status of advanced ITS radio-communication system in Japan, Ko-
formation technology and robotics, transportation, home automa-
rea, and Europe.
tion and telecommunication, nanotechnology, etc. As of September
ITU sector ITU-T coordinates recommendations for standardiza-
2017, IEEE had more than 1,100 active standards with over 600
tion and research against the telecommunication technologies, and
standards under development.
it’s usages. It provides a forum for the creation of global ITS com-
As shown in Fig. 20, IEEE-SA has many standardization activities
munication standards to enable fully interoperable ITS deployment.
related to transportation which includes standards for ITS, wired
ITU-T study group SG 16 (Multimedia) [142] work on the stan-
connectivity, connected, automated and intelligent vehicle, traffic
dardization of multimedia that includes coding, systems, security,
safety and transportation electrification.
mobility, QoS, and applications. It also covers ITS related multime-
dia standardization in its process. ITS-related standardization in IEEE. IEEE-SA standardization activity
on ITS can be divided into three categories:
5.1.2. ISO
ISO is an independent, non-governmental, international organi- • IEEE Wireless Standards: IEEE-SA 802 committee conducts
zation based in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1947 and standardization activities related to the Local Area Network
works closely with ITU and International Electrotechnical Commis- (LAN) and Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). The 802 com-
sion (IEC). It is recognized globally and has a membership of 162 mittee has two Working Groups (WGs): (i) Wired (IEEE 802.3),
national standards bodies. It has published more than twenty-one (ii) Wireless technologies (IEEE 802.11/15/16/20/21/22). There
thousand international standards and related documents and is are many Task Groups (TGs), who work under IEEE 802.11
one of the world’s largest international standard developer. “ISO WGs. As listed in Table 4, the Task Group p has enhanced
standardization covers almost every industry, from manufactured IEEE 802.11a and issued the IEEE 802.11p standard for vehicu-
product and technology to food safety, agriculture, and healthcare.” lar communication.
ISO Technical Committee 204 (ISO TC 204) founded in 1992. TC • IEEE 1609 Family: In addition to the Wireless WGS, the IEEE
204 is within the ISO and covers the overall system and infrastruc- 1609 family of standards for WAVE define the architecture and
20 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 8
SDOs involved in ITS: international and Regional.

International
SDOs International Telecommunication Union ITU
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project 3GPP
International Organization for Standardization ISO
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IEEE
American Society for Testing and Materials International ASTM International
Society of Automotive Engineers International SAE International
Internet Engineering Task Force IETF

Regional SDOs USA American National Standards Institute ANSI

Europe European Committee for Standardization CEN
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization CENELEC
European Telecommunications Institute ETSI
Japan Japanese Industrial Standards Committee JISC
Association of Radio Industries and Businesses ARIB
Korea Korean Agency for Technology and Standards KATS
Telecommunication Technology Association TTA

Table 9
ITU-R recommendations outline for ITS.

ITU-R Recom-
mendations Year (Introduced- Name of the Document (Main) Scope (Main)
Revised-Main)
ITU-R M.1452-2
2000 (M.1452-0) – Millimetre wave vehicular collision avoidance Provides system requirements, technical and operational
[137]
2009 (M.1452-1) – radars and radiocommunication systems for in- characteristics of mmWave radiocommunication for ITS
2012 (M.1452-2) telligent transport systems applications. applications. Covers vehicular collision avoidance radar
operating in the 76-77 GHz and 77-81 GHz bands, and
integrated mmWave for ITS applications in the 57-66
GHz range for V2V and V2I
ITU-R M.1453-2 Outlines the technologies and characteristics for DSRC in
2000 (M.1453-0) – Intelligent transport systems – dedicated short
[138] the 5.8 GHz band. Describes technical and operational
2002 (M.1453-1) – range communications at 5.8 GHz
2005 (M.1453-2) characteristics of active and a backscatter method DSRC
technologies available for ITS, and the DSRC-application
sub-layer (DSRC-ASL) for DSRC and IP based applications.
ITU-R M.1890 2011 Intelligent transport systems – Guidelines and Replaces ITU-R M.1310. Provides the guidelines for radio
[139] objectives interfaces requirements of ITS.
ITU-R M.2057-0 2014 Systems characteristics of automotive radars Specifies the system (technical and operational) charac-
[140] operating in the frequency band 76-81 GHz for teristics of automotive radars operating under the radi-
intelligent transport systems applications olocation service in the frequency band 76-81 GHz for
ITS applications.
ITU-R M.2084-0 2015 Radio interface standards of vehicle-to-vehicle Identifies specific radio interface standards of V2V and
[141] and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications V2I communication for ITS applications.
for Intelligent Transport System applications

Table 10
ISO TC 204 working groups for ITS standards [143]. Details of Wireless WGs and other IEEE standards related to ITS
are listed in Table 11. In 2014, the IEEE-SA boards established new
Working Title Convenor standards coordinating committee (SCC) called IEEE SCC42 [146]
Group
for transportation. Over thirty IEEE Societies and Councils sup-
WG 1 Architecture USA port IEEE SCC42. IEEE P2040 standard series of IEEE SCC42 covers
WG 3 ITS database technology Japan the standardization aspects of connected, automated and intelli-
WG 4 Automatic vehicle and equipment Norway
identification gent vehicles technologies.
WG 5 Fee and toll collection Sweden Together, these standards help provide the foundation for im-
WG 7 General fleet management and Canada plementation of safety and non-safety applications in ITS. Many
commercial/freight national levels ITS projects use these standards for their deploy-
WG 8 Public transport/emergency USA ments. Regional SDOs collaborate with International SDOs to de-
WG 9 Integrated transport information, management Australia
and control velop the harmonized standard for ITS cooperative system.
WG 10 Traveller information systems UK
WG 14 Vehicle/roadway warning and control systems Japan
WG 16 Communications USA 5.2. Regional level SDOs
WG 17 Nomadic Devices in ITS Systems Korea
WG 18 Cooperative systems Germany

As shown in Fig. 9, different countries/regions use different ra-

dio frequencies for ITS due to regularity constraints. In the USA,
the ASTM, IEEE and SAEstandards have been adopted. In the Asia-
standardized set of services and interfaces for secure V2V and specific region (Japan and Korea), the well-known SDOs are ARIB
V2I wireless communications. and TTA. In Europe, ETSI, CEN, and CENELEC have been officially
• IEEE 1616: It is the first universal standard for motor vehicle recognized as regional SDOs that coordinate their standardization
event data recorders (MVEDRs). It is similar to the black boxes activities with ISO and ITU. This section of our paper covers the
used in aircrafts to monitor crashes. major standardization activities in the USA, Europe, and Japan.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 21

Fig. 20. IEEE standards for transportation.

Table 11
IEEE standards related to ITS by Wireless Working Groups of 802 committee. U.S. Department of Transportation’s (USDOT) is an active partici-
pant in connected vehicle standardization. In the USA, connected
Approved IEEE Wireless Standards related to ITS Space
vehicle technology standards are primarily released by IEEE, SAE
WGs Details
International and National Transportation Communications for ITS
IEEE Protocol (NTCIP). The ITS standards which are used to deploy “Con-
WLAN standardization, which is enhanced by Task group p as
802.11
IEEE 802.11p standard [48] and revised to IEEE 802.11-2012 nected Vehicles” in the USA are listed as follows:
standard [49] for DSRC based V2V and V2I communication.
IEEE
802.15
Standardization family for Wireless Personal Area Network • SAE J2735 and SAE J2945/1.
(WPAN). Example IEEE 802.15.4 [147] standard that defines the
• IEEE 1609 family Standard (Includes IEEE Std 1609.2, 1609.3,
PHY and MAC sublayer specifications for low-data-rate wireless
1609.4, 1609.11 and IEEE 1609.12) [152].
connectivity, low-power, and low-complexity short-range radio
frequency transmissions. It can be used with static and moving • IEEE 802.11p [48,49].
devices. In-vehicle sensors use this technology for intra-vehicle
communication. The protocol stack of the connected vehicle standard is shown
IEEE
802.16
Standardization family for Wireless Metropolitan Area Network in Fig. 23.b). The existing connected vehicle system may require
(WMAN). The WG for 802.16 standards family was established in changes in one or more standards of the WAVE protocol stack. The
1999 and it is commercialized under the name “WiMAX”. Many
WiMAX standards are still active for example 802.16.1a-2013
U.S. DOT’s ITS Joint Program Office (JPO), National Highway Traffic
[148]. V2I connectivity can be provided using this technology. Safety Administration (NHTSA), and other SDOs including the SAE,
IEEE the IEEE, and the Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership (CAMP) are
Standardization family Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
802.20
(MBWA). The main standard (base) of MBWA was published in working together to enhance and publish these connected vehicle
2008 and no longer actively developed. It can provide broadband system standards.
IP wireless communication to high-speed vehicles [149].
IEEE
Standardization for vertical handover. WG started work in 2004
802.21
and published the standard in 2008. The standard enables seam-
5.2.2. ITS standardization in Japan
less handover between the homogeneous and heterogeneous The JISC is an official representative of Japan to international
network (WLAN, WMAN, 3GPP, 3GPP2) [150]. SDOs ISO and IEC. It serves as the lead agency for ITS-related activ-
IEEE
Standardizations family for Wireless Regional Area Network ities, based on cabinet approval. An ITS Standardization Committee
802.22
(WRAN). The WG was formed in 2004 and published the main and several Technical Committees carry out standardization activi-
standard in 2011. The standard enables use of cognitive radio
ties for ISO TC 204 on behalf of JISC. The technical committee is led
(CR) technologies to allow sharing of geographically unused tele-
vision broadcast service spectrum in non-interfering basis [151]. by the Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan (JSAE) and com-
prises about thirty members, including experts, liaison officers, and
WG representatives.
5.2.1. ITS standardization in the USA In Japan, the SDO ARIB promotes research and development
The ANSI is a non-profit organization established in 1918. It fa- of new radio systems and advances the harmonization of interna-
cilitates the development of standards in the United States. ANSI is tional standards and related activities in the fields of telecommu-
the official representative of the USA to the ISO. The ITS standard nications and broadcasting. The major activities of ARIB related to
store of ANSI contains standards set of IEEE, ISO, and SAE. The the ITS Japan are the development of DSRC standards, discussed in
22 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Fig. 21. European standards organizations.

Section 4.1.1. We consider the details of the current ARIB STD-T109

standard in the next Section 6.2. ARIB is a merger of the Research
and Development Center for Radio Systems (RCR) and Broadcast-
ing Technology Association (BTA). It was established in 1995 and
comprises 189 regular and 25 supporting members. It also has 14
companies affiliated with the conference committee (As of Octo-
ber 2017). It is an organizational partner of 3GPP and participating
SDO of the Global Standard Collaboration initiative.

5.2.3. ITS standardization in Europe

In Europe, standards are being developed by the SDOs officially
recognized by the European Union (EU). These SDOs are known as
European Standards Organizations (ESOs) and are given as follows:

• European Committee for Electro-technical Standardization

(CENELEC).
Fig. 22. Alignment of the CEN and ISO working groups for ITS standardization [154].
• European Committee for Standardization (CEN).
• European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
under CEN TC 278, of which WG 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16 and 17
CENELEC takes care of electro-technical part of standardization, (urban ITS) are active and WG 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 13 and 14 are in-
CEN is responsible for multi-sector (wide range of fields and sec- active [154]. Fig. 22 shows the alliance of the working groups of
tors) including transport and ICT applications standardization, and CEN TC 278 and ISO TC 204 for the standardization of ITS [154].
ETSI for ICT and its related areas. Fig. 21 shows these three stan- CEN and ETSI in co-operation with the ISO have developed various
dardization bodies as ESOs. ETSI is a not-for-profit organization and standards for C-ITS Release 1, which we discuss in the next Sec-
has more than 800 member organizations and companies from 68 tion. These standards are validated and enhanced by many Field
countries across five continents worldwide. CEN is an association Operational Tests (FOTs) and European projects.
that brings together the National SDOs of 34 European countries, The ITS standardization efforts in Europe are accompanied and
which includes all EU Member States. CEN is also recognized by pushed by C2C-CC (an industry consortium initiated by automobile
the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). manufacturers) [30], equipment suppliers, research organizations,
In 2010, the European Commission issued standardization Man- ERTICO (a European public/private partnership of companies and
date M/453 [153] to ESOs for the development of a Cooperative ITS institutions) [155], and ETSI’s center for testing and interoperability
(C-ITS) Systems standardization in the European Community. The (ETSI-CTI). Their primary objective is to develop and deploy ITS in
primary objective is to prevent conflicts in national standards, sup- the EU.
port interoperability and provide a common co-operative system of In the US, Japan, and EU, joint efforts are underway to de-
ITS. In 2013, CEN and ETSI completed the work and announced Re- velop harmonized vehicle standards so that government, automak-
lease 1 C-ITS standardization package. ers, and technology developers can adopt a common conceptual
These ESOs cooperate closely with each other and also work in and technological framework. Some of the key stakeholders have
close collaboration with other international SDOs, including ISO, signed memorandums of cooperation (MOCs): US-EU, US-Canada, US-
Japan, and US-South Korea towards harmonization of connected
IEEE, IEC, and SAE International. Their goal is to achieve inter-
vehicles and communication standards. There is also active coop-
nationally harmonized standards of ITS that are now essential to
eration between international SDOs IEEE, SAE, and ISO and are
interoperability on a global scale.
working towards harmonization and developing a single harmo-
At European level, technical committees of the ESOs for ITS re-
nized set of standards.
lated standardizations are given as follows:

6. Protocol stacks
• CEN: CEN/TC 278 for ITS and CEN/TC 226 Machine Readable
cards
Over the last decade, vehicular communication is shifted from
• CENELEC/TC 226 Road equipment
pure research to deployments in the developed regions such as the
• ETSI – ETSI TC ITS (ETSI’s Technical Committee for ITS)
USA, Japan, and Europe. In the USA, the research on the connected
vehicle is entering into real-world deployments. Pilot projects in
CEN/TC 278 and ETSI TC ITS have a number of WGs each re-
the Tampa, Wyoming and New York regions are being rolled out.
sponsible for a specific ITS domain. CEN/TC 278 cooperates closely
The V2V communication over DSRC will soon be mandatory. Japan
with ETSI TC ITS and its international counterparts ISO TC 204 to
is expanding its deployment of V2I to IVC, and Europe in its Phase
improve the efficiency of standardization. Total there are 17 WG
1 is working to deploy connected driving in the EU. In this section,
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 23

Fig. 23. ITS protocol stack is the USA, Japan and Europe.

we discuss the ITS protocol stacks of these regions shown in Fig. 23

6.1.2. MAC sublayer extension: IEEE 1609.4-2016, multi-channel
in comparison with the OSI reference model.
operation
The standard [156] specifies an extension of the IEEE 802.11
6.1. ITS protocol stack of USA: connected vehicle
MAC sublayer for a multi-channel operation. It allows WAVE de-
The connected vehicle standards are designed to support low vices to efficiently switch between channels. The multichannel
latency V2X communication and enable safety and mobility ap- operation achieved through channel coordination between WAVE
plications. DSRC (mentioned in section 4.1.1) has been allocated devices. The channel access can be continuous (CCH or SCH), al-
to be used to provide reliable low latency communications. The ternative (CCH and SCH), or immediate. Continuous channel access
Connected vehicle protocol stack components in are shown in does not require coordination, while access to alternate channels
Fig. 23.b). The key component of the stack is WAVE protocol requires channel coordination (based on a synchronized time in-
family. There are two types of plane available: (i) data plane for terval). The CCH is reserved for WAVE short messages (WSM) and
proto- cols to carry higher layer information (ii) management management information exchange only while SCH can be used for
plane for management functions to indirectly support information all message types supported by WAVE systems. The Immediate ac-
transport. The protocol stack consists of a common set of IEEE cess allows OBU to switch to the SCH immediately for a defined
802.11p (PHY, MAC sublayer), MAC sublayer extension (IEEE duration. Immediate access supports an OBU to perform a trans-
1609.4), and link layer control (LLC). The protocol stacks above action during the time it is in the range of the RSU of a service
LLC are dual protocol stacks. provider.
The protocol stack of the connected vehicle standard are sum- Other features of this layer include multi-channel synchroniza-
marized as follows: tion, use of IEEE 802.11 facilities (EDCA), use of timing advertise-
ment frames, and maintenance of Management Information Base
6.1.1. PHY and MAC sublayer: IEEE 802.11p (MIB). In order to protect the privacy of the device operator, the
This layer includes IEEE 802.11p that supports V2V and V2I standard also allows readdressing the local WAVE MAC addresses.
communication. It is designed to support high mobility of the ve-
hicle at speeds up to 200 km/h and communication range up to 6.1.3. Network and transport layer:IEEE 1609.3-2016,
1000 meters. The IEEE 802.11p standard works on allocated DSRC
networking services
frequency band 5.850-5.925 GHz in North America. The objective
The standard [157] defines services at Layer 3 (network) and
of the DSRC allocation is to improve the mobility and safety of all
Layer 4 (transport layer). It specifies two data plane in the protocol
forms of surface transport, including rail and maritime transport.
stack: TCP/UDP (clearly not specified in the standard) over the In-
IEEE 802.11p, an enhanced version of IEEE 802.11a, operates “out-
ternet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) and the WAVE Short Message Pro-
side the context of a basic service set” (OCB) to support the high
tocol (WSMP). The standard specifies two EtherType values (a field
mobility communication. The re-association and re-authentication
in LLC header) to distinguish between IPv6 and WSMP. The WSMP
phases of 802.11 Wi-Fi take time and increase the overall han-
dover delay. Thus, providing seamless connectivity (low latency is a highly efficient messaging protocol and designed primarily for
and fast access) is a challenging task in Wi-Fi. In OCB mode, the optimized operation in a vehicular mobility environment. WSMP
802.11 Wi-Fi scanning, re-association and re-authentication phases is utilized mainly for safety and fee collection scenarios. It is well
are disabled, allowing the vehicle to seamlessly access services suited for message-based applications and in an intermittent con-
while crossing different RSUs. nectivity. The messages used by WSMP are known as WAVE Short
As per IEEE Std. 802.11-2012[49], the MAC header of each Messages (WSMs). WSMP allows applications to control physical
transmitted frame includes source and destination MAC addresses. properties used in message transmission. For example, application
It supports unicast, broadcast and multicast MAC destination ad- can select channel number and define transmitter power. The ap-
dresses. However, multicast MAC addressing is not required by IEEE plication at source also provides a Provider Service Identifier (PSID:
1609 standards. The packet transmission is based on the user’s pri- a globally unique value resides in the WSMs header) and the MAC
ority (UP), which is used by the EDCA to schedule packets. address of the destination device. The PSID helps deliver WSMs to
the intended receiving entity which may be an application, service
24 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

or higher layer protocol. If the PSID value of a message is not of

The SSME has two interfaces (SAPs) using which other WAVE
local interest, that message can be ignored.
entities communicate with it. These to SAPs are SSME-Sec-SAP and
A WAVE device advertises available services by sending beacon
SSME-SAP. The communication via these two interfaces is done to
message (periodic messages) known as WAVE Service Advertise-
obtain and update security management information. The SSME- Sec-
ments (WSA). Using WSA, an RSU can broadcast information to an
SAP is primarily used by the SDS, while SSME-SAP is used by the
OBU, which it may require to access an application. WSM can be
SDS and other entities.
sent on either type of channel, while IP traffic is restricted to SCH
The SSME-SAP allows SDEEs to update (add and delete) certifi-
only. This helps to offload high-volume IP traffic from the CCH. The
cate or related information and inform SDEEs about managed cer-
CCH provides a common channel for signaling to WSM and IP data
tificates. It helps to check the certificate verification. The SSME-SAP
both.
trust on the information provided to the SSMEs. The SSME-Sec-SAP
All WAVE devices use IPv6 address, which distinguishes be-
interface can be used to get the information about replayed PDUs.
tween the link-local address type and the global address type.
It can also be used in peer-to-peer certificate distribution and its
A link-local address is not a globally unique address and config-
configuration.
ured automatically by the device using its link-local prefix. It is
not routable and valid only for communications within the same
6.1.5. Application service layer: IEEE 1609.11-2010-Over-the-
network segment. The global address is routable and can be used
air electronic payment data exchange protocol
to route packets across different networks. IPv6 supports all three
The standard [159] specifies the application service layer and
types of addresses unicast, multicast and anycast required by the
profile for Payment and Identity authentication, and payment data
standard. It also supports special multicast addresses. If the ap-
transfer for DSRC based applications using IEEE 802.11p and WAVE
plication is IPv6 communication based, the WSA may include the
protocols. It defines a basic level of technical interoperability for
IPv6 address of the service provider and the port number of its
electronic payment equipment, mainly OBU and RSU. Example use
application.
case Electronic Toll Collections: At a tollbooth, an RSU acts as a
The various features of this layer are transmission and mon-
Payee Unit, and OBUs of the vehicles act as Payer Units. The toll
itoring of WSA, assignment of channel access, use of WSMP for safety-
transaction is carried out reliably and safely when the vehicle
critical applications, use of streamlined IPv6, use of LLC sub- layer
passes the tollbooth at highway speeds.
and EtherType Protocol Discrimination (EPD), maintenance of MIB,
and exchange of specific management related information among
6.1.6. Safety application message sublayer: SAE J2735 DSRC message
WAVE devices.
set dictionary
The standard [160] specifies a message set, and its data frames
6.1.4. Security: IEEE 1609.2-2016-security services for applications
and data elements, specifically for use by applications intended to
and management messages
utilize the DSRC for V2V and V2I based safety message exchange. It
The standard [158]) specifies communications security of WSAs
includes the detailed specifications of each message and the details
and WSMs. It also specifies security services to the higher lay-
required to interpret and correctly implement this message. The
ers. The security services are provided with the help of processing
connected vehicle system to be deployed in the USA are expected
function of Secure Data Service (SDS), and management function
to use the message set defined by this standard for safety applica-
of Station Security Management Entity (SSME).
tions and collision avoidance use cases discussed in Section 3.1.
Secure Data Service (SDS): The SDS provides communications
Safety applications utilize the DSRC/IEEE 802.11p to exchange
security services to the entities at the higher layer (including ap-
messages between WAVE devices (OBUs and RSUs). The standard
plications) that produce and consume secured protocol data unit
allows vehicles to periodically broadcast their status information
(SPDUs). In the context of the 1609.2 standard [158], these entities
using Basic Security Message (BSM). Status information can include
are called Secure Data Exchange Entities (SDEEs). These SDEEs in-
information such as sender location, speed, heading, acceleration,
teract with the SDS via the secure interface called Secure Service
and other key information. The OBU of the receiver after reception
Access Points (Sec-SAPs). The SAPs provide an interface to SDEEs
of the BSM determines the state of collision (exists or not) and
and other WAVE entities.
informs the driver via HMI. The same features are supported in
The standard specifies that the generic security services of a
Europe C-ITS using the cooperative awareness message and the de-
communication system such as authentication, non-repudiation,
centralized environmental notification message. The standard de-
integrity, replay protection, and relevance checking are provided
velopments for SAE DSRC and WAVE protocol stack are developed
by signing and verification. The signing and verification are done
cooperatively.
with the producer’s permissions indicated using digital certificates.
The standard does not provide privacy service, however, other fea-
6.1.7. On-board system requirements for V2V safety communications:
tures such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), Datagram TLS (DTLS),
SAE J2945/1
RF fingerprinting, readdressing of MAC and IP addresses after a
The standard [161] specifies the onboard system requirements
certain duration, etc can be used to protect the privacy. The stan-
for V2V safety communications system for light vehicles. It also in-
dard provides confidentiality service by symmetric authenticated
cludes standards profiles, functional requirements, and minimum
encryption. The standard allows the use of the Elliptic Curve Digi-
performance requirements. The system which is defined in the
tal Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) for signing and the Elliptic Curve
standard is capable of transmitting and receiving the BSM (SAE
Integrated Encryption Scheme (ECIES) for encryption.
J2735) over WAVE devices.
Station Security Management Entity (SSME): The SSME stores
certificates and related information about each certificate such as
6.1.8. Identifier allocations: 1609.12-2016
the data, previous revocation information (if any), expected revoca-
It records the Provider Service Identifier (PSID) and other iden-
tion information (if any), verification status (verified and trusted),
tifiers such as Object Identifier (OID), Management ID and Ether-
trust anchor etc. The stored certificate information at SSME re-
Type. These IDs are used by WAVE protocols (IEEE 1609 family of
lates to: (i) Locally held certificates: The corresponding private key of
standards) [162].
the certificate is stored by the SDS. (ii) Certificate Authorities (CAs)
The standard defines three PSID values for BSM-based applica-
based certificates: The corresponding private key of the certificate is not
tions. First PSID value is intended for the BSM derived from the
stored by the SDS. It belongs to peer SDEEs and to CAs.
sensor data of the vehicle. These messages meet defined accuracy
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 25

requirements. The second PSID value is also intended for vehicle 6.2.2. Data link layer: ARIB-MAC + IEEE802.2 LLC + Subnetwork
BSMs for which data are not available at the defined accuracy level. Access Protocol (SNAP)
The third value is mainly used for messages composed by OBUs of It specifies a MAC sublayer and a logical link control (LLC) sub-
tracked vehicles such as trains. The receiver can effectively distin- layer. The MAC sublayer uses physical carrier sense (PCS) and the
guish between the three classes of BSM using the corresponding virtual carrier sense (VCS) function to judge the condition of the
PSID values present in the WSMP header. As of now, total nine medium. The PCS function is provided by Clear Channel Assess-
PSID values have been allocated for SAE J2735. ment (CCA) and VCS is provided by the transmission inhibition
period, which is defined based on the information of the IVC-RVC
layer. The main functions of the ARIB-MAC sublayer are generation
6.1.9. Management plane and transmission of MPDU, control of CSMA, management of the 1-
The management services are introduced at different entities of second cycle timer and insertion of the transmission time to the
the data plane to run the system effectively. These services provide transmission frame.
various functions at the corresponding layer level, including time
synchronization for channel coordination, processing of requested 6.2.3. IVC-RVC layer: IVC-RVC layer
services, advertising generation and it’s monitoring, the configu- It generates and maintains control information in order to di-
ration of the local IP stack, and so on. The two main manage- vide time into V2V communication (IVC) periods and I2V commu-
ment entities introduced are (i)Extension of MAC sublayer manage- nication (RVC) periods. It provides the required control information
ment entity (MLME) of IEEE 802.11 (ii) WAVE Management Entity needed for transmission control to Layer 2. It is like using TDMA
(WME). The first one is specified in the standard IEEE 1609.4 [156] on top of CSMA/CA, medium access scheme [163]. This time divi-
and the second one is in IEEE 1609.3 [157]. The SDS described in sion based scheme prevents interference between an IVC and an
6.1.4 can be invoked by the WME or by entities at a higher layer. RVC communication. Base stations and vehicles carry out commu-
The generation and monitoring of WSAs are done within the man- nications normally in control cycles of 100000 μs each. Each of
agement plane and by the WME. However, WSAs are transported these cycles is divided into control 16 smaller periods of length
by the WSMP as requested by the WME. 6250 μs. The RVC periods allocated after every 390-time units for
the duration of 0 μs-to-3024 μs. The base station transfers the RVC
An improved implementation of the connected vehicle system
period information to surrounding mobile stations. During the RVC
may require changes in one or more standards of the WAVE proto-
period, no vehicles are allowed to access the channel. Vehicles are
col stack. The U.S. DOT’s ITS Joint Program Office (JPO), National
allowed to compete for access to the channel using CSMA/CA dur-
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), other SDOs, the
ing the remaining time in each cycle. Base stations synchronize
SAE, the IEEE, and the Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership (CAMP)
their clocks from external time sources like GPS. Vehicles synchro-
are working together to enhance and publish aforementioned stan-
nize its local clock based on the transmission timestamp received
dards of connected vehicle system. from a base station. Main Services of the layer are as follows:

6.2. ITS protocol stack of Japan: ARIB STD-T109 • Generation of IVC-RVC protocol data unit (IPDUs).
• Sending and receiving IPDUs.
• and RVC control (Transmission Inhibition period control).
The proposed ITS protocol stack of Japan ARIB STD-T109 is • Maintaining RVC Period Information
shown in Fig. 23.c) and details are summarized below. In com-
parison to the 5.8 GHz band, the ARIB STD-T109 operates in 700 6.2.4. Application layer
MHz band reaches longer distance and supports Non-Line of Sight It provides a communication control method and services for
(NLOS) communication. It supports both V2V and V2I communica- the application. It specifies a method for transmission and recep-
tion and suitable for V2V communication at blind intersections. tion of data through the IVC-RVC Layer. The standard covers fol-
The wireless communication specified in ARIB STD-T109 at the lowing subject:
physical layer is very similar to IEEE 802.11p, however, operates
using frequency of 760 MHz [163]. The standard is based on the • Application layer framework and structure.
OSI reference model and specifies the Layers 1, 2 and 7, and Inter- • Services to enable data transfer and remote operations.
Vehicle and Roadside-to-Vehicle Communication (IVC-RVC) Layer. • Common encoding rules to translate data into local syntax
The IVC-RVC Layer specifies necessary system functions of Layers with an abstract syntax defined by Abstract Syntax Notation
3, 4, 5 and Layer 6 of the OSI reference model. The primary ob- One (ASN.1) into transfer syntax and vice versa.
jective of the system is to reduce the number of road accidents,
reduce traffic congestion and assisting drivers to identify nearby 6.3. ITS protocol stack of Europe: C-ITS
vehicles and pedestrians.
The C-ITS reference architecture follows well-known OSI ISO
layer model. The OSI model has been simplified and extended
6.2.1. Physical layer: ARIB-PHY to define the reference architecture of the ITS station. The Euro-
The standard specifies technical requirements of the PHY layer pean reference architecture C-ITS is defined in ETSI EN 302 665
that includes the structure of the frame, channels, and signals, etc. [164] and ISO 21217 [165]. The ISO 21217 standard specifies the
The transmission methods used are given as follows: reference architecture for the ITS station and called the Commu-
nications Access for Land Mobile (CALM) station architecture. As
• Operating frequency: 755.5 MHz–764.5 MHZ (Single channel) shown in Fig. 24, CALM has six domains: Applications, Manage-
• RF Channel Width: Less than 9 MHz. ment, Access, Networking & Transport, Facilities, and Security. The
• Modulation: BPSK/OFDM, QPSK/OFDM, 16QAM/OFDM. Fig. 23.d) shows the protocol stack of the C-ITS station used in Eu-
• Forward Error correction: Convolution code R = 1/2, 3/4. rope. This protocol stack has been used and enhanced by many
• Data transmission rate: 3, 4.5, 6, 9, 12, 18Mbps. European ITS projects.
• Media access control: CSMA/CA. The core element of the C-ITS is ITS station and its function
element (subsystem) are given as follows:
• Duplex Method: TDD.
26 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

to a specific SCH in a dual mode. The first mode is fixed to

the CCH, and the other mode may dynamically switch among
SCHs. The standard includes:
– CCH and SCH operation for ITS-G5.
– Usage of ITS-G5 channels for road safety and traffic effi-
ciency.
– ITS-G5 transmit and receive policies, channel selection, and
configuration.
– Per-traffic-stream and per-channel rate control.
– Reference usage scenarios and parameters.
– ITS-G5 adjacent channel interference considerations.
• ETSI TS 102 687: The standard [168] specifies the Decentral-
ized Congestion Control (DCC) mechanisms on the access layer
that includes:
– Transmit power control (TPC) per packet,
– Transmit rate control (TRC) and
– Transmit datarate control (TDC).
The latter two methods modify the average transmit power by
modifying the duty cycle of the ITS-G5 station. In addition to
these two, the DCC sensitivity control (DSC) mechanism adapts
the clear channel assessment (CCA) to resolve local channel
congestion. A transmit queueing concept and transmit access
control (TAC) introduces priority to the packets. The packet
Fig. 24. ITS station reference architecture (ISO 21217) [164].
with the highest priority is handled less restrictive. The DCC
mechanisms rely on channel state information, which is ob-
tained using channel probing.
• Personal ITS sub-system; in hand-held devices.
• Roadside ITS sub-system; on gantries, poles, etc. 6.3.2. Networking and transport layer: ETSI EN 302 636 series
• Central ITS sub-system; part of an ITS central system. The series covers standards for network and transport layer,
• Vehicle ITS sub-system; in cars, trucks, etc., in motion or referred as GeoNetworking protocol standards. It is a network pro-
parked. tocol that resides in the network and transport layer of C-ITS pro-
tocol stack. Various Parts of this layer are given as follows:
The OSI communication layer representation of C-ITS reference
architecture are as follows: • Part 1 (ETSI EN 302 636-1): Requirements
• Part 2 (ETSI EN 302 636-2): Scenarios
• Access Layer: OSI Layers 1 and 2 • Part 3 (ETSI EN 302 636-3): Network Architecture
• Networking & Transport: OSI Layers 3 and 4 • Part 4: Specifies the Networking Protocols defined in following
• Facilities: OSI Layers 5, 6 and 7. subparts :
– Subpart 1 (ETSI EN 302 636-4-1): Media-Independent Func-
Similar to the connected vehicle stack, the security entity of the tionality.
C-ITS provides security services. The management entity manages – Subpart 2 (ETSI TS 102 636-4-2): Media-dependent func-
the communication of the ITS station and the application entity tionalities for ITS-G5.
provides an ITS service to its users via a set of ITS applications. • Part 5 (ETSI EN 302 636-5-1): Transport Protocols Subpart 1:
We discuss the details of the C-ITS protocol stack layers defined in Basic Transport Protocol (BTP).
their respective standards. • Part 6 (ETSI EN 302 636-6-1): Internet Integration; Subpart
1: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over GeoNetworking Protocols
6.3.1. Access layer: ETSI ES 202 663 (GN6).
The standard [166] specifies the PHY and MAC layer of 5 GHz
ITS using IEEE 802.11 as the base standard. It covers frequency The GeoNetworking protocol executes on adhoc router speci-
ranges ITS-G5A, ITS-G5B, and ITS-G5C. The physical transmission fied in Part 3 to provide packet routing based on geographical
in ITS-G5 is derived from IEEE 802.11p (based on IEEE 802.11a). addresses. It must fulfill the requirements specified in Part 1 and
The basic adhoc mode functionality of ITS-G5 is similar to IEEE work in scenarios specified in Part 2. It provides services to the C-
802.11p and works OCB mode. OCB enables the exchange of data ITS Transport Protocol, such as the Basic Transport Protocol (BTP)
frames between ITS-G5 stations that are not members of a BSS. The specified in Part 5, and the GeoNetworking to IPv6 Adaptation Sub-
OCB mode disables the scanning, association, authentication and Layer (GN6ASL) specified in Part 6.
other management procedure to simplify the operation. Stations
can exchange data immediately and directly without any delay due 6.3.3. Facilities layer: ETSI TS 102 894-1
to management frame exchange. At MAC layer ITS-G5 uses same The standard [169] specifies the users and applications require-
CSMA/CA with one MAC entity per channel. The scheme is ex- ments, the layer structure, functional requirements etc. The facil-
tended by QoS support via EDCA. The other standards at this layer ities layer is a middleware between the application and the net-
are given as follows: work & transport layer of the C-ITS protocol stack. It has multiple
facilities and provides services to the upper layer. It interacts with
• ETSI TS 102 724: The standard [167] is a part of MAC Exten- the lower layers and with the security and management entities of
sion Layer and specifies details of the channel usage in the the ITS station. The ETSI standards specify the functional architec-
ITS-G5A and ITS-G5B bands. It also includes multichannel op- ture of this layer and specify the requirements and specifications
eration support, which controls an ITS-G5 transceiver to tune of the identified facilities. Facilities are mainly classified into two
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 27

categories, common and domain to provide core and specific ser- Different standards developed for the security entities are given as
vices, respectively. The domain facilities include applications, in- follows:
formation, and communication support. In addition to these three
supports, administrative support is included in common facilities. • ETSI TS 102 731 defines security services.
The relevant standards of C-ITS messaging by ETSI are as follows: • ETSI TS 103 097 specifies security header and certificate for-
mats for ITS specifically to secure ITS-G5 communication.
• Cooperative Awareness Message (CAM): ETSI EN 302 637-2. • ETSI TS 102 867 specifies the mapping of IEEE 1609.2 security
• Decentralized Environmental Notification Message (DENM): within the C-ITS.
ETSI EN 302 637-3. • ETSI TS 102 941 based on the architecture and services defined
in TS 102 940 and 102 731, it specifies the trust and privacy
CAM and DENM are the basic safety messages (similar to BSM) management.
that notify an ITS station about their state (speed, direction, loca- • ETSI TS 102 942 to avoid unauthorized access to ITS services
tion) and events (road hazard warning, etc.), respectively. In addi- the standard specifies authentication and authorization ser-
tion to CAM and DANM, some other messages standardized by CEN vices.
TC 278 in collaboration with ISO TC 204 are given as follows: • ETSI TS 102 943 specifies services to ensure the confidentiality
of information.
• Signal Phase and Timing (SPaT)
• Map Data (MAP) 6.3.6. Management: ETSI TS 102 687 and ETSI TS 103 175
• Signal Request Message (SRM) In order to ensure proper functioning of ITS, the DCC com-
• Signal Status Message (SSM) ponents are introduced. As already mentioned, it is a cross-layer
• Probe Data (ISO TR 20025) management function i.e. located on several layers of the ITS-S
• In-Vehicle Information (IVI ISO/TS 19321:2015). reference architecture. ETSI TS 102 687 defines a framework that
includes DCC architecture and their mapping and interfacing. It
The first four messages are standardized as ISO/TS 19091 [170] consists four DCC components:
that encompasses their data structures and data elements for var-
ious V2V and V2I communication based use cases. The SPaT pro- • DCC located at the access layer (DCC_access)
vides intersection’s signal data and the MAP provides data of the • DCC located at the networking and transport layer (DCC_net)
road topology. The SRM requests preemption or priority services • DCC located at the facilities layer (DCC_app)
for selected vehicle groups and the SSM provides the current sta- • DCC located in management layer (DCC_mgmt)
tus of the signal (internal state) to all vehicles in range. For probe
data, standardization work is in progress. IVI is used to exchange The functionalities of the DCC_access component are already dis-
data between ITS-S and includes information such as contextual cussed in the Access layer part.
speed, vehicle restrictions, road works warnings, lane restrictions, The ETSI TS 103 175 [173] specifies the functionality of the
location-based services, road hazards warnings, etc. Other Stan- DCC component residing in the management plane (DCC_mgmt).
dards at this layer are: The objective of the DCC operation is to:

• ETSI TS 102 894-2: Common Data Dictionary (CDD) for appli- • Evaluate the load of the active radio channels.
cation and facilities layer • Optimize the radio channel usage by managing the ITS-S DCC
• ETSI EN 302 895: Basic Local Dynamic map (LDM) (Vehicle parameters.
oriented). • Keep track and help the exchange of DCC parameters that
cannot be conveyed via the data plane between the different
6.3.4. Application layer: ETSI TR102 638 layers. It also defines an ITS-S internal management to eval-
The standard [171] specifies Basic Set of Applications (BSA) for uate the congestion status for the ITS-G5 channels based on
vehicular communication. Identified BSA for initial C-ITS deploy- information from different layers.
ment are classified into four groups and are given as follows:
The second phase of the C-ITS development is focusing on inter-
• Active Road Safety (Cooperative awareness and road hazard operable deployment with cooperative, connected and automated
warning). mobility (CCAM) [174] in the European Union.
• Co-operative traffic efficiency (Speed management and Coop-
erative navigation). 7. Project activities
• Co-operative local services (Location based service).
• Global Internet services (Communities service and ITS-S lifecy- 7.1. ITS projects in the USA
cle management).
The ITS revolution begins with an explanation of the needs and
The standard also specifies minimum requirements for follow- challenges that motivated the start of the ITS. The first research
ing three groups of safety applications: program, “California PATH Program” in North America was founded
in 1986. In 1991, the US Congress initiated the Intelligent Vehicle
• Road Hazard Signalling (RHS): ETSI TS 101 539-1 Highway Systems (IVHS) program via Intermodal Surface Trans-
• Intersection Collision Risk Warning (ICRW): ETSI TS 101 539-2 portation Efficiency Act (ISTEA). The main objectives of this pro-
• Longitudinal Collision Risk Warning (LRCW): ETSI TS 101 539- gram are to improve road safety, increase efficiency, conserve fossil
3 fuel and reduce pollution of the U.S. national road infrastructure
[175]. The responsibilities of the IVHS program was entrusted to
6.3.5. Security: ETSI TS 102 940 the United State Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT). In 1996,
The standard [172] specifies the security architecture and se- the IVHS service framework prepared by the U.S. DOT, and Intelli-
curity management for ITS communications. Security functional gent Transportation Society of America (ITSA) and finally named
elements and reference points are identified to provide security. National Intelligent Transportation Systems Architecture (NITSA).
28 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Till date, this framework is considered one of the master plans

• NPA: National Police Agency
for ITS in the U.S.A. NITSA acknowledged and accepted wireless
• MIC: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
communications as a key component in their implementation of
ITS services [175]. Now, all R&D works associated with U.S. DOT • METI: Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry
is managed and controlled by Research and Innovative Technology
A summary of major ITS projects in Japan is given in Table 13.
Administration (RITA) [176].
The two key priorities of U.S. DOT’s current ITS research pro-
7.3. ITS projects in Europe
gram are (i) Realization of Connected Vehicle implementation (ii)
Advancement of Automation technology. The Eureka PROMETHEUS Project (PROgraMme for a Euro-
The seven US DOT’s offices led by ITS Joint Program Office (JPO) pean Traffic of Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety, 1987-
for ITS program coordination are given as follows: 1995) was the largest R&D project ever in the field of driverless cars
[195] [196]. Car manufacturers from six European countries headed
• Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) this research programme. The primary goal of PROMETHEUS was to
• Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) create concepts and solutions (use of micro- electronics, information
• Federal Transit Administration (FTA) processing, and artificial intelligence) for efficient, safe and eco-
• Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) friendly road traffic system. The European Union (EU) comprises
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) twenty-eight sovereign States or member countries, each having its
• Maritime Administration (MARAD) own legislative and judicial bodies. Na- tional Governments, the
• St. Lawrence Seaway European Commission (EC) or both, spon- sor most of the public
research.
A summary of the major ITS projects in the USA is given in The primary objective of European ITS projects is to address
Table 12. three significant transport challenges: providing road safety (re-
ducing the number of road accidents), reducing energy consump-
7.2. ITS projects in Japan tion (CO 2 emissions contribute to mitigating climate change), and
reducing traffic congestion (efficiency and comfort).
Japan has a long history of ITS and connected vehicle tech- The main instrument for funding research and development
nology. The history of Japanese ITS research and development [6] projects in the European Union is the Framework Programme (FP).
[184] are: Most of the ITS related projects are funded under the EU Frame-
work Programme(FP) in category ’ICT for Transport’. FP project in-
• 1973: Comprehensive Automobile Traffic Control System formation is available on the European Commission’s community
(CACS) research and development information service web page at [197].
• 1980: Trial operation of Highway Advisory Information Radio The main European ITS projects of FP6, and FP7 are presented
system (HAIR) in Table 14, and Table 15, respectively.
• 1984: Road Automobile Communication System (RACS)
• 1989: Advanced Mobile Traffic Information and Communica- 8. Future research directions
tion System (AMTICS)
• 1991: Advanced Safety Vehicle (ASV). In this work, we provide a comprehensive survey of the state
of the art, capturing latest details, standardization efforts and
These projects have contributed to the development of the Ve- emerging technologies. However, vehicular network is evolving
hicle Information and Communication System (VICS). with traditional network, wireless access for vehicular environ-
In 1990, three government agencies, the Ministry of Posts and ment (WAVE), Cooperative ITS (C-ITS) protocol stacks, Internet-of-
Telecommunications (MPT), the National Police Agency (NPA) and Vehicle (IoV), Software Defined Vehicular Network (SDVN), Vehic-
the Ministry of Construction collaborated in the implementation of ular Named Data Network (VNDN), and Mobility-First architecture.
the VICS. In 1991, these agencies began their work jointly with the These new emerging architectures and technologies offer great op-
industry. Finally, in 1996, VICS services were launched. The year portunities for the researchers to contribute in this domain and
1996 was the golden period in the history of ITS in Japan. take it to new heights. In this section, we discuss some of the key
In 1994, Vehicle, Road and Traffic Intelligence Society (VER- areas that are largely open to research communities.
TIS) was formed. In 1996, an overall framework for ITS Japan was
created as a result of joint efforts of five government ministries, 8.1. Seamless V2I connectivity in Multi-Tier and Multi-RAT
academic experts, industries, and associations. In 1996, the world
ITS has now become an essential part of smart cities and, in
first successful test of the control system was carried out on a pub-
order to provide ITS services, we need seamless connectivity with
lic road, involving 25 companies. 11 vehicles operated continuously
low latency, high throughput and high packet delivery ratio. Vehi-
for 11 km. In 2001, Electronic Toll Collection System (ETC) service
cles must be enabled to run applications and use services seam-
was launched. Later in 2001, VERTIS became ITS Japan. In March
lessly. Providing connectivity in a vehicular network with rapid
2011, Japan launched an ITS Spot Service nationally. These projects
topological changes, random vehicle speed, variable node density
have an exceptional impact on traffic and carbon emissions. Due to
is a challenging task, and V2V and V2I communications suffer in
VICS, CO 2 emissions reduced by 2.4 million tonnes in 2009. ETC
terms of high packet loss, high delay or low throughput. Now the
eliminates traffic congestion and reduces CO 2 emissions by about
question is: How do we enable vehicles with seamless connectiv-
210,000 tonnes each year [184], and also helpful in relaxed driv-
ity, i.e. continuous connectivity with Quality of Service support?
ing. The main objectives of ITS Japan are to integrate people, roads,
The first approach is to deploy RSUs to ensure seamless con-
and vehicles to solve traffic problems such as congestion, road ac-
nectivity. As already mentioned, deployment of a large number of
cidents, and environmental degradation [184].
RSUs is not a practical approach due to the high cost of deploy-
Four government bodies of Japan who have jointly finalized a
ment and maintenance. Having many RSUs deployed can cause
“Comprehensive Plan for ITS” are:
interference in the form of co-channel and adjacent channel inter-
• MLIT: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism ference. Therefore, this approach for seamless connectivity needs
to be fully investigated.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 29

Table 12
Main US ITS projects.
US ITS Projects Start-End Goal
PATH [177]
1986- The first several years of PATH research are divided into three primary
(California
Ongoing categories: Navigation,automation and road electrification.
Partners for
Advanced Transit Later in 2005–2006, PATH had been reorganized into four program-
matic areas to align with Caltrans interests: traffic operations, transit
and Highways) operations, transportation safety and policy and behavior.
Transportation Safety Research, Traffic Operations, Sustainability, Modal
Applications, Integrated Corridor Management, Automated and Con-
nected Vehicles and Berkeley Deep Drive are the main research do-
mains of PATH.
Starting in Summer 2015. California PATH plans a new initiative
on advanced computer vision and machine learning for autonomous
transportation.

Vehicle Safety 2002- Eight high potential benefit safety application scenarios are selected:
Communications 2004 1) Traffic Signal Violation Warning 2) Curve Speed Warning 3) Emer-
(VSC) [178] gency Electronic Brake Lights 4) Cooperative Forward Collision Warning
5) Intersection Collision Warning 6) Left Turn Assistant 7) Lane Change
Warning 8) Stop Sign Movement Assistance.
DSRC has been proposed as a potential catalyst for a number of vehicle
safety applications.

IntelliDrive(sm)/VII 2004- Verify and enhance WAVE/IEEE 1609 features.

(Vehicle 2009 Vehicle to Vehicle communication for Safety Applications.
Infrastructure
Integration) [179] Vehicle to Infrastructure for Safety, Mobility and Environment.

CICAS (Cooperative 2004- Develop and demonstrate cooperative intersection collision avoidance
Intersection 2009 systems for both violations and gaps; to warn drivers about likely vi-
Collision olations of traffic control devices and to help them maneuver through
Avoidance cross traffic and inform other drivers (i.e., potential victims) about im-
Systems) [180] pending violations as well as identify pedestrians and cyclists within
an intersection.

Vehicle Safety 2006- Implementation and testing of vehicle safety system using Dedicated
Communications 2009 Short Range Communications (DSRC) at 5.9 GHz and vehicle position-
Applications [181] ing.Explore possible improvements in this autonomous vehicle-based
safety systems that can facilitate new communications-based safety
applications.

SafeTrip21 [182] 2008- In order to accelerate the deployment of near-market-ready ITS tech-
(Safe and Efficient Ongoing nologies capable of delivering safety and mobility benefits, numerous
Travel through operational tests and demonstration have been carried out.

Innovation and
Demonstration is about, How better use of information, navigation,
Partnership for the
communications, technologies and protocols can make a measurable
21st century)
impact. For example, How it can reduce vehicle crashes and traf-
fic congestion, enhance transit use and ride sharing, promote motor
freight efficiency and safety, allow convenient electronic payment op-
tions, moderate environmental impacts and reduce unnecessary motor
fuel consumption in both urban and rural settings.

Vehicle-to-Vehicle 2009-Ongoing Facilitates the deployment of the Vehicle-to-Vehicle communication-

(V2V) based safety systems that should enhance safety across the vehicle
Communications fleet within the USA.
for Safety [183]
Enabling each vehicle on the roadway to communicate with each other.
Based on the set of data collected and the communications, a new
generation of active safety applications and systems needs to be im-
plemented.

The second approach is to enable vehicles to access any net-

the 5G heterogeneous network [217]), or by Multipath TCP
work (heterogeneous network). To do this following needs to be
(MPTCP) [218], Multipath IP (MPIP) [219], etc.
done:
The implementation of a vertical handover involves three steps:
• Equip the OBU of vehicles with multiple network interface handover initiation, handover decision, and handover execution.
cards (NICs) to provide connection to the latest available wire-
The selection of proper metrics and methods for seamless han-
less access technologies such as IEEE 802.11p, LTE-Pro, and Wi-
dover decision in a vehicular network is an important area of
Fi.
research. The main objective of vertical handover is to preserve
• Build vehicular heterogeneous networks (5G) that can be com- connectivity, maintain QoS, and limit the number of unnecessary
binations of Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.11p, and cellular networks using
vertical handovers. Several metrics used by researchers to trig-
link layer aggregation and other methods to provide connec-
ger handover decisions are: Received Signal Strength (RSS) [220],
tions everywhere.
Signal-to-Noise and Interference Ratio (SINR) [221], location [222]
• Implementation of secure and seamless connectivity options, and QoS guarantees [223]. Whether the traditional approach can
either by fast handover (horizontal and vertical handover in
be applied in the vehicular network or not, and how to imple-
30 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 13
Main Japanese ITS projects.

Japanese ITS
projects Start-End Goals

Electronic Toll
1993- Use of Identical OBU for all ETC operations and provided by different
Collection Systems
Ongoing road operators. The system uses DSRC (ARIB STD-T75) communication
[185] [186] [187]
for transmitting data at high-speed and in a robust manner. Uniform
transponder and payment card are used on any toll network.
Broaden serviceability to all types of vehicles.
Both the Prepayment and post-payment charge offers are provided.
VICS (Vehicle
1996- Aim is to provide real-time road traffic information about congestion
Information and
Ongoing and regulation to the drivers.
Communication
System) Processed Information in the form of text or graphic from the VICS
center, is delivered via three communication and broadcasting media:
FM Multiplex broadcasting, Radio wave beacon and Infrared beacon.
Advanced Safety
1991- Methods and devices which provide increased traffic safety and
Vehicle (ASV)
Ongoing make the vehicles more friendly to humans (V2I/I2V and V2V
[6] [188] [189]
communication).
Phase-vise
ASV-1:1991-95 Active safety(preventive): OBU observes sensor data about the traf-
ASV-2:1996-00 fic situation and driving conditions, makes decisions and supports the
ASV3: 2001-05 driver or even takes control of the vehicle to prevent an accident.
ASV4:2006-10 Both 5.8 GHz DSRC and 700 MHz ITS communications in V2V com-
ASV5:2010-15 munications are used to send alerts or warning to the drivers about
potential collisions with other drivers.
Smartway
2004- To build a road system with communication infrastructure (RSUs) using
[6] 2007 DSRC 5.8 GHz for exchanging information among cars, drivers, pedes-
[190] trians and users in I2V mode.

To prevent traffic accidents at intersections by issuing visual and audi-

DSSS ble warnings.
2006-
(Driving Safety DSSS alerts drivers based on information collected from various road-
ongoing
Support Systems)
[6] [191] [192] side sensors (detects cars, motorcycles, and pedestrians that are not in
the driver’s sight), road configuration, traffic signal and regulations.
Road-to-vehicle cooperative system on local roads (Vehicle-
Infrastructure communication based on the IR light beacon).

ITS-Safety 2010 [6] 2008- To achieve the required applications of vehicle-infrastructure coopera-
[193] 2011 tive systems by March 2011.

ITS Spot [194] 2009- To Provide three basic services: i) Dynamic Route Guidance ii) Assisting
Ongoing Safety Driving ii) ETC and in addition to these some additional services
including internet access.
ITS Spots installed mainly on expressways and services are provided
via 5.8 GHz DSRC.

ment handover decisions in the heterogeneous vehicular network

for seamless connectivity remains an open research problem.

8.2. Internet-of-Vehicle: edge, fog and cloud computing

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is an inevitable convergence of

the IP, mobile networks and the Internet of Things. It is a con-
verged technology with the following components in its domain:
smart things (embedded in-vehicle sensors), multi-services edges
(Wi-Fi, LTE, 802.11p), fog nodes, distributed intelligence, IP/MPLS
Core (Security, QoS, Multicast, Network Services, and Mobile Packet
Core) and Vehicular Cloud (IoT analytics, virtualization, authentica-
tion and applications) (Fig. 25). IoV introduce numerous physical
objects into cyberspace offering a great research opportunity in Fig. 25. Internet-of-vehicles: Edge, Fog and Vehicular Cloud.
online privacy protection and security services. IoV is an emerging
field with numerous research possibilities, notably on its architec-
tures and services, as well as in its sub-domains such as mobile and service performance. However, considering the limitations of
edge, fog computing, privacy, security and trust, QoS, big data anal- backhaul and backbone networks (in terms of capacity and delay),
ysis & processing, machine learning based intelligence, smart grid if cloud servers are placed far away from the vehicles it may cause
etc. serious performance degradation (efficiency of the off-loading con-
tent) [224]. MEC is considered as a promising technology which
Mobile-Edge Computing (MEC). As the number of vehicles on road
increases and V2X applications evolve, the data volume continue can enable many of the 5G use cases mentioned in Section 4.3.2,
to increase. The cloud computing for vehicular network is consid- including V2X and automated driving. It can be very useful to push
ered as a new paradigm and greatly improves resource utilization the cloud services, applications and data to the edge of the vehicu-
lar network (radio access network). This would help in off-loading
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 31

Table 14
Main European ITS projects (Under the FP6).

European ITS projects Start- Goals

End
COMeSafety 2006- Have an eSafety Forum for all issues related to V2V and V2I communi-
(Communications 2009 cations as a basis for cooperative intelligent road transport systems.
for eSafety) [198] Coordination and consolidation of research results and their implemen-
tation.
Support to worldwide harmonization.
Support to frequency and spectrum allocation.

COOPERS (CO-OPerative 2006- Improve road safety by using direct and latest traffic information com-
SystEms for Intelligent 2010 munication between infrastructure and motorized vehicles on a section
Road Safety) [199] of motorway.

CVIS (Cooperative 2006- To Design develop and test new technologies so that vehicles can com-
Vehicle-Infrastructure 2010 municate with each other and with the nearby RSUs.
Systems) [200]
SEVECOM (Secure 2006- To define a stable and future-proof solution to the security issues asso-
Vehicular 2008 ciated with vehicular communication and inter vehicle communication.
Communication) To Identify all possible threats and specify an architecture and security
[201] mechanisms.
Define cryptographic primitives which can cover specific operational
environment.

SAFESPOT [202] 2006- Prevention of road accidents via a safety margin assistant. Detect po-
2010 tentially dangerous situations in advance and sensitize drivers to the
surroundings in space and time.
V2V and V2I communications are used for making safety information
available to the drivers.
Improving safety information in its the precision, reliability and quality.

NoW (Network on 2004- Developing a vehicular communication system based on Adhoc and
Wheels) [203] 2008 WLAN technology for car-to-car and car-to-infrastructure communica-
tion. This vehicular communication must be used primarily for road
safety and infotainment applications.
Two main technologies used: WLAN (IEEE 802.11) and GPS-based
positioning.

AIDE (Adaptive 2004- Generate knowledge and develop methodologies for man-machine in-
Integrated Driver- 2008 terface technologies necessary for the safe and efficient integration of
vEhicle interface) ADAS, MS and nomadic devices into the driving environment.
[204]
APROSYS (Advanced 2004- Development and introduction of critical technologies to improve pas-
Protection Systems) 2009 sive safety for all European road users in all types of accidents and
[205] emergencies.

data, services and applications and bring them in close proximity Fog node facilitates efficient data processing, analysis and storage,
to the vehicles, i.e. at the RSU. Thus, minimizes latency, enables reduce the amount of data to be routed to the cloud, minimized
faster access and satisfy QoS requirements and help to enhance latency and improves response time. It provides great support for
road safety, improve efficiency and convenience, optimize invest- mobility due to its proximity to the host (vehicle), improves QoS
ment and deliver services with better QoE. MEC is not widely and provides an enhanced QoE. The most important research chal-
explored in vehicular context and offers opportunities for the re- lenges associated with Fog computing are [226,227] given below.
searchers. The sub-domains in which researchers can contribute These must be addressed to make it suitable for vehicular network
are given as follows: [225]. context.

• Efficient MEC deployment. • Task scheduling: How, when, what and where should be con-
• Provisioning of uninterrupted services to high speed vehicles. sidered?
• Reliability, availability, and fault tolerance. • Data management: Efficient algorithms to shuffle data among
• Security of applications and data and maintaining privacy. devices.
• Scalability in varying densities. • Implementation of pre-fetching the data to minimize latency.
• Load balancing. • Efficient resource/service provisioning in varying density and
high mobility.
• Support for multiple deployment scenarios (Multi-RAT)
• Load balancing and service selection.
Fog-Computing. Fog can provide most of the services (platform, • Scalability: Algorithms should be functional over a large scale.
computation, storage, etc.) data and applications to end-users that • Maintaining data consistency across cloud and edge nodes.
a cloud can. Data is processed and managed at the close proximity • Security and privacy issues.
of the host, rather than routing it to a central server farms or data
center in the cloud. Fog is, essentially, a middle level between the Vehicular Cloud. Nowadays, vehicles are equipped with powerful
edge and cloud (Fig. 25). It is deployed in a distributed fashion and resources such as computing, wireless communication interfaces
in close proximity of the host device to support mobility. Fog con- (LTE, Wi-Fi, and DSRC), storage (large volume hard disks), sensing
nects several edge nodes and serve them on behalf of the cloud. devices (sensors inside the car), GPS and short-range rear collision
 32 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 15
Main European ITS projects (under the FP7).

European ITS projects Start-End

Years Goals

PREDRIVE C2X
2008- Develop an integrated simulation model for cooperative systems that
(Preparation for
2010 provides a holistic approach to estimating expected benefits in terms
driving implementation
of safety, efficiency, and environment.
and evaluation of C2X
communication Broad dissemination activities planned to communicate the public
technology) [206] about the benefits of vehicle technology in cooperative systems and
to reach out to all relevant European stakeholders.

GeoNET [207] [208] 2008-

2010 Implementation and formal testing of a networking mechanism as a
single software module to be incorporated into Cooperative Systems.
Allow transparent IP connectivity between a vehicle and the road side
infrastructure, even in cases when delivery is multi-hopped or cached
along the way.
Use of geographic addressing and the routing mechanism to distribute
the packets to nodes within a selected destination area.
iTETRIS [209] [210] 2008-
Development of a large-scale and long-term simulation tool for the
2011
evaluation of cooperative traffic management applications. The simula-
tor couples traffic and network simulation in a closed-loop for detailed
analyses of the effects and performance evaluation of cooperative ap-
plications on traffic flow, travel time, emissions, etc.

ROSATTE (Road safety

attributes exchange in- 2008- Establishment of an efficient and assured quality data supply chain
frastructure in Europe) 2010 from public authorities to commercial map providers for safety-related
[211] road content.

PRESERVE (Preparing
Secure Vehicle-to-X 2011- Bring secure, privacy-protected V2X communication closer to reality by
2015 providing field testing to a security and privacy subsystem.

Communication Provide comprehensive protection to in-vehicle sensors, onboard net-

Systems) [212] [213] work and V2V/V2I communication, and the receiving applications.

PRECIOSA (Privacy 2008- Demonstration of co-operative system s compliance with future privacy
enabled capability in 2010 regulations. It is done using a sample application that can be endowed
co-operative systems with technologies for proper privacy protection of location related data.
and safety applications) Define an evaluation approach to co-operative systems in terms of
[214] communication and data storage privacy.
Define a privacy aware architecture for co-operative systems, involving
appropriate trust models and ontologies, and a privacy verifiable archi-
tecture for V2V and V2I.
Define and validate guidelines for privacy aware co-operative systems.
Investigate the key challenges for privacy.

DRIVE C2X [215] 2011- Create a harmonized testing environment in Europe for cooperative
2014 systems through Field Operational Tests (FOTs).
Coordinate the tests carried out in parallel throughout the DRIVE C2X
community.
Evaluate cooperative systems.
Promote cooperative driving.

COLOMBO 2012- Reduce congestion and its impact on everyday life in urban
(Cooperative 2015 environments.
Self-Organizing System The development of smarter urban transport systems, with the aim of
for low Carbon Mobility at
low Penetration Rates) [216] disseminating good practices towards more efficient urban transport.
Bring together technologies, methods and combine well-established
modeling tools such as vehicular pollutant emissions (PHEM), traffic
simulation (SUMO) and vehicular communication (iTETRIS and ns-3).

radars. In other words, we have powerful computers running on

work device installed in the network. It also causes high latency
the wheels. According to recent studies, these resources are under-
in route recovery because it is based on the distributed mecha-
utilized because most of the time the vehicles are either parked
in the parking lot or driveway. One of the emerging research top- nism. The SDN has been designed to solve these problems of the
ics is to use these underutilized computing, and physical resources traditional networks by introducing centralized and programmable
of vehicles for local vehicular cloud services or empower existing mechanism to maintain, manage and configure every single device
cloud services for various applications. on the network. The core intelligence and management features
of the network are provided by the SDN controller, which inter-
8.3. Software Defined Vehicular Network (SDVN) acts with the data plane using southbound interfaces (SBI) and
with the applications using northbound interfaces (NBI) (Fig. 26).
The main problem with the traditional network is that we have
It separates the data plane from the control plane, which simpli-
to manually configure and manage every networking an internet-
fies network configuration and management task. The instructions
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 33

Fig. 27. Vehicular named data network: V2V and V2I.

Fig. 26. Software defined vehicular network architecture: 5G HetNet with SDN.

• Forwarder: A vehicle actively participating in communication

which are received from the applications are converted into rules, and forwarding packets.
which are executed by the devices after receiving it via the control • Mule: Vehicle storing the contents in its cache (content store)
plane (providing programmability). and carries data across distance (while no connectivity avail-
The key components of the SDVN architecture (Fig. 26) could able).
be:
In VNDN, a vehicle can play any of the above given roles [230].
Each node in the NDN maintains three major data structures:
• SDN-enabled vehicle: that act as per the control message.
Pending Interest Table (PIT), Content Store (CS), and Forwarding
• SDN RSUs (HetNet): SDN agents are installed.
Information Base (FIB). When a vehicle wants to fetch some con-
• RSUs Controller: SDN Controller that control set of RSUs. tent it generates Interest packet for that and check the CS for data.
If data is present in its CS it fetches it, else checks its PIT (same
The vehicular network can also take advantage of the various
Interest already forwarded but not satisfied). If it is a new Inter-
features of the SDN such as programmability, flexibility and cen-
est, the Interest packet is forwarded towards the data producer(s)
tralized control. It can help in resource provisioning, optimization,
according to the FIB. When data is found, the corresponding node
routing, multipath connectivity, handover, channel allocation etc.
finds the matching PIT entry and forwards the Data packet to all
It can offer different services to the vehicular network related to
downstream interfaces present it its PIT entry. After forwarding, a
safety and non-safety. However, the adoption of SDNs in a vehic-
node removes the corresponding PIT entry, and caches the copy of
ular network is not so simple because of the high mobility of the
the data in its CS. When the PIT entry for that Data packet is not
vehicle and the frequent topology changes. The following given ar-
matched, it is assumed to be unsolicited and is dropped from it. In
eas could be the some of the future research directions in this
this communication IP address is not used [228]; Interest packets
domain.
use the names of the content and are routed based on the names
carried in it. The Data packets follows the reverse path set up by
• Inclusion of intelligence to predict the movement of the vehi- the Interest packets at each hop.
cle for mobility management. This technology is a future of communication architecture and
• Allocation of the resources based on the context. it will be an emerging area of research for vehicular communica-
• Integration of heterogeneous network technologies. tions. The VNDN is not widely explored, the key domains, in which
• Integration of Fog and Edge nodes to support real time appli- one can contribute are as follows:
cations.
• Intra and inter-domain handover. • Efficient Naming and Content Caching.
• Support for real time authentication in high mobility scenario. • Better mechanisms for Interest forwarding and data dissemi-
• Fault-tolerance and scalability. nation.
• Providing security and privacy in SDVN. • Congestion Control Mechanisms.
• Content Pre-fetching for V2I communication.
8.4. Vehicular Named Data Network • Better replacement policies for PIT.
• Integration of other technologies such as SDN [231] and Mo-
Named Data Networking (NDN) [228] (basis of Content-Centric bile Edge Computing [232].
Networking (CCN [229])) is a newly proposed Internet architecture • Security and Privacy
and has already been tested in VANET [230]. The communication
mode of VNDN is shown in Fig. 27. 8.5. Security and privacy
In VNDN, four major entities are:
As the vehicles are becoming intelligent (CAV), equipped with
• Producer of Data: Producer can be a content server or vehicle sensors, Engine Control Unit (ECU), Controller Area Network (CAN
itself (for example data produced by the vehicle’s sensor). bus), integrated processors, application softwares and V2X connec-
• Consumer: Vehicle generating the interest for safety and non- tivity, the attack surface is also increasing. Like any other system in
safety related information. the network, CAVs are also susceptible to cyber-attacks and hacks.
34 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Any breach of security in CAVs can have disastrous consequences.

Table 16
We now discuss some of the well known automotive hacks done Simulators for vehicular network.
by different research groups.
Features Traffic Simulator Network Simu- VANET Simula-
In 2010, a group of researchers [233] conducted lab experi-
lator tor
ments, and successfully demonstrated malfunctioning of the ve-
Federated SUMO [238] ns-2 [239], MOVE[241]
hicle’s functions (disabled brakes, stopped the engine, and falsify QualNet [240]
speedometer information) by injecting some messages on the CAN SUMO ns-2 TraNSLite [242]
bus. They did it by physically accessing the vehicle. Netstream GTNetS MobiREAL [243]
In 2011, the same group analyzes the external attacks and dis-
VanetMobisim ns-2, QualNet , —–
cussed how it could be done remotely [234]. They mentioned that [244] GloMoSim
vehicle’s telematics connectivity can be remotely exploited to in- SUMO OPNET —–
ject messages on the CAN bus.
JiST/SWANS [245] —–
In July 2015, tech magazine Wired [235] reported that a cou-
Modeler
ple of security researchers hacked a Jeep Cherokee by exploiting a STRAW [246]
loophole in its entertainment system which was connected to the SUMO ns-3 [247] —–
Internet. They changed the radio station and the air conditioning,
Bidirectional SUMO ns-2 TraNS [248] us-
locked the doors and operated the windscreen wipers, and finally
Coupled ing TraCI
killed the engine and slammed the brakes. Fiat Chrysler Automo-
SUMO ns-3 iTETRIS using
biles had to recall 1.4 million vehicles. SUMO OMNeT++ [250] Veins Using
TraCI [251]
Security cannot be an afterthought and it should not be taken
for granted because it can put lives at risk, so one of the biggest VISSIM [252] JiST/SWANS VSimRTI [253]
Modified ver- JiST/SWANS VGSim [255]
challenges is to ensure security and privacy in a vehicular com-
sion of Nagel and
munication system. Vehicular network is evolving as SDVN, VNDN, Schreckenberg
and Mobility first architecture. However, the security and privacy (N-S) model [254]
of the CAVs are still in its infancy. Developing secure in-vehicle in-
Emulator SUMO —- Mininet-WiFi
formation system, providing security services and at the same [256,257]
time preserving location privacy are the hot topics for the
Embedded Tightly Integrated Together GrooveNet
research. Few important areas of research in this domain could
[258]
be: EstiNet [259]
• Identifying internal & external attacks/threats and security vul-
nerabilities of CAVs and their impacts.
• Developing approach to secure Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) tween network and traffic simulators. Designing and developing a
of CAVs that includes ECU, CAN bus, FlexRay, Telematics, etc., realistic simulation tool that can help virtualization of the existing
[236]. real scenarios of road traffic and vehicular communications (with
• Providing security services to aforementioned vehicular net- SDN, fog, and edge support) is an important area of research.
work architectures.
• Developing intrusion detection system to detect the attacks 9. Conclusion
that targets in-vehicle system security gaps.
• Developing system to recognize the abnormal activity: mal- This paper provides a comprehensive survey of a vehicular com-
functioned component or malicious activity. munication system. The vehicular network architecture and com-
• Preserving location privacy of the vehicles in the VANETs. ponents, various applications, radio access technologies for a con-
• Designing approach to detect the misbehaving vehicles in the nected and autonomous vehicle such as DSRC, VLC, LTE-A, Wi-Fi,
vehicular network, its nature of misbehavior (malicious, selfish and C-V2X are discussed in detail. We presented the details of the
or compromised) and mechanism to prevent it [237]. next-generation 5G network, including its spectrum, use cases, ar-
chitectures, and status. We highlighted the standardization efforts
8.6. Simulation and traffic modeling of IEEE, ISO, ITU, ETSI, CEN, and SAE. The resulting ITS protocol
stacks as a connected vehicle, ARIB STD-T109 and Cooperative-ITS
In order to contribute to something new or to improve the ex- in the USA, Japan, and Europe are also discussed. Some of the
isting technologies of vehicular communication, we must carry out key ITS projects piloted in these three regions are discussed. We
experiments in a realistic scenario. Research using test beds in this started from vehicular network architecture, its applications and
field is very costly and is not a feasible approach for analyzing the ended up with extensive future research directions. We hope that
performance of a new methodology in all forms of mobility (rural, this survey will provide a meaningful insight and will be helpful
urban, highway) with variable density. It is therefore necessary to for the researchers, developers and government agencies.
have realistic modeling of traffic flows and mobility. It will allow
researchers to conduct in-depth experiments and help them accel- Declaration of Competing Interest
erate their work. The simulation tools listed in Table 16 allow us
to simulate various vehicular communication scenarios and some The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
of them (ns2 and ns3) are extensively used in this field. However, cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
these tools have their own limitations. As mentioned earlier, vehic- influence the work reported in this paper.
ular communication technologies are evolving very rapidly at RAN
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