1

PREALGEBRA

1. Operations
2. Whole Numbers
3. Decimals
4. Fractions
5. Percents
6. Integers and Rationals
7. Powers, Exponents, and Roots
8. Measurements
9. Perimeter and Area
10. Variables
11. Review of Prealgebra

1. Operations
 Table of Contents
 Introduction and Summary
 Terms
 Summary and Analysis
 Order of Operations
 Problems
 Properties of Addition
 Problems
 Properties of Multiplication
 Problems
 Inverse Operations
 Problems

Introduction and Summary

Almost all of mathematics involves the use of the four basic mathematical operations--
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Understanding these basic mathematical
operations is crucial to everything covered both in Pre-Algebra and in more complicated
mathematics. It is impossible to master the complex principles of Pre-Algebra without first
mastering the operations and their properties.
You are probably used to working with the four basic operations, but there are some things
about these operations that you may not know. In particular, these operations have certain
properties that can make evaluating complex expressions a lot easier.
The first section will explain how to correctly evaluate a complicated expression using the
Order of Operations, which specifies the order in which to carry out operations when
evaluating an expression. The Order of Operations is important to know; if you do not follow
it correctly and instead carry out the operations in the incorrect order, your answer will also
be incorrect.
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Section two will teach some properties of addition that will make it easier to evaluate an
expression without depending on a calculator. These properties are the Commutative
Property, the Associative Property, and the Identity Property.
The third section will teach some properties of multiplication. Like addition, multiplication has
its own version of the Commutative Property, the Associative Property, and the Identity
Property. Multiplication has two additional properties--the Zero Product Property and the
Distributive Property.
The fourth and final section will discuss inverse operations, which "reverse" other operations.
These will be especially useful for future algebra.
Each section will teach something about basic operations that will help you evaluate
expressions correctly and easily. These properties will also be useful when you approach
more difficult topics in pre-algebra, such as solving an algebraic equation for a variable.
Terms
Associative Property of Addition - For any numbers a, b, and c, it is true that (a + b)
+ c = a + (b + c).
Associative Property of Multiplication - For any numbers a, b, and c, it is always true
that (a×b)×c = a×(b×c).
Commutative Property of Addition - For any numbers a and b, it is true
that a + b = b + a.
Commutative Property of Multiplication - For any numbers a and b, it is true
that a×b = b×a.
Distributive Property of Multiplication - For any numbers a, b, and c, it is true
that a×(b + c) = (a×b) + (a×c).
Expression - A representation of a number. 5 + 3 and 10 - 2 are both expressions that
represent the number 8.
Identity Property of Addition - A number does not change when 0 is added: for any
number a, it is true that a + 0 = a. It is also true that 0 + a = a.
Identity Property of Multiplication - A number does not change when it is multiplied by 1:
for any number a, it is true that a×1 = a. It is also true that 1×a = a.
Inverse Operation - An operation that "reverses" another operation. Addition and
subtraction are inverses of each other, as are multiplication and division.
Order of Operations - The order in which to carry out operations when evaluating an
expression-- parenthesis, multiplication, division, addition, subtraction.
Zero Product Property - Of multiplication. For any number a, it is true that a×0 = 0 and
0×a = 0
Order of Operations

An expression represents a number. For example, 6 - 2 is an expression that represents the

number 4, and 3×5 is an expression that represents the number 15. This section will discuss
how to find the unique number that each expression represents.
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Consider the expression 2 + 4×3. How might one search for the answer? One way is to start
by adding 2 + 4 = 6and then multiply 6×3 = 18. Another way is to first multiply 4×3 = 12 and
then add 2 + 12 = 14. Only one of these answers can be correct. So which is it?
The solution lies in following the Order of Operations. This rule specifies an order in which to
add, subtract, multiply and divide so that everyone can look at an expression and get the
same correct answer.
There are three steps to finding the answer, or to evaluating the expression, as specified by
the order of operations:
Step 1. Carry out the operations within parentheses.
Step 2. Multiply and divide (it does not matter which comes first).
Step 3. Add and subtract (it does not matter which comes first).
For example, to evaluate (3 + 2)×5 + (7 - 3), go through the steps:
Step 1 (Parentheses). (3+2)×5 + (7-3) = 5×5 + 4
Step 2 (Multiplication and Division). 5×5 +4 = 25 + 4
Step 3 (Addition and Subtraction). 25+4 = 29
Thus, (3 + 2)×5 + (7 - 3) = 29
In the example at the beginning of this section, 2 + 4×3, the steps are:
Step 1. 2 + 4×3 = 2 + 4×3 (There are no parentheses)
Step 2. 2 + 4×3 = 2 + 12
Step 3. 2+12 = 14
Thus, 2 + 4×3 = 14.
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Next Section

Sometimes the expression within the parentheses might contain a combination of

multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction, or even more parentheses. If this is the
case, go through the steps in the order of operations for the expression within the
parentheses.

For example, to evaluate (12 - 6/(3 - 1))/(7 - 4) + 2:

Step 1.1 (12 - 6/(3-1))/(7 - 4) + 2 = (12 - 6/2)/(7 - 4) + 2
Step 1.2 (12 - 6/2)/(7 - 4) + 2 = (12 - 3)/(7 - 4) + 2
Step 1.3 (12-3)/(7-4) + 2 = 9/3 + 2
Step 2. 9/3 +2 = 3 + 2
Step 3. 3+2 = 5
Here are some more examples:

Example 1.12/(6 - 2) - (3×1) =?

Step 1. 12/(6-2)-(3×1) = 12/4-3
Step 2. 12/4 -3 = 3 - 3
Step 3. 3-3 = 0
Example 2.(11 - 3×2) + 2×3×4 - (3 + 2) = ?
Step 1. 1. (11 - 3×2) + 2×3×4 - (3 + 2) = (11 - 3×2) + 2×3×4 - (3 + 2)
2. (11 - 3×2) + 2×3×4 - (3 + 2) = (11 - 6) + 2×3×4 - (3 + 2)
3. (11-6) + 2×3×4 - (3+2) = 5 +2×3×4 - 5
Step 2. 5 + 2×3×4 -5 = 5 + 24 - 5
Step 3. 5+24-5 = 24
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Problems

Problem : 5 - 2×2 = ?
1
Problem : (8 - 3)×4 = ?
20
Problem : (8 - 7)×6 - 10/5 + 4 = ?
8
Problem : 7 - (11 - 8) + 14 = ?
18
Problem : (2 + 8)/(6 - 1) + 7×2 = ?
16
Problem : (1 + 2×3) - 7/(4 - 3) + 2 = ?
2
Problem : (12/(3×2) + 4)/(13 - (8 + 2)) = ?
2

Properties of Addition
Sometimes it is necessary to add long strings of numbers without a calculator. For example,
one might be asked to find 48 + 33 + 52 + 11 + 17. This sum is difficult to compute without a
calculator, but the task can be made a lot easier by knowing some simple properties of
addition. In this section, we will focus on these properties, which will help make "mental
math" easier and will be useful in later sections of Pre-Algebra.
Commutative Property
The Commutative Property states that for any numbers a and b, the following is always true:
a+b=b+a
For example, 3 + 5 = 5 + 3. We can see that this is true because 3 + 5 = 8 and 5 + 3 = 8,
so 3 + 5and 5 + 3 are equal to each other. Another way to think of the commutative property
is the following: if you have a quarter and a dime in your pocket, and you add them together,
you will come up with the same amount of money whether you add the quarter to the dime or
the dime to the quarter.
By the commutative property, if we add two or more numbers, we can always add them in
any order. This is useful because it might be easier to add numbers in a different order than
the order given. In our example above, it takes a long time to add the numbers from left to
right (try it). However, because addition has the commutative property, we can switch the
order of the numbers in the expression:
48 + 33 + 52 + 11 + 17 = 48 + 52 + 33 + 17 + 11
This new expression is easier to evaluate, because 48 + 52 = 100 and 100 + 33 + 17 = 150. It is
easier to add numbers to numbers which end in "0". This expression can be made even
easier to evaluate with the associative property:
Associative Property
The Associative Property states that for any numbers a, b, and c, the following is always true:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
For example, (2 + 4) + 7 = 2 + (4 + 7). We can see that this is true because (2 + 4) + 7 = 6 +
7 = 13 and 2 + (4 + 7) = 2 + 11 = 13, so (2 + 4) + 7 and 2 + (4 + 7) are equal to each other.
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Or we can once again think about it using the example of coins: if I have a nickel and a dime
in my left pocket and a quarter in my right pocket, I will have the same amount of money if I
take the dime out of my left pocket and put it in my right pocket with the quarter.
Not only can we add numbers in any order, we can also add pairs of numbers within the
expression before adding them all together. In other words, we can put parenthesis around
any two (or more) numbers and add those numbers separately. Using our example above,
we can rearrange the numbers using the commutative property and then use the associative
property to add them in pairs:
48 + 52 + 33 + 17 + 11 = (48 + 52) + (33 + 17) + 11 = 100 + 50 + 11
It's a lot easier to add these three numbers in one's head than to add the original five
numbers one by one, and both methods yield the same answer--161.
The Commutative Property of Addition can be remembered by remembering that when only
addition is involved, numbers can move ("commute") to anywhere in the expression. The
Associative Property of Addition can be remembered by remembering that any numbers that
are being added together can "associate" with each other. Another good rule of thumb is,
when trying to decide which properties to use, look for numbers that add up to multiples of
10; these should be added first because they are easy to add to other numbers.
Properties of Addition

Identity Property
One final property of addition that will be very useful in algebra is the Identity Property, which
says that for any number a, the following are always true:
a+0=a
0+a=a
The Identity Property of Addition says that a number does not change its identity when 0 is
added. For example, 12 + 0 = 12. 0 + 17 = 17. Or, if someone is given zero dollars, the
amount of money he has does not change.
Using the Properties of Addition
These properties can be used in any order. Right now, they are useful because they make it
easier to add long strings of numbers. Later, they will help us to solve algebraic equations,
which we will discuss in Inverse Operations.
Examples
Here are some examples to show how these properties can make mental math easier:

Example 1.12 + 67 + 98 = ?
Commutative Property: 12 + 67 + 98 = 12 + 98 + 67
12 + 98 + 67 = 110 + 67 = 177

Example 2.(13 + 21) + (9 + 5) + 5 = ?

Associative Property: (13 + 21) + (9 + 5) + 5 = 13 + (21 + 9) + (5 + 5)

13 + (21 + 9) + (5 + 5) = 13 + 30 + 10 = 53
Example 3.54 + 17 + 6 + 12 + 3 + 18 = ?

Commutative Property: 54 + 17 + 6 + 12 + 3 + 18 = 54 + 6 + 17 + 3 + 12 + 18
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Associative Property: 54 + 6 + 17 + 3 + 12 + 18 = (54 + 6) + (17 + 3) + (12 + 18)

(54 + 6) + (17 + 3) + (12 + 18) = 60 + 20 + 30 = 110

Problems
Do the following problems without your calculator, using the properties of addition to help
you.
Problem : 46 + 78 + 54 = ?
178
Problem : (56 + 7) + 13 = ?
76
Problem : 67 + 11 + 21 + 68 = ?
167
Problem : (52 + 85) + (5 + 3) = ?
145
Problem : 34 + 0 + 54 + 26 + 18 + 6 = ?
138
Which properties of addition (Associative, Commutative, Identity) are used in the following?
Problem : (5 + 64) + 6 = 5 + (64 + 6)
Associative Property
Problem : (5 + 64) + 6 = (64 + 5) + 6
Commutative Property
Problem : 117 + 0 + 65 = 117 + 65
Identity Property
Problem : 54 + 2 + 7 + 1 = 1 + 2 + 7 + 54
Commutative Property
Problem : 2 + (3 + 4) + 5 = (2 + 3) + (4 + 5)
Associative Property

Properties of Multiplication
In the last section, we learned how to add long strings of numbers using the properties of
addition. Similarly, it is sometimes necessary to multiply long strings of numbers without a
calculator; this task is made easier by learning some of the properties of multiplication.
Multiplication and addition have some similar properties. Like addition, multiplication has a
Commutative Property and an Associative Property.
Commutative Property
The commutative property for multiplication states that for any numbers a and b, the
following is always true:
a×b = b×a
For example, 3×4 = 4×3. We can see that this is true because 3×4 = 12 and 4×3 = 12,
so 3×4 = 4×3. Just as in addition, we can multiply a long string of numbers in any order. This
can make multiplication without a calculator easier. For example:

4×6×5 = 4×5×6 = 20×6 = 120

Associative Property
The associative property for multiplication states that for any numbers a, b, and c, the
following is always true:
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(a×b)×c = a×(b×c)
For example, (2×5)×6 = 2×(5×6). We can see that this is true because (2×5)×6 = 10×6 = 60,
and 2×(5×6) = 2×30 = 60. Thus, (2×5)×6 = 2×(5×6)
Identity Property
Multiplication also has its own Identity Property. This property states that when any number
is multiplied by 1, it does not change its identity. For any number a, the following is always
true:

a×1 =a
1×a =a

For example, 45×1 = 45. 1×123 = 123.

We can remember these three properties of multiplication just as we can remember the
corresponding properties of addition. With the Commutative Property of Multiplication, when
only multiplication is involved, numbers can move ("commute") to anywhere in the
expression. With the Associative Property of Multiplication, any numbers that are being
multiplied together can "associate" with each other. Also, multiplying by 1 does not change
the Identity of a number.
Properties of Multiplication
Zero Product Property
Multiplication has two additional properties. The first is the Zero Product Property. This says
that any number multiplied by 0 is equal to 0. For any number a, the following are always
true:

a× 0 =0
0×a =0

For example, 3×0 = 0. 4, 567, 892, 435×0 = 0.

Because multiplication commutes, if you are multiplying a long string of numbers that
contains 0, you can move 0 to the beginning of the expression:

4×234×7×9×16×0×54 = 0×4×234×7×9×16×54
Because multiplication associates, this expression is equal to:
0×(4×234×7×9×16×54) = 0.
Thus, when multiplying any string of numbers, if 0 is one of the numbers, then the answer is
always 0.
Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition
The final property of multiplication is the Distributive Property of
Multiplication over Addition. This property says that for any numbers a, b,
and c, the following is always true:
a×(b + c) = (a×b) + (a×c).
For example, 3×(5 + 1) = (3×5) + (3×1). We can see that this is true because 3×(5 + 1) = 3×6
= 18 and (3×5) + (3×1) = 15 + 3 = 18.
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Examples
Just like the properties of addition, these properties of multiplication can be
used in any order. Here are some examples to make the properties more
familiar:

Example 1.2×13×5 = ?
Commutative Property: 2×13×5 = 2×5×13
2×5×13 = 10×13 = 130

Example 2.8×(5×9) = ?
Associative Property: 8×(5×9) = (8×5)×9
(8×5)×9 = 40×9 = 360

Example 3.43×9×0×7 = ?
Zero Product Property: 43×9×0×7 = 0

Example 4.1×591 = ?
Identity Property: 1×591 = 591

Example 5.6×(2 + 20)

Distributive Property: 6×(2 + 20) = (6×2) + (6×20)
(6×2) + (6×20) = 12 + 120 = 132

Problems

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Do the following problems without your calculator, using the properties of

multiplication to help you.
Problem : 6×7×5 = ?
210
Problem : 5×(27×20)
2,700
Problem : 6×(2 + 10)
72
Problem : 5×876×156×7×4×0 = ?
0
 9

Problem : 5×1×1×4×1 = ?
20
Problem : (5 + 4)×1 = ?
9
Which properties of multiplication (Associative, Commutative, Distributive,
Identity, Zero Product Property) are used in the following?
Problem : 5×78×0 = 0
Zero Product Property
Problem : 65×(9 + 10) = (65×9) + (65×10)
Distributive Property
Problem : (6×5)×11 = (5×6)×11
Commutative Property
Problem : (9×8)×3 = 9×(8×3)
Associative Property
Problem : 52×1 = 52
Identity Property
Inverse Operations

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An inverse operation "reverses" another operation. Addition and subtraction

are inverses of each other because adding and subtracting the same
number does not change the original number. For example, 7 - 6 + 6 =
7 and 13 + 11 - 11 = 13.
Similarly, multiplication and division are inverses of each other because
multiplying and dividing by the same number does not change the original
number. For example, 11×5/5 = 11 and 6/2×2 = 6. Dividing by 2 and
multiplying by 2 cancel each other out, and so 6 does not change.
Inverse Operations and the Commutative Property
Because addition and subtraction commute, two numbers need not be next
to each other to cancel each other out. Observe the following example:
43 + 5 - 43 = 5
Be careful, however. Addition and subtraction do not commute if there is a multiplication or
division sign between the two numbers being moved.
Because multiplication and division also commute, two numbers need not
be next to each other to cancel each other out. For example:
6×4×5/4 = 6×5×4/4 = 30×4/4 = 30.
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One must be careful here, too. Multiplication and division do not commute if there is an
addition or subtraction sign between the two numbers being moved.
Problems
Do the following problems without a calculator:
Problem : 86 + 92 - 86 = ?
92
Problem : 68/12×(8 + 4) = ?
68
Problem : 17 - (19×6)/6 + (7 + 19 - 7) = ?
17
Find the number that fits into the question mark.
Problem : 82 - 19 + ? = 82
19
Problem : (73/?)×14 = 73
14
Problem : 12/7×(3 + ?) = 12
4

2. Whole Numbers
Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms

Summary and Analysis

Place Value
Problems
Divisibility Rules
Problems
Factors, Primes, and Composites
Problems
Prime Factorization, the Greatest Common Factor, and the Least
Common Multiple
Problems

Introduction and Summary

Prev SectionNext Section

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One of the most basic sets of numbers is the whole numbers: the set of
numbers that includes zero and all the counting numbers--no fractions or
decimals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) This chapter will focus on the general
properties of whole numbers, as well as the specific properties of each
individual whole number and the way two whole numbers interact. Starting
with the general principles of our number system, this chapter will move
toward characteristics that distinguish one number from another. We will
then see how these numbers are related to each other.
The first section will deal with how our decimal system represents numbers
and why our system is called a base ten system. We will learn the meaning
of place value and how to describe numbers by their place value.
The second section will deal with divisibility. We will learn tricks for
determining whether a number is divisible by another number without
actually carrying out the division.
Knowing divisibility rules is a great help in determining factors, which begin
the discussion of section three. Section three will also deal with prime
numbers and composite numbers. These numbers play a huge role in
mathematics, ranging from pre-algebra to advanced number theory.
One way in which the prime numbers are useful in pre-algebra is in prime
factorization. This is the topic of section four. In exploring prime
factorization, we will learn how to find the greatest common factor and the
least common multiple of two or more numbers. This will be of great use
when we talk about fractions.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Base Ten - System in which ten digits are used in combination to

represent all numbers. The system also uses the concept of place value,
wherein each place has a value greater by a factor of 10 than the value of
the place to its right. The digit in each place represents a number that is
equal to that numeral times 10 raised to a certain power. For example, the
"5" in "6,589" represents 5×102.
Composite - A whole number that has at least one factor besides 1 and
itself; e.g. any whole number greater than 1 and not prime.
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Divisible - A number is divisible by another number if it can be divided

equally by that number; that is, if it yields a whole number when divided by
that number. 12 is divisible by 4 because 12/4 = 3, and 3 is a whole
number. 12 is not divisible by 10, because 12/10 = 1.2, and 1.2 is not a
whole number.
Decimal System - Our system of numeration. The digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9, used in combination, represent all numbers.
Factor - A number by which another number is divisible. 1, 2, 3, and 6 are
all factors of 6, because 6/1, 6/2, 6/3, and 6/6 are all whole numbers.
Greatest Common Factor - The greatest (largest) number that divides
two or more given numbers.
Least Common Multiple - The smallest number that is divisible by two or
more given numbers.
Multiple - A number that can be obtained by multiplying a given number
by a whole number. 6, 9, and 12 are all multiples of 3, because 3×2 =
6, 3×3 = 9, and 3×4 = 12. If a is a factor of b, then b is a multiple of a.
Place Value - The value of a digit, based on where it appears in a
numeral. The value of each position in a numeral is ten times the value of
the position to its right. The numeral 30,482 has a "2" in the ones place, an
"8" in the tens place, a "4" in the hundreds place, a "0" in the thousands
place, and a "3" in the ten thousands place. The number 1.567 has a "1" in
the ones place, a "5" in the tenths place, a "6" in the hundredths place, and
a "7" in the thousandths place.
Prime - A positive whole number divisible only by 1 and itself. Following
are the first fifteen prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37,
41, 43, 47 ... (Note: 1 is not considered prime).
Prime Factorization - A number written as the product of its prime
factors.
Relatively Prime - Two numbers that have no common prime factors and
thus have a greatest common factor of 1. For example, 64 and 295 are
relatively prime, since they share no prime factors.
Whole Number - The set of numbers which includes zero and all the
counting numbers--no fractions or decimals. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...
Place Value

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 13

Place Value for Whole Numbers

The earliest number systems likely used only strokes, where each stroke
represented a number. For example, 3 may have looked like ||| and 7 may
have looked like |||||||. While small numbers would have been easy to read,
larger numbers like 40 would have been very difficult:
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Even if someone did take the time to count all those lines, he could easily have made a
mistake.
Herein lies the importance of our decimal system, which symbolically
represents the strokes of earlier number systems in a far more user-friendly
way. In the decimal system, the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, used in
combination, represent all numbers. Because these ten digits represent all
numbers, the decimal system is a base ten numeral system. Under the
decimal system, we assign place value from right to left--ones, tens,
hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, millions, ten
millions, and so on. For example, the numeral 7,654,321 has a "1" in the
ones place, a "2" in the tens place, a "3" in the hundreds place, etc. We say
that "8,702" has 8 thousands, 7 hundreds, 0 tens, and 2 ones. Sometimes,
we don't talk about the zeros; we might simply say "8,702" has 8
thousands, 7 hundreds, and 2 ones. Imagine in the number 8,702 as a
bunch of individual lines. It would be impossible to deal with. Digits and
Place values allow the decimal system to represent large numbers with a
minimum of figures.
Because our system is base ten, a value of 10 in one place is equal to a
value of 1 in the place to the left: 10 ones is equivalent to 1 ten, 10 tens is
equivalent to 1 hundred, and so on.

Example 1: In the numeral 7,015,384, what digit is in the...

a) ones place? 4
b) ten thousands place? 1
c) tens place? 8
d) millions place? 7
e) hundreds place? 3
f) hundred thousands place? 0
g) thousands place? 5
Example 2: Write out the following numerals:

a) 8 thousands, 6 hundreds, 4 tens, 7 ones. 8,647

b) 9 ten thousands, 0 thousands, 0 hundreds, 1 ten, 2 ones. 90,012
 14

Example 3: In the following numerals, what place does the "1" occupy?

a) 6,301,759? thousands place

b) 123? hundreds place
c) 91,000,235? millions place
Problems
Problem : In the numeral 902,341, what digit is in the...
a) tens place?
b) thousands place?
c) ten thousands place?
d) ones place?
e) hundred thousands place?
f) hundreds place?
a) 4
b) 2
c) 0
d) 1
e) 9
f) 3
Problem : Write out the following numeral: 8 ten millions, 4 millions, 0
hundred thousands, 0 ten thousands, 7 thousands, 1 hundred, 3 tens, 2
ones.
84,007,132
Problem : Write out the following numeral: 7 millions, 4 ten thousands, 6
thousands, 9 ones.
7,046,009
Problem : How many hundreds is equal to 7 thousands? To 7 ten
thousands?
70, 700
Problem : What place does "4" occupy in each of the following numbers:
a) 904
b) 4,391,637
c) 83,421
a) ones place
b) millions place
c) hundreds place
Problem : What is the largest number that can be formed with the digits 7,
2, 9, 1, and 5? The smallest?
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97,521, 12,579
Divisibility Rules
A number is divisible by another number if it can be divided equally by that
number; that is, if it yields a whole number when divided by that number.
For example, 6 is divisible by 3 (we say "3 divides 6") because 6/3 = 2, and
2 is a whole number. 6 is not divisible by 4, because 6/4 = 1.5, and 1.5 is
not a whole number.
It is often useful to know whether a number divides another number. To
check divisibility, one can always do the division out by hand and see if the
result is a whole number. However, if the number we are dividing is large,
this becomes very difficult. There are some divisibility rules which make this
task much easier--these rules allow us to determine whether a number is
divisible by another number without having to carry out the division.
Divisibility by 1
A number does not change when it is divided by 1. Therefore, every whole
number is divisible by 1.
Divisibility by 2, 4, and 8
All even numbers are divisible by 2. Therefore, a number is divisible by 2 if
it has a 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8 in the ones place. For example, 54 and 2,870 are
divisible by 2, but 2,221 is not divisible by 2.
A number is divisible by 4 if its last two digits are divisible by 4. For
example, 780, 52, and 80,744 are divisible by 4, but 7,850 is not divisible
by 4. To check whether a number is divisible by 4, just divide the last two
digits of the number by 4. If the result is a whole number, then the original
number is divisible by 4.
A number is divisible by 8 if its last three digits are divisible by 8. For
example, 880 and 905,256 are divisible by 8 but 74,513 is not divisible by
8. To check divisibility by 8, divide the last three digits of the number by 8. If
the result is a whole number, then the original number is divisible by 8.
Page 2 of 3
Next Page

Divisibility by 3, 6, and 9
A number is divisible by 3 if its digits add up to a number divisible by 3. For
example, 671,451 is divisible by 3 because 6 + 7 + 1 + 4 + 5 + 1 = 24, and
24 is divisible by 3. 84,950 is not divisible by 3, because 8 + 4 + 9 + 5 + 0 =
26, and 26 is not divisible by 3.
 16

A number is divisible by 6 if it is divisible by 2 and 3. In other words, a

number is divisible by 6 if its digits add up to a number divisible by 3 and it
ends with an even number. 671,451 (our previous example) is divisible by
3, but not by 2, because 1 is not an even number. Therefore, 671,451 is not
divisible by 6. On the other hand, 789,312 is divisible by 6, because 7 + 8 +
9 + 3 + 1 + 2 = 30, which is divisible by 3, and its last digit is 2, which is
even.
A number is divisible by 9 if its digits add up to a number divisible by 9. For
example, 91,458 is divisible by 9 because 9 + 1 + 4 + 5 + 8 = 27and 27 is
divisible by 9. 18,453 is not divisible by 9 because 1 + 8 + 4 + 5 + 3 =
21 and 21 is not divisible by 9.
Divisibility by 5
A number is divisible by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5. For example, 875 and 600 are
divisible by 5, but 76,508 is not divisible by 5.
Divisibility by 10
A number is divisible by 10 if it ends in 0. For example, 65,110 and 90 are
divisible by 10, but 6,007 is not divisible by 10.
Note: Because a number divided by itself always yields 1, a number is
always divisible by itself. For example, 7 is divisible by 7 and 8,374 is
divisible by 8,374.

Note: No number is divisible by a number greater than itself.

Problems
Problem : Is 70,724 divisible by 2? By 4? By 8?
Yes, yes, no.
Problem : Is 82,791 divisible by 3? By 6? By 9?
Yes, no, yes.
Problem : Is 70,200 divisible by 5? By 10?
Yes, yes.
Problem : Think of a number that is divisible by 5 but not by 10.
Any number that ends in "5" is correct.
Problem : Is it possible to make a number that is divisible by 3 out of the
digits 8, 1, 4, 7, 0, and 1? Is it possible to make a number that is divisible
by 3 out of the digits 7, 4, 0, and 9?
Yes, no.
Problem : a) Make a number that is divisible by 2 out of the digits 6, 2, and
7.
b) Make a number that is divisible by 4 out of the digits 6, 2, and 7.
 17

a) 762, 726, 672, or 276.

b) 672 or 276.
Factors, Primes, and Composites
Factors
A factor of a number divides the number. For example, 2, 3, and 4 are all
factors of 12. Similarly, we say that 12 is a multiple of 2, or a multiple of 3,
because one can multiply 2 by a whole number to get 12. A number is a
multiple of its factors. To determine whether a number is a factor of another
number, we generally use the divisibility rules discussed last section.
Primes
A prime number is a number divisible by only 1 and itself (the number 1
itself is not considered prime). For example, 17 is prime because it is
divisible by only 1 and 17. The first few primes, in increasing order, are 2,
3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, ...
To determine whether a number is prime, it is not necessary to check
whether it is divisible by every number less than itself. It is only necessary
to check whether it is divisible by any prime up to half its value. One might
do the following computations to check whether 91 is prime:
1. Is 91 divisible by 2? No, it does not end with an even number.
2. Is 91 divisible by 3? No, 9 + 1 = 10, which is not divisible by 3.
3. Is 91 divisible by 5? No, 91 does not end with 0 or 5.
4. Is 91 divisible by 7? Yes! 91/7 = 13.
Therefore, 91 is not prime.

Composites
A composite number is a number that has at least one factor besides 1 and
itself, or any number which is not prime (although the number 1 is neither
prime nor composite). For example, 91 is a composite number. To
determine whether a number is composite, determine whether or not it is
prime. If it is prime, it is not composite; if it is not prime, then it is composite.
Problems
Problem : Is 17 prime or composite?
Prime
Problem : Is 73 prime or composite?
Prime
Problem : Is 121 prime or composite?
Composite
 18

Problem : Is 87 prime or composite?

Composite
Problem : Is 29 prime or composite?
Prime
Problem : Is 1 prime or composite?
Neither
Prime Factorization, the Greatest Common Factor,
and the Least Common Multiple
Prime Factorization
It is often useful to write a number in terms of its prime factorization, or as
the product of its prime factors. For example, 56 can be written
as 2×2×2×7 and 84 can be written as 2×2×3×7. Every number can be
written as a product of primes, and, like a fingerprint, every number has
a unique prime factorization.
To take a prime factorization of a number, start by dividing the number by
its lowest prime factor. Write down this factor, and divide the new
number by its lowest prime factor (it does not matter if this is the same as
the first prime factor). Write this factor down and divide the new number by
its lowest factor. Continue in this manner until the resulting number is
prime. Write this number down as the final factor.

Example 1: Compute the prime factorization of 1,575.

Step 1. Is 1,575 divisible by 2? No. By 3? Yes. 1, 575/3 = 525. Write down

3.
Step 2. Is 525 divisible by 3? Yes. 525/3 = 175. Write down 3.
Step 3. Is 175 divisible by 3? No. By 5? Yes. 175/5 = 35. Write down 5.
Step 4. Is 35 divisible by 5? Yes. 35/5 = 7. Write down 5.
Step 5. 7 is prime. Write down 7.
Therefore, the prime factorization of 1,575 is 3×3×5×5×7.

Example 2. Compute the prime factorization of 23,100.

Step 1. 23, 100/2 = 11, 550. Write down 2.

Step 2. 11, 550/2 = 5, 775. Write down 2.
Step 3. 5, 775/3 = 1, 925. Write down 3.
Step 4. 1, 925/5 = 385. Write down 5.
 19

Step 5. 385/5 = 77. Write down 5.

Step 6. 77/7 = 11. Write down 7.
Step 7. 11 is prime. Write down 11.
Therefore, the prime factorization of 23,100 is 2×2×3×5×5×7×11.
Greatest Common Factor
A common factor of two numbers is a factor that divides both numbers. The
greatest common factor (GCF) of two numbers is the greatest number that
divides both numbers. To find the GCF, take the prime factorization of both
numbers. Then write down the factors that they have in common. If they
share more than one of the same factor (two 2's, for example), write them
both down. Then multiply the factors they have in common.

For example, the greatest common factor of 1,575 and 23,100 is 3×5×5×7
= 525. 1,575 and 23,100 are both divisible by 525, and they are not both
divisible by any number greater than 525.
Relative Primes
Sometimes, two numbers do not have any prime factors in common. For
example, the prime factorization of 40 is 2×2×2×5 and the prime
factorization of 21 is 3×7. Since 40 and 21 have no common prime factors,
they are said to be relatively prime, and their greatest common factor is 1.
Page 2 of 2
Next Section

Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The least common multiple, or LCM, of two numbers is the smallest
number that is divisible by both numbers. To find the LCM, take the prime
factorization of both numbers. Then make a list of the "minimum" factors
required to obtain both numbers. If the prime factorization of one number
contains two 3's and the prime factorization of the other number contains
five 3's, write down five 3's.

For example, the least common multiple of 1,575 and 23,100

is 2×2×3×3×5×5×7×11 = 69, 300. 69,300 is divisible by both 1,575 and
23,100, and there is no number smaller than 69,300 that is divisible by
both.
Another way to find the LCM is to multiply the two numbers and divide by
the GCF. For example, 1, 575×23, 100 = 36, 382, 500. 36, 382, 500/525 =
 20

69, 300. This method is useful when one has a calculator and has already
calculated the GCF.
If two numbers are relatively prime, their LCM is the same as their product.
Using the second method for calculating the LCM, it is easy to see why this
is true. The greatest common factor of two relatively prime numbers is 1, so
when the two numbers are multiplied and the result is divided by 1 (the
GCF), the result does not change.

The least common multiple of 21 and 40, since they are relatively prime,
is 21×40 = 840.
Finding the GCF and LCM for Several Numbers
PARGRAPH It is possible to take the GCF or LCM of more than two
numbers. To take the GCF, simply multiply the factors that all the numbers
have in common. To take the LCM, multiply the minimum factors required
to obtain all the numbers (here, you cannot simply multiply all the numbers
and divide by the GCF).
Problems
Problem : Factor 924.
2×2×3×7×11
Problem : Factor 4,725.
3×3×3×5×5×7
Problem : Factor 245.
5×7×7
Problem : What is the greatest common factor of 300 and 2,550?
150
Problem : What is the greatest common factor of 30 and 16?
2
Problem : What is the least common multiple of 30 and 16?
240
Problem : What is the greatest common factor of 8 and 32?
8
Problem : What is the least common multiple of 8 and 32?
32
Problem : What is the greatest common factor of 12 and 385?
1

3. Decimals
 21

Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms

Summary and Analysis

Place Value and Comparing Decimals
Problems
Rounding
Problems
Computation
Problems
Introduction and Summary
Decimals are everywhere, from price tags to Olympic scores. Thus, it is
important to know what they mean and how to talk about them.
The first section will deal with place value for decimals, which is similar to
place value for whole numbers, as described in Wholenumbers. This
section will also talk about how to compare decimals. This is very
important--it is often necessary (but confusing) to know which of two
numbers with a decimal is larger. This section will eliminate some of the
confusion.
The second section will explain how to round whole numbers and decimals.
This skill is valuable because it is often easier to perform mental
calculations on an approximation of a number, rather than on the actual
number. Furthermore, in some cases it is only necessary to know an
approximate answer. Rounding is also useful in measuring.
The final section will deal with computation using decimals. We will learn
how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide decimals. It is crucial to know how
to perform these four operations, since decimals will appear a great deal in
both pre-algebra and higher mathematics.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Denominator - The number below the line in a fraction. Denotes how

many parts the whole is divided into.
 22

Equivalent - Two fractions that express the same part of a whole. There
is a number by which both the numerator and denominator of one fraction
can be multiplied or divided to yield an equivalent fraction. 1/4, 2/8, and
3/12 are all equivalent fractions.
Fraction - Describes part of a whole. 3/4, 1/6, and 19/4 are all examples
of fractions.
Improper Fraction - A fraction whose numerator is equal to or greater
than its denominator.
Least Common Denominator - The least common multiple of the
denominators of two or more fractions. That is, the lowest number which is
a multiple of both denominators.
Lowest Terms - A fraction whose numerator and denominator have no
common factors is in lowest terms.
Mixed Number - A number composed of a whole number and a fraction.
Numerator - The number above the line in a fraction. Denotes the
number of parts that are being taken.
Proper Fraction - A fraction whose numerator is smaller than its
denominator.
Reduced - Written in lowest terms; that is, written as a fraction whose
numerator and denominator have no common factors.
Repeating Decimals - Decimals that endlessly repeat one number or a
group of numbers.
Terminating Decimals - Decimals that do not continue after a certain
place (that continue in an endless string of zeros).
Place Value and Comparing Decimals
Place Value for Decimals
Just as "ones," "tens," and "hundreds" are used to describe place value for
whole numbers, there are terms that describe place value for decimals:
tenths, hundredths, thousandths, ten thousandths, hundred thousandths,
millionths, etc. These terms are used from left to right, starting with the first
numeral after the decimal point. For example, the number 0.1234 has a "1"
in the tenths place, a "2" in the hundredths place, a "3" in the thousandths
place, and a "4" in the ten thousandths place. The number 78.304 has a "7"
in the tens place, an "8" in the ones place, a "3" in the tenths place, a "0" in
the hundredths place, and a "4" in the thousandths place.
Because our system is base ten, a value of 10 in one place is equal to a
value of 1 in the place to the left: 10 thousandths is equivalent to 1
 23

hundredth, 10 hundredths is equivalent to 1 tenth, 10 tenths is equivalent to

1 one, and so on.
Example 1. What are the place values for 67.0534?

67.0534 has a 6 in the tens place, a 7 in the ones place, a in the tenths
place, a 5 in the hundredths place, a 3 in the thousandths place, and
a 4 in the ten thousandths place.
A Fact about Decimals
A decimal does not change when zeros are added at the end. For example,
3.45 is equal to 3.450 is equal to 3.4500, and so on.
Comparing Decimals
It is sometimes tricky to determine which decimal is the larger of two
decimals. Upon first glance, it appears that 0.304 is larger than 0.62,
because 304 is larger than 62. However, this is not the case. In order to
determine which decimal is larger, we must compare the two place-by-
place, starting from the tenths place, until the decimals differ. 0.304 has a
"3" in the tenths place, and 0.62 has a "6" in the tenths place. Since 6 is
greater than 3, 0.62 is greater than 0.304--it is not necessary to look to
further decimal places.
Example 2. Compare 0.4531 and 0.4507. Which is greater?

0.4531 and 0.4507 both have a "4" in the tenths place.

0.4531 and 0.4507 both have a "5" in the hundredths place.
0.4531 has a "3" in the thousandths place and 0.4507 has a "0" in the
thousandths place.
3 is greater than 0, so 0.4531 is greater than 0.4507.
Page 2 of 2

Example 3. Compare 76.7 and 400.05. Which is greater?

Since these numbers have digits to the left of the decimal place (they are
greater than 1), we can just compare these digits. 400 is greater than 76,
so 400.05 is greater than 76.7. In other words, 400.05 has a "4" in the
hundreds place, and 76.7 has a "0" in the hundreds place (since it has no
numeral in the hundreds place), making 400.05 greater than 76.7.
Example 4. Compare 45.91 and 45.618. Which is greater?

45.91 and 45.618 have the same numerals to the left of their decimal
 24

places (a "4" in the tens place and a "5" in the ones place). Therefore, we
must look at their decimals, starting with the tenths place. Since 9 is greater
than 6, 45.91 is greater than 45.618.
Problems
Problem : In the numeral 472.105, which digit is in the...
a) ones place?
b) tens place?
c) tenths place?
d) thousandths place?
e) hundreds place?
f) hundredths place?
a) 2
b) 7
c) 1
d) 5
e) 4
f) 0
Problem : What place does "9" occupy in each of the following?
a) 870.9
b) 0.0009
c) 1.293
a) tenths place
b) ten thousandths place
c) hundredths place
Problem : Write out the following numeral: 8 tens, 0 ones, 7 tenths, 6
hundredths.
80.76
Problem : Write out the following numeral: 3 hundreds, 7 ones, 2 tenths, 4
hundredths, 8 ten thousandths.
307.2408
Problem : Which is greater, 70.54 or 70.504?
70.54
Problem : Which is greater, 34.207 or 34.2070?
They are equal.
 25

Rounding
Approximations
Sometimes it is useful to use an approximation of a number--that is, a
number which is close to the actual number but easier to think about and to
use in computations. For example, when shopping for a new car, it may not
be important that one car costs exactly $32,945.05 while another costs
exactly $41,234.78; we are only concerned with the fact that one costs
approximately $33,000 while the other costs approximately $41,000. An
approximation has fewer significant figures than the actual number--you will
learn more about significant figures. For now, just think of an approximation
as a number that is close to the given number.
Rounding
When an approximation, rather than an exact number, is required, we use
a technique called rounding. We can round numbers to the nearest
hundred, ten, one, tenth, hundredth, etc. Rounding gives the closest
number to the original whose last non-zero digit is in the specified place. To
round a number to a certain place--the hundreds place, for example--look
at the numeral directly to the right of that place. If the numeral is 0, 1, 2,
3, or 4, then leave the numeral in the hundreds place (or in whichever place
we are rounding) as it is and change all the numerals to the right of it to
zeros. If the numeral is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, then add 1 to the numeral in the
hundreds place and change all the numerals to the right of it to zeros. For
example, 1,923 rounds to 1,900 and 679 rounds to 700. 1,900 is the
closest number to 1,923 which contains 0's in the tens and ones places,
and 700 is the closest number to 679 which contains 0's in the tens and
ones places.
If the number is a decimal, drop all the zeros after the decimal point after
rounding. For example, 63.789 rounds in the tenths place to 63.8.
Rounding decimals is just like rounding whole numbers, with one key
difference: when rounding to a place to the left of the decimal point, change
all the numerals to the right of the rounding place but to the left of the
decimal point to zeros, and drop all the numerals to the right of the decimal
point. When rounding to a place to the right of the decimal point, drop all
the numerals to the right of the rounding place instead of changing them to
zeros. Thus, 567.235 rounded to the nearest ten is 570, and 567.235
rounded to the nearest tenth is 567.2.
 26

1. Example 1. Round 7,803 to the nearest hundred.

Since there is a "0" in the tens place, we leave the "8" as is. The answer is
7,800.
2. Example 2. Round 4,019,576 to the nearest thousand.
Since there is a "5" in the hundreds place, we add 1 to the "9" in the
thousands place. The answer is 4, 019, 000 + 1, 000 = 4, 020, 000.
3. Example 3. Round 63.52 to the nearest one.
Since there is a "5" in the tenths place, we add 1 to the "3" in the ones
place. The answer is 63 + 1 = 64.
4. Example 4. Round 7,802.45123 to the nearest thousandth.
Since there is a "2" in the ten thousandths place, we leave the "1" as is.
The answer is 7,802.451.
Problems

Problem : Round 67,234 to the nearest thousand.

67,000
Problem : Round 1,156 to the nearest hundred.
1,200
Problem : Round 54.62 to the nearest ten.
50
Problem : Round 0.8873 to the nearest hundredth.
0.89
Problem : Round 72.004 to the nearest tenth.
72.0
Computation
Addition and Subtraction of Decimals
To add or subtract decimals, simply line them up so their decimal points are
in the same place, and then add or subtract as usual. Sometimes one of
the numbers will have more decimal places than the other. Because adding
zeros to the end of a decimal does not change its value, we can just add
zeros to the end of the shorter number until the two numbers have the
same number of decimal places. For example, to subtract 65.23 from
987.462:

987 . 462
-65 . 230
922 . 232
 27

To add 56.999 to 193.1:

193 . 100
+56 . 999
250 . 099

Multiplication of Decimals
To multiply two decimals, first count the total number of digits to the right of
the decimal place in each number, and add these two totals together. Then
remove the decimal points and multiply the two new whole numbers
together. Take this result, and count from the right the total number of
places calculated in the first step. Then insert a decimal point to the left of
this number.

For example, to multiply 3.4 and 2.01:

 Step 1. There is 1 digit to the right of the decimal point in 3.4, and 2 digits
to the right of the decimal point in 2.01. This is a total of 3.
 Step 2. Eliminate the decimal points and multiply 34 by 201. This equals
6834
 Step 3. Count 3 places from the right and insert a decimal point. This yields
6.834.
Thus, 3.4×2.01 = 6.834.
Division of Decimals
To understand how to divide two numbers when one contains a decimal,
we must first remember that adding zeros to the end of a decimal does not
change the number. Therefore, we can add as many zeros as we want to
either of our decimals. Second, we note that if we move the decimal one
place to the right (or to the left) in both numbers, it does not change the
answer.
To divide two numbers, then, we first add zeros to the end of either
number--these must be added to the right of the decimal point--until both
numbers have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
For example, to divide 31.8 by 2.65, we add a zero to 31.8 so we are
dividing 31.80 by 2.65. Next, we move the decimal point to the right until
both numbers are whole numbers; moving the decimal point changes the
 28

value of the numbers, but it doesn't change the ratio between the two
numbers, which is what division measures. Be very careful to move the
decimals the same distance for each number. In this case, we move the
decimal point to the right 2 places so we are dividing 3,180 by 265. Finally,
we carry out the long division. 3, 180/265 = 12.
Problems
Problem : 65.7 + 3.11 = ?
68.81
Problem : 65.7 - 3.11 = ?
62.59
Problem : 0.0123 + 0.809 = ?
0.8213
Problem : 5.2×3.1 = ?
16.12
Problem : 7.2×0.005 = ?
0.036
Problem : 62.5/0.25 = ?
250

5. Fractions
Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms

Summary and Analysis

Proper Fractions, Improper Fractions, and Mixed Numbers
Problems
Reducing Fractions and the Least Common Denominator
Problems
Operations With Fractions--Addition and Subtraction
Problems
Operations With Fractions--Multiplication and Division
Problems
Changing Between Fractions and Decimals
Problems
Introduction and Summary
 29

Like decimals, fractions appear a lot in everyday life. This chapter will help
you understand how to talk about them, how to perform computations with
them, how to express them as decimals, and how to distinguish different
types of fractions.
The first section will cover the terminology used to talk about fractions--
(numerator and denominator) as well as the different types of fractions
(proper fractions), (improper fractions), and (mixed numbers). This
terminology must be mastered in order for one to do problems involving
fractions and understand future references to fractions.
The second section will first talk about how to reduce fractions to lowest
terms--a process that makes fractions easier to recognize and work with.
Next, the section will explain how to find the least common denominator,
which is the first step toward adding or subtracting two fractions.
The third section will detail how to add and subtract fractions. The fourth
section will detail how to multiply and divide fractions.
Sometimes it is necessary to switch between talking about decimals and
talking about fractions. The fifth section will explain how to express
decimals as fractions and how to express fractions as decimals. Here, we
will also learn the difference between fractions that become terminating
decimals and fractions that become repeating decimals.
Terms
Denominator - The number below the line in a fraction. Denotes how
many parts the whole is divided into.
Equivalent - Two fractions that express the same part of a whole. There
is a number by which both the numerator and denominator of one fraction
can be multiplied or divided to yield an equivalent fraction. 1/4, 2/8, and
3/12 are all equivalent fractions.
Fraction - Describes part of a whole. 3/4, 1/6, and 19/4 are all examples
of fractions.
Improper Fraction - A fraction whose numerator is equal to or greater
than its denominator.
Least Common Denominator - The least common multiple of the
denominators of two or more fractions. That is, the lowest number which is
a multiple of both denominators.
Lowest Terms - A fraction whose numerator and denominator have no
common factors is in lowest terms.
Mixed Number - A number composed of a whole number and a fraction.
 30

Numerator - The number above the line in a fraction. Denotes the

number of parts out of the whole that are being taken.
Proper Fraction - A fraction whose numerator is smaller than its
denominator.
Reduced - Written in lowest terms; that is, written as a fraction whose
numerator and denominator have no common factors.
Repeating Decimals - Decimals that endlessly repeat one number or a
group of numbers.
Terminating Decimals - Decimals that do not continue after a certain
place (that continue in an endless string of zeros).
Proper Fractions, Improper Fractions, and Mixed
Numbers
Fractions
A fraction describes a part of a whole. The number on the bottom of the
fraction is called the denominator, and it denotes how many equal parts the
whole is divided into. The number on the top of the fraction is called the
numerator, and it denotes how many of the parts we are taking. For
example, the fraction 3/4 denotes "3 of 4 equal parts." 3 is the numerator,
and 4 is the denominator.
Proper Fractions and Improper Fractions
A proper fraction is a fraction whose numerator is smaller than its
denominator. An improper fraction is a fraction whose numerator is equal to
or greater than its denominator. 3/4, 2/11, and 7/19 are proper fractions,
while 5/2, 8/5, and 12/11 are improper fractions.
Mixed Numbers
A mixed number is composed of a whole number and a fraction. 6 2/3, 18
5/4, and 2 2/5 are all mixed numbers.
Converting Improper Fractions Into Mixed Numbers
Improper fractions can also be represented as a mixed number. To convert
an improper fraction into a mixed number, divide the numerator by the
denominator. The resultant becomes the whole number, and the remainder
becomes the numerator of the new fraction. The denominator of the new
fraction is the same as the original denominator. If there is no remainder,
then there is no fraction--the result is simply a whole number.

For example, we can convert 48/5 into a mixed number:

48/5 = 9, with a remainder of 3. Thus, 48/5 = 9 3/5.
 31

Converting Mixed Numbers Into Improper Fractions

To convert a mixed number into an improper fraction, multiply the whole
number by the denominator and add it to the numerator. This becomes the
numerator of the improper fraction; the denominator of the new fraction is
the same as the original denominator.

For example, we can convert 9 3/5 into a mixed number:

9×5 = 45, and 45 + 3 = 48. Thus, 9 3/5 = 48/5.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Write a fraction whose numerator is 6 and whose denominator is

11.
6/11
Problem : Are the following proper fractions, improper fractions, or mixed
numbers?
a) 7/2
b) 2/7
c) 7 1/2
d) 13/14
a) Improper Fraction
b) Proper Fraction
c) Mixed Number
d) Proper Fraction
Problem : Convert 16/3 into a mixed number.
5 1/3
Problem : Convert 23/4 into a mixed number.
5 3/4
Problem : Convert 7 1/2 into an improper fraction.
15/2
Problem : Convert 6 8/9 into an improper fraction.
62/9
Reducing Fractions and the Least Common
Denominator
 32

Equivalent Fractions
Two fractions are equivalent if they express the same part of a whole. For
example, 2/3 and 4/6 express the same part of a whole. 12/9 and 4/3 are
also equivalent.
Two fractions are equivalent if there is a number by which both the
numerator and the denominator of one fraction can be multiplied or divided
to yield the other fraction. For example, we can multiply the numerator and
denominator of 2/3 by 2 to yield 4/6, and we can divide the numerator and
denominator of 12/9 by 3 to yield 4/3.
To find a fraction that is equivalent to another fraction but has a specified
(different) denominator, determine what the old denominator must be
multiplied by to yield the new denominator. Then multiply the old numerator
by that same number. For example, to find a fraction equivalent to 2/9 with
a denominator of 45:

1. 9×5 = 45
2. 2×5 = 10
The fraction equivalent to 2/9 is 10/45.
Reducing Fractions
Some fractions, like 6/8, can be written as other fractions with a lower
denominator. 6/8 = 3/4 (Note that 6/8 and 3/4 are equivalent by the above
definition). Others, like 5/8, cannot be written with a lower denominator. 3/4
and 5/8 are said to be in lowest terms because they cannot be reduced
further.
How does one know which fractions can be reduced and which cannot be
reduced? In fractions that can be reduced (fractions not in lowest terms),
the numerator and the denominator share at least one common factor. In
fractions that cannot be reduced (fractions in lowest terms), the numerator
and the denominator share no common factors; that is, they are relatively
prime.
To write a fraction in lowest terms, factor the numerator and the
denominator. Then divide both the numerator and the denominator by the
greatest common factor. For instance, take the following steps to factor
36/126:

1. Factor.36 = 2×2×3×3 and 126 = 2×3×3×7.

2. Find the GCF. The GCF of 36 and 126 is 2×3×3 = 18.
3. Divide.36/18 = 2 and 126/18 = 7.
 33

The reduced fraction is 2/7.

Page 2 of 3
Next Page

Least Common Denominator (LCD)

A common denominator of two numbers is a number that can be divided by
the denominators of both numbers. For example, 1/6 and 4/9 have
common denominators of 18, 36, 54, 72, etc. The least common
denominator, or LCD, is the lowest number that can be divided by the
denominators of both numbers. For example, 18 is the least common
denominator of 1/6 and 4/9.
The least common denominator of two fractions is the least common
multiple of their denominators. 18 is the LCM of 6 and 9.
Uses of the Least Common Denominator
The least common denominator is a helpful tool in allowing you to take two
different fractions (ex. 3/4 and 7/11) and write them as equivalent fractions
with the same denominator (ex. 33/44 and 28/44). Such a tool is important
in comparing the size of fractions and because fractions can only be added
and subtracted from each other when they have the same denominator.
The first step in the process is to find the LCD. Then write each fraction as
an equivalent fraction with the LCD as a new denominator, using the two
steps detailed in the section on equivalent fractions.
Example 1: Write 3/14 and 4/21 as fractions with the same denominator.

I. Find the LCD

1. Factor the denominators. 14 = 2×7 and 21 = 3×7.
2. Find the LCM of the denominators. 2×3×7 = 42 -or- 14×(21/7) = 42.
3. The LCD is 42.
II. Write each fraction as an equivalent fraction with the LCD (42) as the new denominator.

(a) 14×3 = 42. 3×3 = 9.

(b) 21×2 = 42. 4×2 = 8.
Thus, 3/14 = 9/42 and 4/21 = 8/42.
Note: The number by which the numerator must be multiplied in Part II will
be the product of the factors of the other denominator that are not factors of
its denominator. Here, 3 was multiplied by 3, which is a factor of 21 but not
of 14, and 4 was multiplied by 2, which is a factor of 14 but not of 21.
 34

Example 2: Write 2/5, 5/12, and 9/8 as fractions with the same
denominator.

I. Find the LCD.

1. Factor the denominators. 5 = 5, 12 = 2×2×3, and 8 = 2×2×2. 2. Find the
LCM of the denominators. 2×2×2×3×5 = 120 3. The LCD is 120.
II. Write each fraction as an equivalent fraction with the LCD (120) as the new denominator.

(a) 5×24 = 120. 2×24 = 48.

(b) 12×10 = 120. 5×10 = 50.
(c) 8×15 = 120. 9×15 = 135.
Thus, 2/5 = 48/120, 5/12 = 50/120, and 9/8 = 135/120.
Page 3 of 3
Next Section

Determining Which Fraction is Greater

It is very difficult to tell whether 3/14 is greater or less than 4/21 just by
looking at the two fractions. Here's where writing them with a common
denominator comes in handy. We know that 3/14 = 9/42 and that 4/21 =
8/42. Since 9 is greater than 8, 9/42 is greater than 8/42. Thus 3/14 is
greater than 4/21.
To determine which of two fractions is greater, write them as fractions with
the same denominator. Then see which new fraction has the larger
numerator. This is the greater fraction.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Reduce 45/18 to lowest terms.

5/2
Problem : Reduce 7/49 to lowest terms.
1/7
Problem : Reduce 30/105 to lowest terms.
2/7
Problem : What is the least common denominator of 6/11 and 9/2?
22
Problem : What is the least common denominator of 7/16 and 1/6?
 35

48
Problem : What is the least common denominator of 2/9 and 4/27?
27
Operations With Fractions--Addition and Subtraction
Adding and Subtracting Fractions
We can only add or subtract fractions when they have the same
denominator. Therefore, the first step in adding or subtracting fractions is
writing them as fractions with the same denominator (see Reducing
Fractions and the Least Common Denominator). Once the denominators
have been equalized, adding or subtracting the fractions is easy--simply
add or subtract the numerators, while keeping the denominator the same.
The numerator of the answer is this result, and the denominator of the
answer is the common denominator.
It is often useful to write the answer in lowest terms, using the steps
learned in Reducing Fractions and the Least Common Denominator.
Example 1: 1/12 + 5/42 = ?
I. Find the LCD.
1. Factor the denominators. 12 = 2×2×3 and 42 = 2×3×7 2. Find the LCM of
the denominators. 2×2×3×7 = 84 3. The LCD is 84.
II. Write each fraction as an equivalent fraction with the LCD (84) as the new denominator.

(a) 12×7 = 84. 1×7 = 7

(b) 42×2 = 84. 5×2 = 10
Thus, 1/12 = 7/84 and 5/42 = 10/84
III. Add. 7 + 10 = 17

7/84 + 10/84 = 17/84.BR>

IV. Reduce. Since 17 and 84 have no common factors, the fraction cannot be reduced
further.

1/12 + 5/42 = 17/84

Example 2: 13/20 - 3/70 = ?
I. Find the LCD
1. 20 = 2×2×5 and 70 = 2×5×7
2. 2×2×5×7 = 140
3. The LCD is 140
II. Write as equivalent fractions with the LCD as the denominator.
 36

(a) 20×7 = 140. 13×7 = 91

(b) 70×2 = 140. 3×2 = 6
Thus, 13/20 = 91/140 and 3/70 = 6/140
III. Subtract. 91 - 6 = 85

91/140 - 6/140 = 85/140

IV. Reduce.

1. Factor the numerator and the denominator. 85 = 5×17 and 140 =

2×2×5×7
2. Find the GCF. The GCF is 5.BR> 3. Divide. 85/5 = 17 and 140/5 = 28.
Thus, 85/140 = 17/28
13/20 - 3/70 = 17/28.
Example 3: 9/8 - 5/12 - 2/5 = ?
I and II. As we have already learned, these three fractions with common
denominators are:
9/8 = 135/120
5/12 = 50/120
2/5 = 48/120
III. Subtract. 135 - 50 - 48 = 37

135/120 - 50/120 - 48/120 = 37/120

IV. Reduce. Since 37 and 120 have no common factors, the fraction cannot be reduced
further.

9/8 - 5/12 - 2/5 = 37/120

Adding and Subtracting Mixed Numbers
To add and subtract mixed numbers, first add or subtract the whole
numbers and then add or subtract the fractions as above. If the fractional
part is improper, convert it to a mixed number (see converting mixed
fractions).
Next Section

Example: 5 3/4 + 6 5/6 = ?

5 + 6 = 11

3/4 + 5/6 = ?

I. The LCD of 3/4 and 5/6 is 2×2×3 = 12

 37

II. 3/4 = 9/12 and 5/6 = 10/12

III. 9/12 + 10/12 = 19/12.
IV. 19/12 cannot be reduced further
V. As a mixed number, 19/12 = 1 7/12
11 + 1 7/12 = 12 7/12
Thus, 5 3/4 + 6 5/6 = 12 7/12
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : 3/4 + 1/2 = ?

5/4
Problem : 3/4 + 3/5 = ?
27/20
Problem : 7/10 - 2/15 = ?
17/30
Problem : 29/12 - 3/4 = ?
5/3
Problem : 9/70 + 11/105 = ?
49/210 or 7/30
Problem : 1/2 + 1/3 + 2/5 = ?
37/30
Problem : 7/2 - 1/6 - 9/10 = ?
73/30
Operations With Fractions--Multiplication and
Division
Multiplying Fractions and Mixed Numbers
When we ask, "What is 4/5 of 55?" or "What is 1/6 of 18/5?", we are really
asking, "What is 4/5 times 55?" and "What is 1/6 times 18/5?". When
dealing with fractions, the word "of" indicates multiplication. So how does
one multiply fractions?
The first step in multiplying fractions is to change all mixed numbers into
improper fractions (See Converting Mixed Fractions. For example, 2 2/3
becomes 8/3. Converting mixed numbers into improper fractions makes
them easier to multiply.
 38

To multiply two (proper or improper) fractions, multiply their numerators

together and then multiply their denominators together--these two numbers
will be the numerator and the denominator of the new fraction. For
example,

× =

because 8×2 = 16
and 3×7 = 21.
Canceling Out
If the numerator and the denominator have a common factor, we can divide
by the common factor to reduce the fraction to lowest terms and make the
multiplication easier to carry out. Since the numerators of the fractions we
are multiplying become a single numerator and the denominators become
a single denominator, we can also cancel out factors of the numerator of
one fraction with factors of the denominator of the other. For example,

× = × = × =

Note that, in the second step, the "3" in the numerator and the "9" in the denominator
reduced to a "1" in the numerator and a "3" in the denominator.
Dividing Fractions
To divide fractions, we must again change all mixed numbers into improper
fractions. Then we note that since multiplication and division are inverses of
each other, multiplying by 4 is the same as dividing by 1/4. Similarly,
dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its inverse. To find the
inverse of a fraction, switch the numerator and the denominator. If the
fraction is a whole number, then it can be written as the whole number over
1, and its inverse is 1 over the whole number. Thus, to divide by a
fraction, multiply by its inverse.

For instance, (1 1/3) / (1 3/5) = (4/3)/(8/5) = (4/3)×(5/8) = 20/24 = 5/6

Problems
Problem : 7/8×5/2 = ?
35/16
Problem : 8/3×9/10 = ?
12/5
Problem : What is 4/11 of 5/6?
10/33
 39

Problem : What is 8/9 of 3 3/14?

20/7
Problem : (7/2)/(5/6) = ?
21/5
Problem : (8/3)/(4/3) = ?
2
Problem : (14/3)/(7/10) = ?
20/3
Changing Between Fractions and Decimals
Expressing Decimals as Fractions in Lowest Terms
Sometimes it is easier to work with fractions than to work with decimals. It
is therefore important to learn how to change decimals into fractions. The
secret to this task lies in understanding the meaning of place value for
decimals. When, in reference to decimals, we talk about "a 4 in the tenths
place" (as in the section on place value in Decimals, what we mean is 4
tenths, or 4/10. Similarly, a 9 in the hundredths place is equal to 9/100.
Because our system is base ten, a value of 10 in one place is equal to a
value of 1 in the place to the left, or a value of 1 in one place is equal to a
value of 10 in the place to the right. Thus, a "4" in the tenths place is equal
to a "40" in the hundredths place (if it were possible to have a double-digit
number in a single place). Therefore, we know that 4/10 = 40/100. We
further know that 0.49 = 40/100 + 9/100 = 49/100. Similarly, 0.876 = 800/1,
000 + 70/1, 000 + 6/1, 000 = 876/1, 000.
We also know that 0.876 = 876/1, 000 because 0.876 = 0.876/1.000.
Moving the decimal point three spaces to the right in both the numerator
and the denominator does not change the fraction, so 0.876/1.000 = 876/1,
000.
In general, to convert a decimal into a fraction, write the decimal as a
fraction over 1. Add as many zeros after the "1." as there are places after
the decimal in the original number. Then, move the decimal point in the
numerator and the denominator to the right the same number of
places until there is a whole number in the numerator. The result will be a
numerator that is the original number with the decimal point removed, over
a denominator that is a 1 followed by the same number of zeros as there
were decimal places in the original number.
Note: It may sometimes be necessary to reduce this fraction--
see Reducing Fractions for information on how to reduce fractions.
 40

Example 1. Convert 0.437 into a fraction.

1. 0.437 = 0.437/1 (writing as a fraction over 1)

2. 0.437/1 = 0.437/1.000 (adding 3 zeros after the decimal point)
3. 0.437/1.000 = 437/1, 000 (moving the decimal point)
4. 437/1,000 cannot be reduced.

Thus, 0.437 = 437/1, 000. Note that there were 3 decimal places in the
original number, and there are now 3 zeros in the denominator.
Example 2. Convert 2.45 into a fraction.

1. 2.45 = 2.45/1
2. 2.45/1 = 2.45/1.00
3. 2.45/1.00 = 245/100. Note that there were 2 decimal places in the
original number, and there are now 3 zeros in the denominator.
4. Reduction. 245/100 = 49/20.
Expressing Fractions as Decimals
Sometimes we will want to work with decimals instead of fractions. To
convert fractions to decimals, simply divide the numerator by the
denominator, either using a calculator or by hand using the usual method of
long division. When using long division, don't leave the remainder as a
whole number. Instead, treat the numerator as a decimal with zeroes after
the decimal point (for example, treat 56 as 56.000). Continue to divide,
making sure the decimal point is in the same place in the numerator and
the answer.
Example 3. Convert 7/4 into a decimal.

By calculator: 7/4 = 1.75

By long division: 7/4 = 7.00/4 = 1.75
Terminating and Repeating Decimals
Try to change 1/3 into a decimal on a calculator. The answer should
be 0.3333333.... Similarly, 5/12 = 0.416666666... and 13/99 =
0.13131313...
Decimals that endlessly repeat one number or a group of numbers are
called repeating decimals. The part that repeats is usually written as a
single number (or group of numbers) with a line over it. For
example, 0.3333333..., 0.4166666..., and 0.13131313... are written as 0.
, 0.41 , 0. ,
Decimals that stop after a certain place are called terminating decimals.
 41

Every fraction can be written as either a terminating decimal or a repeating

decimal.
Example 4. Do the following fractions convert to terminating or repeating
decimals? 4/6, 9/6, 109/99, 5/4.

4/6. Repeating
9/6. Terminating
109/99. Repeating
5/4. Terminating
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Express 0.3 as a fraction in lowest terms.

3/10
Problem : Express 0.1875 as a fraction in lowest terms.
3/16
Problem : Express 7/8 as a decimal.
0.875
Problem : Express 8/5 as a decimal.
1.6
Problem : Do the following fractions convert to terminating or repeating
decimals?
a) 5/6
b) 11/8
c) 17/5
d) 5/11
a) Repeating
b) Terminating
c) Terminating
d) Repeating

5. Percents
Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms
 42

Summary and Analysis

Percents
Problems
Computing Percents
Problems
Introduction and Summary

Prev SectionNext Section

Percents are used to calculate tax, tips, and even test grades. This chapter
will teach the meaning of a percent, and how to convert between fractions,
decimals, and percents. It will also explain how to calculate percents; that
is, how to find the percent of a number.
This chapter is broken down into two sections. The first section will explain
what the term "percent" means. It will also explain how to convert percents
to decimals, and vice versa, as well as how to convert percents to fractions,
and vice versa. These are the same conversions teachers use to figure out
their students' test scores.
The second section will focus on how to find the percent of a number. In
addition to its usefulness in mathematics, many other fields require this
skill--economics, chemistry, statistics, and psychology, to name a few. This
skill is also useful in everyday life; one is often asked to calculate a tip or to
figure out how much tax will be added to an item.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Percent - Meaning "parts per hundred;" a fraction in which the number to

the left of the % sign is the numerator and 100 is the denominator. 57% =
57/100 = 0.57.
Percents

Prev Section
Page 1 of 2
Next Page
 43

Percents
A percent employs a percent sign (%) followed by a number. It looks like
this: 23%. A percent represents a fraction in which the number to the left of
the % sign is the numerator and 100 is the denominator. "Percent" means
"parts per hundred," or "out of 100." 23% is equivalent to 23 hundredths, or
23/100, or 0.23.
100% is equal to 100 out of 100, or 1. Percents greater than 100% are
fractions (or decimals) greater than 1, while percents less than 100% are
fractions (or decimals) less than 1.
Expressing Percents as Decimals
To convert a percent into a decimal, move the decimal point 2 places to the
left and drop the percent sign. 36% becomes 0.36, and 145% becomes
1.45. If the number in front of the percent has fewer than two places in front
of the decimal, add zeros to the left of the number, and then move the
decimal place. For example, 5% = 05% = 0.05 and 1.78% = 01.78% =
0.0178.
Expressing Decimals as Percents
To convert a decimal into a percent, move the decimal point two places to
the right and add the % sign. If there are fewer than two places to the right
of the decimal, add zeros at the end of the number after the decimal point.
For example, 0.986 = 98.6% and 1.8 = 1.80 = 180%.
Expressing Percents as Fractions
As stated earlier, a percent is a fraction in which the number preceding the
% sign is the numerator and 100 is the denominator. Therefore, the first
step in writing a percent as a fraction in lowest terms is writing it as a
fraction with denominator 100. For example, we write 82% as 82/100 and
50% as 50/100.
The next step is to reduce the fraction--see Fractions. 82/100 reduces to
41/50 and 50/100 reduces to 1/2. Thus, 82% = 41/50 and 50% = 1/2.
Percents

Prev Page
Page 2 of 2
Next Section
 44

If the number to the left of the % sign is not a whole number, first change
the percent to a decimal, and then change the decimal to a fraction. For
example, 67.4% = 0.674 = 674/1000 = 337/500.
Expressing Fractions as Percents
The easiest way to change a fraction into a percent is first to change
the fraction into a decimal by dividing the numerator by the denominator,
and then change this decimal into a percent by moving the decimal point 2
places to the right, as above. For instance, 7/8 = 0.875 = 87.5%.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Express 78.2% as a decimal.

0.782
Problem : Express 1.45 as a percent.
145%
Problem : Express 78% as a fraction.
39/50
Problem : Express 105% as a fraction.
21/20
Problem : Express 81/90 as a percent.
90%
Problem : Express 871/200 as a percent.
435.5%
Computing Percents

Prev SectionNext Section

Finding a Percent of a Number

People deal with percents all the time in everyday life. When sales clerks
compute sales tax, they compute "7% of your total purchase." Similarly,
when diners are deciding what size tip to leave, they compute "15% of the
cost of our food." How do they perform these calculations?
Just as with fractions, the word "of" in a percent problem indicates
multiplication. The sales clerk multiplies 7% by the total purchase, and the
diner multiplies 15% by the cost of her food.
 45

To find a percent of a number, first change the percent into a decimal or a

fraction. Next, multiply that decimal or fraction by the number.

Example 1: What is 15% of 220?

I. Using decimals.
15% = 0.15 and 0.15×220 = 33
II. Using fractions.

15% = 15/100 = 3/20 and 3/20×220/1 = 3/1×11/1 = 33

Example 2: What is 12.5% of 52?

I. Using decimals.
12.5% = 0.125 and 0.125×52 = 6.5
II. Using fractions.

12.5% = 0.125 = 125/1000 = 1/8 and 1/8×52/1 = 52/8 = 13/2 = 6 1/2

Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : What is 60% of 45?

27
Problem : What is 8% of 625?
50
Problem : What is 42% of 200?
84
Problem : What is 20% of 78?
15.6 or 15 3/5
Problem : What is 5% of 86?
4.3 or 4 3/10

Integers and Rationals

Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
 46

Terms

Summary and Analysis

The Number Line
Problems
Classification of Numbers
Problems
Operations with Negative Numbers
Problems
Absolute Value
Problems
Introduction and Summary

Prev SectionNext Section

This chapter will explore many different types of numbers and how they are
classified. There will be a special focus on negative numbers and how to
use them in calculations.
The first section will explain how to arrange numbers on a number line. It
will also introduce the concept of negative numbers, which have
corresponding opposites in the set of positive numbers. In addition, it will
show the reader how to place fractions and decimals on the number line.
The second section will explain how mathematicians classify numbers--
natural numbers, whole numbers, integers, rational numbers, irrational
numbers, and real numbers. These classifications are important to pre-
algebra, to algebra, and even to much higher mathematics like set theory
and number theory.
The third section will further explore negative numbers, first looking at how
to subtract a larger number from a smaller number. Next, we will learn how
to use operations-- addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division--with
negative numbers.
The final section will discuss absolute value--the positive distance between
a number and zero on the number line. This section will show how to
perform computations when absolute values are involved.
This chapter is important for two reasons. First of all, it is crucial to
understand negative numbers and how to perform computations with them.
Second, it is important to understand the terminology that mathematicians
 47

use when talking about numbers. Knowing the terminology may not affect a
numerical answer to a problem, but it will influence how well you
understand some of the concepts underlying the numerical answers.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Absolute Value - (Positive) distance between a number and zero on the

number line; the corresponding "unsigned" number. | - 4| = 4and | 4| = 4.
Counting Numbers - Also called natural numbers, the set of positive
numbers used to count objects. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
Integers - The set of numbers including all the whole numbers and their
opposites (the positive whole numbers, the negative whole numbers, and
zero) -- fractions and decimals are not integers. ... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Irrational Numbers - The set including all numbers that are non-
terminating, non- repeating decimals.
Natural Numbers - The set of positive numbers used to count objects
(also called counting numbers). 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
Negative Numbers - The set of numbers to the left of zero on the number
line--numbers less than zero.
Number Line - A horizontal line that has points that correspond to
numbers. The points are spaced according to the value of the number they
correspond to; in a number line containing only whole numbers or integers,
the points are equally spaced.
Opposite - A number that is the same distance from zero as a given
number, but on the opposite side of zero. For example, 7 and -7 are
opposites, and -9 and 9 are opposites.
Positive Numbers - The set of numbers to the right of zero on the
number line--numbers greater than zero.
Rational Numbers - The set of numbers including all the integers, plus all
the fractions, or terminating decimals and repeating decimals. Every
rational number can be written as a fraction a/b, where a and b are
integers.
Real Numbers - The set of all the rational numbers and all the irrational
numbers.
Whole Numbers - The set of numbers including all the natural numbers
and zero--negative numbers are not whole numbers. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
 48

The Number Line

Prev SectionNext Section

Number Lines
We can arrange all the whole numbers on a number line. A number line is a
horizontal line that has points, equally spaced, which correspond to each of
the whole numbers:

Figure %: Whole Number Line

Each number is greater than all the numbers to its left and less than all the numbers to its
right. For example, 5 is greater than 0 and 3, but less than 6 and 8.
Negative Numbers on the Number Line
We have seen that the number line extends to the right from zero. It also
extends to the left from zero. However, the set of numbers defined by the
term whole numbers includes only positive numbers, those pictured in the
number line above. The set of whole numbers does not include negative
numbers, which extend to the left from zero on the number line below. This
second number line is called an integer number line, since integers are the
set of numbers including all whole numbers and their negative opposites.
Two opposite numbers are the same distance from zero on the number
line, but on opposite sides. For example, 3 and -3 are opposites. 0 does not
have an opposite.

Figure %: Integer Number Line

On the integer number line, each number is still greater than all the numbers to its left and
less than all the numbers to its right. Thus, we can see that 2 and 5 are greater than -3 and -
3 is greater than -4.
All positive numbers are greater than all negative numbers. Plus, if one
positive number is greater than another positive number, then its opposite
is less than the opposite of the other number. For example, 5 is greater
than 3 (5 is to the right of 3), but -5 is less than -3 (-5 is to the left of -3).
Two opposites, as you might expect, will cancel each other out; when
added together they will equal 0.
 49

Fractions and Decimals on the Number Line

In addition to whole numbers and their opposites, the number line can also
include positive and negative fractions and decimals. These are put
between the whole numbers, at intervals that reflect the size of the fraction.
For example, 1/3 is placed one-third of the way between 0 and 1, and 8.75
is placed a distance of 0.75 (three-fourths of the way) between the 8 and
the 9. Here is an example of the number line with three fractions included:

Figure %: Number Line with Fractions

Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Use the number line for the following problems:

Number Line
Problem : Which numbers do the following points correspond to?
a) A
b) B
c) C
d) D
e) E
a) -4
b) -2 1/2
c) 0
d) 3 1/2
e) 4
Problem : Which point corresponds to the greatest number?
E
Problem : Which point corresponds to the lowest number?
A
 50

Problem : Which points correspond to positive numbers?

D and E
Problem : Which points correspond to negative numbers?
A and B
Problem : Which pair(s) of points are opposites?
A and E
Classification of Numbers

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Page 1 of 2
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As you could see in the last section, with its various number lines, there are
a number of different ways to classify numbers. In fact, there are even
more ways to classify numbers than last section displayed. This section will
run through the most important and common classifications. You should
memorize what each classification means.
Natural Numbers, Whole Numbers, Integers, and Rationals
Natural Numbers
The natural numbers, also called the counting numbers, are the numbers 1,
2, 3, 4, and so on. They are the positive numbers we use to count objects.
Zero is not considered a "natural number."
Whole Numbers
The whole numbers are the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on (the natural
numbers and zero). Negative numbers are not considered "whole
numbers." All natural numbers are whole numbers, but not all whole
numbers are natural numbers since zero is a whole number but not a
natural number.
Integers
The integers are ..., -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... -- all the whole numbers
and their opposites (the positive whole numbers, the negative whole
numbers, and zero). Fractions and decimals are not integers. All whole
numbers are integers (and all natural numbers are integers), but not all
integers are whole numbers or natural numbers. For example, -5 is an
integer but not a whole number or a natural number.
 51

Rational Numbers
The rational numbers include all the integers, plus all fractions, or
terminating decimals and repeating decimals. Every rational number can be
written as a fraction a/b, where a and b are integers. For example, 3 can be
written as 3/1, -0.175 can be written as -7/40, and 1 1/6 can be written as
7/6. All natural numbers, whole numbers, and integers are rationals, but not
all rational numbers are natural numbers, whole numbers, or integers.
We now have the following number classifications:
I. Natural Numbers
II. Whole Numbers
III. Integers
IV. Rationals

Numbers can fall into more than one classification. In fact, if a number falls
into a category, it automatically falls into all the categories below that
category. If a number is a whole number, for instance, it must also be an
integer and a rational. If a number is an integer, it must also be a rational.
Irrational Numbers
There is a type of number that does not fall into any of our four categories.
An irrational number is a number with a decimal that neither terminates or
repeats. An irrational number cannot be written as a
fraction a/b where a and b are integers. Plug in (the square root of 2) on
a calculator and the screen will display a decimal that does not repeat itself,
but that continues infinitely. This is because the square root of 2 is an
irrational number.
There is no number which is both an irrational number and a natural
number, whole number, integer, or rational number. If a number is
irrational, it cannot fall into one of the four categories we previously
outlined; and if a number falls into one of the four categories, it cannot be
irrational.
Real Numbers
All the rational numbers and all the irrational numbers together form the
real numbers. Every rational number is real, and every irrational number is
real. For our purposes at this time, the real numbers constitute all the
numbers. 0.45, 5/2, -0.726495..., 18, and -65 1/4 are all real numbers.
Taking into account the irrational numbers and the real numbers, our new
classification might look like this:
 52

Figure %: Classification of Numbers

If a number falls into a category, it also falls into all the categories below that category to
which it is connected by a line. For example, -7 is an integer, so it is also a rational and a
real number. The square root of 2 is an irrational number, so it is also a real number.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Which of the following numbers are integers? -4, 3/2, 18, -7/8, 0
-4, 18, 0
Problem : Which of the following numbers are natural numbers? -7, 63, 0,
5/2, 14.2, 17
63, 17
Problem : Which of the following numbers are rational numbers? 14/11, -
5/12, -6, 0, , 82, 101 2/3
14/11, -5/12, -6, 0, 82, 101 2/3
Problem : Which of the following numbers are whole numbers? 0, 8, -16,
3/2,
0, 8
Problem : Which classification(s) do the following numbers fit into?
a) 17
b) -3/2
c)
d) 0
e) -5
f) 15/4
a) natural numbers, whole numbers, integers, rationals, real numbers b)
rationals, real numbers c) irrationals, real numbers d) whole numbers,
integers, rationals, real numbers e) integers, rationals, real numbers f)
rationals, real numbers
 53

Operations with Negative Numbers

Prev Section
Page 1 of 2
Next Page

Subtracting a Larger Number from a Smaller Number

It is easy to compute 6 - 4 = 2 and 14 - 5 = 9, because the answers are
positive. But how would one compute 4 - 6? On the number line, moving to
the left is equivalent to subtracting from a number, and moving to the right
is equivalent to adding to a nu mber. To see what 4 - 6 is equal to, start on
the number line at the place marked "4" and count 6 spaces to the left:

Figure %: Subtracting 6 from 4

Thus, 4 - 6 = - 2.
Notice the similarity between 6 - 4 = 2 and 4 - 6 = - 2. 6 - 4 is the opposite
of 4 - 6. To find 4 - 6, simply find 6 - 4 and take its opposite. In fact, this
works for any two numbers: to subtract a larger number from a smaller
number, reverse the two numbers and take the opposite of the answer. 5 -
14 = - (14 - 5) = - 9.
To subtract a positive number from a negative number, switch bothsigns,
and take the opposite of the answer. -5 - 7 = - (5 + 7) = - 12 and -8 - 11 = -
(8 + 11) = - 19.
Adding and Subtracting Negative Numbers
As we just saw, adding 6 to a number is the same as moving 6 spaces to
the right on the number line. Adding -6 to a number is the same as moving
6 spaces to the left. Thus, adding -6 to a number is the same as subtracting
6 from the number. In general terms, adding a number is the same as
subtracting its opposite.
Thus, to add a negative number, subtract its opposite. To subtract a
negative number, add its opposite.
Examples:
 54

5 + (- 2) = 5 - 2 = 3
7 - (- 11) = 7 + 11 = 18
-12 - (- 2) = - 12 + 2 = - (12 - 2) = - 10
17 + (- 23) = 17 - 23 = - (23 - 17) = - 6
11 - (- 2) = 11 + 2 = 13
12 - (- 2) + (- 7) = 12 + 2 - 7 = 7
Multiplying and Dividing by Negative Numbers
When a positive number is multiplied by a negative number, the result is
always negative. For example, 7×(- 4) = - 28 and -10×5 = - 50. When two
negative numbers are multiplied together, the negative signs cancel each
other out, and the result is positive. For example, -4×(- 3) = 12 and -11×(-
7) = 77.
To multiply two or more numbers when at least one of them is negative,
count the total number of negative signs. If the total number of negative
signs is even, the result will be positive, and if the total number of negative
signs is odd, the result will be negative. Multiply the numbers with their
signs removed and make this result positive or negative according to the
total number of negative signs.
To divide two or more numbers when at least one of them is negative,
follow the same steps, dividing instead of multiplying. Divide the numbers
with their signs removed, and make this result positive or negative
according to the total number of negative signs (positive if the total number
of negative signs is even, negative if it is odd).
Examples.3×(- 4) = - 12 (1 negative sign)
-5×(- 1) = 5 (2 negative signs)
-11×(- 1)×4×(- 2) = - 88 (3 negative signs)
18/(- 2)/(- 3) = 3 (2 negative signs)
-20/4/5 = - 1 (1 negative sign)
-5×(- 12)/3×(- 4)/(- 20) = 4 (4 negative signs)
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : 7 - 19 = ?
-12
Problem : -5 - 6 = ?
-11
 55

Problem : 8 - 12 = ?
-4
Problem : 7 + (- 4) = ?
3
Problem : 102 + (- 99) = ?
3
Problem : 54 - (- 16) = ?
70
Problem : 17 - (- 12) = ?
29
Problem : -9 - (- 10) = ?
1
Problem : 7×(- 8) = ?
-56
Problem : -11×(- 5)/5×(- 9) = ?
-99
Problem : 12/(- 4)×(- 3) = ?
9
Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number, denoted by vertical lines surrounding the
number, is the positive distance between the number and zero on the
number line. It is the value of the corresponding "unsigned" number--either
itself or its opposite: the absolute value of a positive number is the positive
number, and the absolute value of a negative number is its opposite. More
simply put, the absolute value of a number is the number with the sign
removed. The absolute value of -3, denoted | - 3|, is 3. The absolute value
of 15, denoted | 15|, is 15. The number inside the absolute value sign need
not be an integer. For example, | - 5/2| = 5/2.
Computation with Absolute Value
To evaluate an expression that contains an absolute value, first carry out
the expression inside the absolute value sign. Next, take the absolute value
of the resulting number. Then evaluate the expression according to the
order of operations.

Examples:

13 + | 2 - 3| + | 5×6| = 13 + | - 1| + | 30| = 13 + 1 + 30 = 44

34 - | 3×(- 4)| + | 4×2 - (- 5)| = 34 - | - 12| + | 13| = 34 - 12 + 13 = 35

 56

| 56 - (- 8)|/| - 6 - 2|×(- 1/4) = | 64|/| - 8|×(- 1/4) = 64/8×(- 1/4) = - (8×1/4) = -

2
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : | - 58| = ?
58
Problem : | 62| = ?
62
Problem : 15 - | - 5| = ?
10
Problem : 63 - | 23| + | - 23| = ?
63
Problem : | - 6|×| 5| - | 19| = ?
11
Problem : | 4 - 5| + | - 4×5| = ?
21
Problem : | 5 - 3 - 12|×(- 3) = ?
-30

Powers, Exponents, and Roots

Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms

Summary and Analysis

Squares, Cubes, and Higher Order Exponents
Problems
Powers of Negative Numbers, Decimals, and Fractions
Problems
Negative Exponents
Problems
Square Roots
Problems
Simplifying and Approximating Roots
 57

Problems
Operations with Exponents
Problems
Introduction and Summary

Prev SectionNext Section

Exponents play a large role in mathematical calculations. This chapter

provides an introduction to the meaning of exponents and the calculations
associated with them. Since exponents are used abundantly in all of
mathematics, the basics taught in this chapter will become important
building blocks for future knowledge.
The first section will explain the fundamentals of exponents, and explore
squares, cubes, and higher order exponents. This section will explain how
to square and cube numbers, as well as how to recognize a perfect square.
The second section will focus on exponents applied to specific types of
numbers--namely, negative numbers, decimals, and fractions. Here, we will
learn how to raise these base numbers to any power.
The third section will explore calculations in which the exponent is negative.
It will explain the meaning of a negative exponent and how to evaluate
expressions that contain negative exponents. It will also show the
importance of negative exponents to the base ten system while discussing
how write out any terminating decimal as a sum of single-digit numbers
times powers of ten.
The fourth section will deal with roots--square roots, cube roots, and higher
order roots--and fractional exponents. This section will explain what a root
is and how to find a root if the answer is rational. It will also explain why we
cannot take the square root (or any even root) of a negative number. This
section will also explain how to raise a number to a fractional power.
The fifth section will deal with roots that are not easy to find. It first shows
how to simplify a square root to make calculations easier, and it then shows
how to find an approximate decimal value for a square root.
The final section will revisit the order of operations learned in the
SparkNote on Operations, and revise this order to include calculations with
exponents.
Overall, this chapter offers an introduction to exponents for those readers
who have never been exposed to them, and an opportunity to sharpen
 58

knowledge to those who have. Exponents will play an important role in pre-
algebra during area calculations. They will also be very important in future
mathematical endeavors, including algebra, geometry, calculus, and higher
mathematics.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Base - The number that is raised to a power. In "74", 7 is the base.

Cube - A number times itself times itself. 5 cubed = 53 = 5×5×5 = 125.
Cube Root - A number that, when cubed, is equal to the given number.
Exponent - The power to which a number is raised; the number of times a
number is multiplied. In "74", 7 has an exponent of 4, and 7 is multiplied 4
times (7×7×7×7).
Fractional Exponent - An exponent in which the numerator is the power
to which the number should be taken and the denominator is the root which
should be taken.
Mean - The sum of two numbers, divided by 2 (sometimes called
an average). This yields the number directly between the two numbers.
Negative Exponent - An exponent that takes the base number to the
positive opposite of the exponent (the exponent with the negative sign
removed), and places the result in the denominator of a fraction whose
numerator is 1.
Perfect Square - The square of a whole number. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36,
49, ... are all perfect squares.
Simplify (Square Root) - To remove all factors that are perfect squares
from inside the square root sign and place their square roots outside the
sign.
Square - A number times itself. 5 squared = 52 = 5×5 = 25.
Square Root - A number that, when squared (multiplied by itself), is equal
to the given number.
Squares, Cubes, and Higher Order Exponents

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 59

Squares
The square of a number is that number times itself. 5 squared, denoted 52,
is equal to 5×5, or 25. 2 squared is 22 = 2×2 = 4. One way to remember the
term "square" is that there are two dimensions in a square (height and
width) and the number being squared appears twice in the calculation. In
fact, the term "square" is no coincidence--the square of a number is the
area of the square with sides equal to that number.
A number that is the square of a whole number is called a perfect
square. 42 = 16, so 16 is a perfect square. 25 and 4 are also perfect
squares. We can list the perfect squares in order, starting with 12: 1, 4, 9,
16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, ...
Cubes
The cube of a number is that number times itself times itself. 5 cubed,
denoted 53, is equal to 5×5×5, or 125. 2 cubed is 23 = 2×2×2 = 8. The term
"cube" can be remembered because there are three dimensions in a cube
(height, width, and depth) and the number being cubed appears three times
in the calculation. Similar to the square, the cube of a number is the volume
of the cube with sides equal to that number--this will come in handy in
higher levels of math.
Exponents
The "2" in "52" and the "3" in "53" are called exponents. An exponent
indicates the number of times we must multiply the base number. To
compute 52, we multiply 5 two times (5×5), and to compute 53, we multiply 5
three times (5×5×5).
Exponents can be greater than 2 or 3. In fact, an exponent can be any
number. We write an expression such as "74" and say "seven to the fourth
power." Similarly, 59 is "five to the ninth power," and 1156 is "eleven to the
fifty-sixth power."
Since any number times zero is zero, zero to any (positive) power is always
zero. For example, 031 = 0.
A number to the first power is that number one time, or simply that number:
for example, 61 = 6 and 531 = 53. We define a number to the zero power as
1: 80 = 1, (- 17)0 = 1, and 5210 = 1.
Here is a list of the powers of two:

20 = 1
21 = 2
22 = 2×2 = 4
 60

23 = 2×2×2 = 8
24 = 2×2×2×2 = 16
25 = 2×2×2×2×2 = 32

and so on...
Exponents and the Base Ten System
Here is a list of the powers of ten:

100 = 1
101 = 10
102 = 10×10 = 100
103 = 10×10×10 = 1, 000
104 = 10×10×10×10 = 10, 000
105 = 10×10×10×10×10 = 100, 000

and so on...
Look familiar? 100 is 1 one (a 1 in the ones place), 101 is 1 ten (a 1 in the
tens place), 102 is 1 hundred, 103 is 1 thousand, 104 is 1 ten thousand, etc.
This is the meaning of base ten--a "1" in each place represents a number in
which the base is 10 and the exponent is the number of zeros after the 1.
The place value is the number that is multiplied by this number. For
example, a 5 in the thousands place is equivalent to 5×1000, or 5×103.
We can write out any number as a sum of single-digit numbers times
powers of ten. The number 492 has a 4 in the hundreds place (4×102), a 9
in the tens place (9×101) and a 2 in the ones place (2×100). Thus, 492 =
4×102 +9×101 +2×100.

Examples: Write out the following numbers as single-digit numbers times

powers of ten.

935 = 9×102 +3×101 +5×100

67, 128 = 6×104 +7×103 +1×102 +2×101 +8×100
4, 040 = 4×103 +0×102 +4×101 +0×100
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : 82 = ?
 61

64
Problem : 112 = ?
121
Problem : 43 = ?
64
Problem : 26 = ?
64
Problem : 05 = ?
0
Problem : 50 = ?
1
Problem : 117 = ?
1
Problem : Write out 1,943 as a sum of powers of ten.
1×103 +9×102 +4×101 +3×100
Powers of Negative Numbers, Decimals, and
Fractions

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Powers of Negative Numbers

Since an exponent on a number indicates multiplication by that same
number, an exponent on a negative number is simply the negative number
multiplied by itself a certain number of times:

(- 4)3 = - 4× -4× - 4 = - 64
(- 4)3 = - 64 is negative because there are 3 negative signs--seeMultiplying
Negatives.

(- 5)2 = - 5× - 5 = 25
(- 5)2 = 25 is positive because there are 2 negative signs.
Since an odd number of negative numbers multiplied together is always a
negative number and an even number of negative numbers multiplied
together is always a positive number, a negative number with an odd
exponent will always be negative and a negative number with an even
 62

exponent will always be positive. So, to take a power of a negative number,

take the power of the (positive) opposite of the number, and add a negative
sign if the exponent is odd.

Example 1: (- 3)4 = ?

1. Take the power of the positive opposite. 34 = 81.

2. The exponent (4) is even, so (- 3)4 = 81.

Example 2: (- 7)3 = ?

1. Take the power of the positive opposite. 73 = 343

2. The exponent (3) is odd, so (- 7)3 = - 343.
Powers of Decimals
When we square 0.46, we must remember that we are
multiplying0.46×0.46, not 0.46×46. In other words, the result has 4 decimal
places, not 2.
0.462 = 0.46×0.46 = 0.2116.
When taking the power of a decimal, first count the number of decimal
places in the base number, as when multiplying decimals (see Decimal
Multiplication. Next, multiply that number by the exponent. This will be the
total number of decimal places in the answer. Then, take the power of the
base number with the decimal point removed. Finally, insert the decimal
point at the correct place, calculated in the second step.

Example 1: 1.54 = ?

1. There is 1 decimal place and the exponent is 4. 1×4 = 4.

2. 154 = 50, 625.
3. Insert the decimal point 4 places to the right. 1.54 = 5.0625.

Example 2: 0.043 = ?

1. There are 2 decimal places and the exponent is 3. 2×3 = 6.

2. 43 = 64 = 000064.
3. Insert the decimal point 6 places to the right. 0.043 = 0.000064.

As we can see, decimals less than 1 with large exponents are generally
very small.
 63

Powers of Fractions
The meaning of (3/4)3 is (3/4)×(3/4)×(3/4), or three-fourths of three-fourths
of three-fourths. As shown in the SparkNote on Fractions, when we multiply
fractions together, we multiply their numerators together and we multiply
their denominators together. To evaluate(3/4)3 = (3/4)×(3/4)×(3/4), we
multiply 3×3×3, or 33, to get the numerator and we multiply 4×4×4, or 43, to
get the denominator. Thus, (3/4)3 = (33)/(43).
To take the power of a fraction, take the power of the numerator to get the
numerator, and take the power of the denominator to get the denominator.
To take the power of a mixed number, convert the mixed number into an
improper fraction and then proceed as above.

Examples:

I. (5/2)4 = (54)/(24) = 625/16

II. (- 3/4)2 = ((- 3)2)/(42) = 9/16

III. (1/(- 7))3 = (13)/((- 7)3) = 1/(- 343) = - 1/343

Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : (- 7)2 = ?
49
Problem : -72 = ?
-49
Problem : (- 3)3 = ?
-27
Problem : 0.252 = ?
0.0625
Problem : 0.013 = ?
0.000001
Problem : 1.22 = ?
1.44
Problem : (7/2)2 = ?
49/4
 64

Problem : (- 3/5)3 = ?
-27/125
Problem : (- 4/7)2 = ?
16/49
Negative Exponents
Taking a number to a negative exponent does not necessarily yield a
negative answer. Taking a base number to a negative exponent is
equivalent to taking the base number to the positive opposite of the
exponent (the exponent with the negative sign removed) and placing the
result in the denominator of a fraction whose numerator is 1. For
example, 5-4 = 1/54 = 1/625. 6-3 = 1/63 = 1/216, and (- 3)-2 = 1/(- 3)2 = 1/9.
If the base number is a fraction, then the negative exponent switches the
numerator and the denominator. For example, (2/3)-4 = (3/2)4 = (34)/(24) =
81/16 and (- 5/6)-3 = (6/(- 5))3 = (63)/((- 5)3) = 216/(- 125) = - 216/125.
Negative Exponents and the Base Ten System
Here is a list of negative powers of ten:

10-1 = 1/101 = 1/10 = 0.1

10-2 = 1/102 = 1/100 = 0.01
10-3 = 1/103 = 1/1, 000 = 0.001
10-4 = 1/104 = 1/10, 000 = 0.0001
10-5 = 1/105 = 1/100, 000 = 0.00001

and so on...

Just as 102 represents a 1 in the hundreds place, 10-2 represents a 1 in

the hundredths place. The single-digit number in the hundredths place is
the number that is multiplied by 10-2.
Now we can write out any terminating decimal as a sum of single- digit
numbers times powers of ten. The number 23.45 has a 2 in the tens
place (2×101), a 3 in the ones place (3×100), a 4 in the tenths place (4×10-
1
) and a 5 in the hundredths place (5×10-2). Thus, 23.45 =
2×101 +3×100 +4×10-1 +5×10-2.

Examples: Write out the following numbers as single-digit numbers times

powers of ten:

523.81 = 5×102 +2×101 +3×100 +8×10-1 +1×10-2

 65

3.072 = 3×100 +0×10-1 +7×10-2 +2×10-3

46.904 = 4×101 +6×100 +9×10-1 +0×10-2 +4×10-3

Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : 4-2 = ?
1/16
Problem : 7-3 = ?
1/343
Problem : (- 6)-3 = ?
-1/216
Problem : (7/5)-2 = ?
25/49
Problem : (6/11)-1 = ?
11/6
Problem : Write out 3.0412 as single-digit numbers times powers of ten.
3×100 +0×10-1 +4×10-2 +1×10-3 +2×10-4
Square Roots
The square root of a number is the number that, when squared (multiplied
by itself), is equal to the given number. For example, the square root of 16,
denoted 161/2 or , is 4, because 42 = 4×4 = 16. The square root of 121,
denoted , is 11, because 112 = 121. = 5/3, because (5/3)2 =
25/9. = 9, because 92 = 81. To take the square root of a fraction, take
the square root of the numerator and the square root of the denominator.
The square root of a number is always positive.
All perfect squares have square roots that are whole numbers. All fractions
that have a perfect square in both numerator and denominator have square
roots that are rational numbers. For example, = 9/7. All other
positive numbers have squares that are non-terminating, non- repeating
decimals, or irrational numbers. For example, =
1.41421356... and = 2.19503572....
Square Roots of Negative Numbers
Since a positive number multiplied by itself (a positive number) is always
positive, and a negative number multiplied by itself (a negative number) is
 66

always positive, a number squared is always positive. Therefore, we cannot

take the square root of a negative number.
Taking a square root is almost the inverse operation of taking a square.
Squaring a positive number and then taking the square root of the result
does not change the number: = = 6. However, squaring a negative
number and then taking the square root of the result is equivalent to taking
the opposite of the negative number: = = 7. Thus, we conclude
that squaring any number and then taking the square root of the result is
equivalent to taking the absolute value of the given number. For
example, = | 6| = 6, and = | - 7| = 7.
Taking the square root first and then squaring the result yields a slightly
different case. When we take the square root of a positive number and then
square the result, the number does not change: ( )2 = 112 = 121.
However, we cannot take the square root of a negative number and then
square the result, for the simple reason that it is impossible to take the
square root of a negative number.
Cube Roots and Higher Order Roots
A cube root is a number that, when cubed, is equal to the given number. It
is denoted with an exponent of "1/3". For example, the cube root of 27
is 271/3 = 3. The cube root of 125/343 is (125/343)1/3 = (1251/3)/(3431/3) =
25/7.
Roots can also extend to a higher order than cube roots. The 4th root of a
number is a number that, when taken to the fourth power, is equal to the
given number. The 5th root of a number is a number that, when taken to
the fifth power, is equal to the given number, and so on. The 4th root is
denoted by an exponent of "1/4", the 5th root is denoted by an exponent of
"1/5"; every root is denoted by an exponent with 1 in the numerator and the
order of root in the denominator.
An odd root of a negative number is a negative number. We cannot take an
even root of a negative number. For example, (- 27)1/3 = - 3, but (-
81)1/4does not exist.
Fractional Exponents
We have just learned that a fractional exponent with "1" in the numerator is
a root of some sort. But what would an exponent of "2/3" mean? Or an
exponent of "-5/2"?
In a fractional exponent, the numerator is the power to which the number
should be taken and the denominator is the root that should be taken. For
 67

example, 642/3 means "square 64 and take the cube root of the result" or
"take the cube root of 64 and square the result. This works out to 16.
A negative fractional exponent works just like a negative exponent. First,
we switch the numerator and the denominator of the base number, and
then we apply the positive exponent. For example, (9/25)-5/2 = (25/9)5/2 =
(255/2)/(95/2) = "the square root of 25 to the fifth power over the square root
of 9 to the fifth power" = 3, 125/243.27-1/3 = (1/27)1/3 = (11/3)/(271/3) = 1/3.
Again, we cannot take a negative number to a fractional power if the
denominator of the exponent is even.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : 811/2 = ?
9
Problem : 271/3 = ?
3
Problem : (- 64)1/2 = ?
Does not exist -- we cannot take the square root of a negative number.
Problem : (172)1/2 = ?
17
Problem : (171/2)2 = ?
17
Problem : ((- 12)2)1/2 = ?
12
Problem : ((- 12)1/2)2 = ?
Does not exist--we cannot take the square root of a negative number.
Problem : 253/2 = ?
125
Problem : (100/81)1/2 = ?
10/9
Problem : 64-4/3 = ?
1/256
Simplifying and Approximating Roots

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 68

Page 1 of 2
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Simplifying Square Roots

Often, it becomes necessary to simplify a square root; that is, to remove all
factors that are perfect squares from inside the square root sign and place
their square roots outside the sign. This action ensures that the irrational
number is the smallest number possible, making it is easier to work with.
To simplify a square root, follow these steps:
1. Factor the number inside the square root sign.
2. If a factor appears twice, cross out both and write the factor one time to the
left of the square root sign. If the factor appears three times, cross out two
of the factors and write the factor outside the sign, and leave the third factor
inside the sign. Note: If a factor appears 4, 6, 8, etc. times, this counts as 2,
3, and 4 pairs, respectively.
3. Multiply the numbers outside the sign. Multiply the numbers left inside the
sign.
4. Check: The outside number squared times the inside number should equal
the original number inside the square root.
To simplify the square root of a fraction, simplify the numerator and simplify
the denominator.
Here are some examples to make the steps clearer:

Example 1: Simplify 121/2.

1. =
2. = 2×
3. 2× = 2×
4. Check: 22×3 = 12
Example 2: Simplify .
1. =
2. = 2×5×
3. 2×5× = 10×
2
4. Check: 10 ×6 = 600
Example 3: Simplify .
1. =
2. = 3×3×
3. 3×3× = 9×
 69

4. Check: 92×10 = 810

Similarly, to simplify a cube root, factor the number inside the "( )1/3" sign. If
a factor appears three times, cross out all three and write the factor one
time outside the cube root sign.
Approximating Square Roots
It is very difficult to know the square root of a number (other than a perfect
square) just by looking at it. And one cannot simply divide by some given
number every time to find a square root. Thus, is it helpful to have a
method for approximating square roots. To employ this method, it is useful
to first memorize the square roots of the perfect squares. Here are the
steps to approximate a square root:
1. Pick a perfect square that is close to the given number. Take its square
root.
2. Divide the original number by this result.
3. Take the arithmetic mean of the result of I and the result of II by adding the
two numbers and dividing by 2 (this is also called "taking an average").
4. Divide the original number by the result of III.
5. Take the arithmetic mean of the result of III and the result of IV.
6. Repeat steps IV-VI using this new result, until the approximation is
sufficiently close.
If the square root can be simplified, it is easier to simplify and then
approximate the number inside the "( )1/2" sign. This result can then be
multiplied by the number outside the "( )1/2" sign.
Examples

Here are some examples to make the steps clearer:

Example 1: Approximate .
1. 25 is close to 22. =5
2. 22/5 = 4.4
3. (5 + 4.4)/2 = 4.7
4. 22/4.7 = 4.68
5. (4.7 + 4.68)/2 = 4.69
6. 22/4.69 = 4.69
= 4.69

Example 2: Approximate .
 70

1. 71 is close to 64. =8
2. 71/8 = 8.9
3. (8 + 8.9)/2 = 8.45
4. 71/8.45 = 8.40
5. (8.45 + 8.40)/2 = 8.425
6. 71/8.425 = 8.427
7. (8.425 + 8.427)/2 = 8.426
8. 71/8.426 = 8.426
= 8.426

Example 3: Approximate .
can be simplified: = = 2× = 2×
Approximate :
1. 14 is close to 16. =4
2. 14/4 = 3.5
3. (4 + 3.5)/2 = 3.75
4. 14/3.75 = 3.73
5. (3.75 + 3.73)/2 = 3.74
6. 14/3.74 = 3.74
= 3.74

Thus, = 2× = 2×3.74 = 7.48

Note that the eventual result will be the same no matter what perfect
square one picks in Step 1.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Simplify .
6×
Problem : Simplify .
3×
Problem : Simplify .
5×
Problem : Approximate to two decimal places.
7.07
 71

Problem : Approximate to two decimal places.

8.37
Problem : Approximate to two decimal places.
9.95
Operations with Exponents

Prev SectionNext Section

Order of Operations with Exponents

In the SparkNote on Operations, we learned the order of operations, which
uses these steps:

Step 1. Carry out the operations within the parentheses.

Step 2. Multiply and divide (it does not matter which comes first).
Step 3. Add and subtract (it does not matter which comes first).

But where do calculations with exponents fit into the picture?

The new order of operations, including operations with exponents, is:

Step 1. Carry out the operations within the parentheses (or absolute
value).
Step 2. Evaluate powers and roots.
Step 3. Multiply and divide (it does not matter which comes first)--this
includes applying a minus sign.
Step 4. Add and subtract (it does not matter which comes first).
Note that taking a power always comes before applying a minus sign
unless the sign is inside the parentheses which form the base number.
Observe:

-72 = - 49
(- 7)2 = 49
-24 = - 16
(- 2)4 = 16
-53 = - 125
(- 5)3 = - 125 (because 3 is odd)
- =-4
is undefined (we cannot take the square root of a negative number)
 72

Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : 4 + 52 = ?
29
Problem : (4 + 5)2 = ?
81
Problem : 11×32 + 7 = ?
106
Problem : 343/72×22 = ?
28
Problem : 175/52 + (7 - 3)2 = ?
23
Problem : (7 - 4×(- 2))2 +23 = ?
233

Prealgebra: Measurements
Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms

Summary and Analysis

Scientific Notation
Problems
Significant Digits
Problems
Systems of Measurement
Problems
Introduction and Summary

Prev SectionNext Section

This chapter will focus on principles associated with measurements. It will

discuss the proper way to measure and record data so others can
 73

understand it. It will also show how to convert data into different units of
measurement, so it can be used in calculations.
The first section will introduce the principles of scientific notation. This is
the notation used in all high school science classes and by professional
scientists. Scientific notation makes very large (or very small) numbers
easier to read and comprehend. It also makes large numbers easier to
compare.
The second section will discuss the proper way to take measurements and
will introduce the concept of significant figures. Significant figures show
how precise a measurement is; thus, they allow scientists to understand
the measurements of other scientists.
The third section will discuss units of measurements associated with two
commonly used systems of measurement--the English system and the
metric system. Here, we will learn how to convert measurements from one
unit to another using conversion factors. We will learn how to convert units
within each system, and how to convert from one system to the other.
The material in this chapter is essential to scientific data collection. These
principles will reappear in biology, chemistry, and physics classes, and in
any situation that requires the collection of data. The principles covered in
this chapter allow for a universal understanding of data--they allow
scientists, when looking at data, to read the same information as other
scientists.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Conversion Factor - A clever way of writing 1 as a fraction in which the

numerator is equal to the denominator but the numerator and the
denominator have different units. For example, (1,000 m)/(1 km) is a
conversion factor because 1,000 m = 1 km. (1 ft)/(12 in) is a conversion
factor because 1 ft = 12 in.
Precise - A term used to connote how accurate a measurement is. The
more significant digits in a measurement, the more precise that
measurement is.
Scientific Notation - A number written as a product of a single digit and a
power of 10.
 74

Significant Digits - The number of digits after the given number has been
put into scientific notation. The number of digits that are known in a
measurement, plus one digit that is estimated.
Scientific Notation

Prev SectionNext Section

Scientific Notation
Until now, we have been writing numbers in "decimal notation." Sometimes,
especially with large numbers, we need to convert numbers into scientific
notation.
To write a number in scientific notation, we write it as a product of a single
digit and a power of 10. Here are the steps to writing a number in scientific
notation:
1. Write the first non-zero digit of the number times a power of ten--
see Exponents and Negative Exponents.
2. Place a decimal point after the single digit number, and put the remaining
digits in the same order after the decimal point. If the number is a whole
number that ends with zeros, drop the zeros.
Thus, to write 527 in scientific notation:
1. Write the first digit times a power of ten: 500 = 5×102
2. Put the remaining digits in order after a decimal point: 5.27×102
527 = 5.27×102

To write 1,108.4 in scientific notation:

1. 1, 000 = 1×103
2. 1.1084×103 (Note that there is no decimal point between 8 and 4)
1, 108.4 = 1.1084×103

To write 0.0963 in scientific notation:

1. 0.09 = 9×10-2
2. 9.63x10^
0.0963 = 9.63×10-2

To write 78,000 in scientific notation:

1. 70, 000 = 7×104
2. 7.8×104 (Note that 78,000 is a whole number, so we dropped the zeros)
78, 000 = 7.8×104

To write 15.200 in scientific notation:

 75

1. 10 = 1×101
2. 1.5200×101 (Note that 15.200 is a decimal, so we did not drop the zeros)
15.200 = 1.5200×101
Observe: the exponent on "10" corresponds to the number of places that
the decimal point has moved--it is positive if the decimal point has moved
to the left and negative if it has moved to the right.
One of the trickiest things about scientific notation is remembering the rules
for zeros: if a number ends in one or more zeros, do notinclude the zeros if
the number is a whole number, but do include the zeros if the number is a
decimal. For example, 820 = 8.2×102 in scientific notation, and 0.820 =
8.20×10-1 in scientific notation. Zeros in the middle of a number are treated
as normal digits.
Scientific notation makes it easy to compare very large (or very small
numbers). The number with a larger exponent on "10" is always greater.
For example, 6.7103×1013 is greater than 9.2×107 and8.3×10-5 is greater
than 2.3×10-11.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Write 80,245 in scientific notation.

8.0245×104
Problem : Write 60,000 in scientific notation.
6×104
Problem : Write 80.00 in scientific notation.
8.00×101
Problem : Write 762.61 in scientific notation.
7.6261×102
Problem : Write 1.94723×103 in decimal notation.
1,947.23
Problem : Write 7.523×105 in decimal notation.
752,300
Significant Digits

Prev SectionNext Section

 76

Significant Digits
The number of significant digits, or significant figures, in a given number is
the number of digits after the given number has been put into scientific
notation. For example, 820 (8.2×102) has 2 significant digits (8 and 2), and
0.820 (8.20×10-1) has 3 significant digits (8, 2, and 0). There are three ways
to determine the number of significant digits in a number--use whichever
method is easiest for you:

Method I. Put the number in scientific notation and count the digits.

Method II. Count the digits in a number, starting with the first non-zero digit
and ending with the last non-zero digit (the zeros in the middle count as
digits). If the number is a whole number, do not count any remaining zeros.
If the number is a decimal, count all zeros at the end of the number.

Method III. Add the following:

(a) The number of non-zero digits
(b) The number of zeros in the middle of the number (between the non-zero
digits)
(c) If the number is a decimal, the number of zeros at the end of the
number

Examples:

7.957 has 4 significant digits.

79.57 has 4 significant digits.
0.7957 has 4 significant digits.
0.07957 has 4 significant digits.
0.79570 has 5 significant digits.
7,957 has 4 significant digits.
79,570 has 4 significant digits.
79,057 has 5 significant digits.
70,905,007 has 8 significant digits.
709,050,070 has 8 significant digits.
70,905,007.0 has 9 significant digits.
Significant Digits in Measurement
When we measure something, we do not get a precise measurement. For
example, on a ruler marked with meters and centimeters, the object that we
are measuring might fall between two centimeter lines. We have to
 77

estimate how far it falls between the two lines--0.4 cm.? 0.5 cm.? We know
that the object measured is 117 cm. plus a little more; maybe it is 117.4
cm., maybe it is 117.5 cm. Because there is a limit to the number of digits
we can know precisely, we write down all digits known precisely plus one
digit that is estimated. Thus, the number of significant digits in a
measurement is the number known precisely plus 1. In our example, one
could write down 117.4 cm. (4 significant digits). It would be incorrect,
however, to write down 117 cm. or 117.45 cm.-- 117 has too few significant
digits, while 117.45 has too many significant digits.
If the ruler included only measurements to the nearest 10 centimeters, we
would know the 10 centimeter place precisely and would estimate in the
centimeter place: we would write down 117 cm. If the ruler measured only
meters (1 m. = 100 cm.), we would know the 100 centimeter place precisely
and would estimate in the 10 centimeter place: we would write down 120
cm.
When a measurement is known to more places than another measurement,
it is said to be more precise. 117.4 cm. is more precise than 117 cm., and
117 cm. is more precise than 120 cm.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : How many significant digits does 5,273 have?

4
Problem : How many significant digits does 70,265 have?
5
Problem : How many significant digits does 60,286,000 have?
5
Problem : How many significant digits does 56.100 have?
5
Problem : How many significant digits does 40.0 have?
3
Problem : How many significant digits does 40 have?
1
Problem : If we know 3 digits of a measurement precisely, how many digits
should we write down when we record the measurement? How many
significant digits will our measurement have?
 78

4, 4.
Systems of Measurement

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Page 1 of 2
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There are a number of different systems of measurement. Here we will look

at the two most common, the English system and the Metric system.
The English System
The units of measurement in the English system are:

Length/Area

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)

1 yard (yd) = 3 feet
1 mile (mi) = 1,760 yards
1 square foot (sq ft) = 144 square inches (sq in)
1 square yard (sq yd) = 9 square feet
1 acre = 4,840 square yards = 43,560 square feet
1 square mile (sq mi) = 640 acres

Capacity

1 tablespoon (T) = 3 teaspoons (t)

1 cup (c) = 16 tablespoons
1 pint (pt) = 2 cups
1 quart (qt) = 2 pints
1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts

Weight

16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)

1 ton = 2,000 pounds
The Metric System
The units of measurement in the metric system are:
 79

Length

1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meters (m)

1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m
1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 m
1 meter (m) = 1 m
1 decameter (dam) = 10 m
1 hectometer (hm) = 100 m
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 m

Capacity

1 milliliter (ml) = 0.001 liters (l)

1 centiliter (cl) = 0.01 l
1 deciliter (dl) = 0.1 l
1 liter (l) = 1 l
1 decaliter (dal) = 10 l
1 hectoliter (hl) = 100 l
1 kiloliter (kl) = 1,000 l

Weight

1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 grams (g)

1 centigram (cg) = 0.01 g
1 decigram (dg) = 0.1 g
1 gram (g) = 1 g
1 decagram (dag) = 10 g
1 hectogram (hg) = 100 g
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 g
Converting Measurements
We can convert measurements from one unit to another unit within the
same system (English or Metric) or between the two systems. Let's say a
piece of land is 2.3 square miles, but the contractor needs to know the area
in acres. How would he convert the measurement?
To convert measurements, it is necessary to know conversion factors
between measurements. A conversion factor is a clever way of writing 1 as
a fraction in which the numerator is equal to the denominator but the
numerator and the denominator have different units. For example, (1,000
 80

m)/(1 km) is a conversion factor because 1,000 m = 1 km. (1 ft)/(12 in) is a

conversion factor because 1 ft = 12 in.
An important fact to remember is that when fractions are multiplied,
numbers in the numerator and numbers in the denominator cancel out, as
shown in Fractions. Also, units in the numerator and the denominator
cancel out: if a unit appears in both the numerator and the denominator, we
can cross both units out. For example:

× = × = 5, 000 m
Using these two pieces of knowledge, here are the steps to converting a
measurement from one unit into another, using the example problem above
of converting 2.3 square miles into acres:

Step 1. Write down the given units as a fraction over 1.

Step 2. To the far right of this fraction, write an "=" sign and a fraction line. Put the
units of the final answer in the numerator. Except for a "1" in the numerator, no
numbers should be in this fraction yet.

Step 3. Write down conversion factors. Since we know the relationship between
square miles and acres (1 sq. mi. = 640 acres), we can write down 2 conversion
factors:

and

Step 4. Multiply a conversion factor into the equation. In order to cancel out, the
denominator of the conversion factor must have the same units as the numerator of
the given fraction (the fraction on the left of the equation). In this case, the
conversion factor must have "sq mi" in the denominator. Multiply the fraction on the
 81

left by the conversion factor:

× =

Step 5. Cancel out the units and multiply:

× = 1, 472 acres

Step 6. Round the answer to the same number of significant digits as the original
number (for now, we will treat our conversion factors as if they are precise). 2.3 has
2 significant digits. 1,472 acres = 1,500 acres. Thus, 2.3 sq mi = 1,500 acres.

To convert between English and Metric units, it is useful to know the

following conversion factors:

Length/Area

1 in = 2.540 cm
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 sq ft = 0.0929 sq m
1 sq mi = 2.59 sq km

Capacity

1 fl oz = 29.575 ml
1 gal = 3.785 l

Weight

1 oz = 28.35 g
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
Here is an example of a conversion from metric units to English units: if
Bob ran a 5.0 km race, how many miles did he run?

Step 1. Write down the given units as a fraction over 1.

 82

Step 2. To the far right of this fraction, write an "=" sign and a fraction line. Put the
units of the final answer in the numerator. Except for a "1" in the numerator, no
numbers should be in this fraction yet.

Step 3. Write down conversion factors. Since we know the relationship between
kilometers and miles (1 mi = 1.609 km), we can write down 2 conversion factors:

and

Step 4. Multiply a conversion factor into the equation. In order to cancel out, the
denominator of the conversion factor must have the same units as the numerator of
the given fraction (the fraction on the left of the equation). In this case, the
conversion factor must have "km" in the denominator. Multiply the fraction on the left
by the conversion factor:

× =

Step 5. Cancel out the units and multiply:

× = = 3.1075 mi

Step 6. Round the answer to the same number of significant digits as the original
number. 5.0 has 2 significant digits. 3.1075 mi = 3.1 mi. Thus, 5.0 km = 3.1 mi.
Problems
 83

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : How many yards are in 3.00 miles?

5,280 yd.
Problem : How many centimeters are in 5.239 meters?
523.9 cm.
Problem : Convert 52 ounces to pounds.
3.25 lbs.
Problem : Convert 74 centimeters to inches.
29 in.
Problem : If Bob ran 2.5 km. and Rob ran 1.7 mi., who ran farther?
Rob (he ran 2.7 km.)
Problem : If Sarah weighs 156 lbs. and Sally weighs 59.0 kg., who weighs
more?
Sarah (she weighs 70.9 kg.)

Perimeter and Area

Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms

Summary and Analysis

Perimeter
Problems
Area
Problems
Circumference and Area of a Circle
Problems
Introduction and Summary

Prev SectionNext Section

This chapter is an introduction to geometry. Here, we will explore some

basic geometric shapes and learn how to find their perimeter and area.
The first section will explain the meaning of the term "perimeter." It will
show how to calculate the perimeter of a polygon, and it will introduce
formulas that will help calculate the perimeter of rectangles and squares.
 84

The second section will explain the meaning of the term "area." It will
introduce formulas that will help in the calculation of the area of rectangles
and squares.
The third section will focus on circles. It will introduce a special term for the
"perimeter" of a circle-- circumference--as well as other terms that
mathematicians use when they talk about circles, such as diameter and
radius. This section will present formulas for the calculation of the
circumference and area of circles, and it will explain the mathematical term
pi (represented by Π).
The material covered in this chapter will be important in the study of
geometry. It will allow the reader to begin working with shapes and the
calculations associated with them. The formulas that are taught in this
chapter will reappear in later math classes, especially geometry, where
they will be studied in greater depth. In order to study this material in
greater depth, however, one must first master the basics that are covered
in this chapter.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Area - The total number of square units that fill a given shape.
Circumference - The distance around the edge of a circle; the
"perimeter" of a circle.
Diameter - A line segment from one point on the edge of the circle to
another point on the edge, passing through the center of the circle. The
longest line segment that cuts across the circle from one point to another.
Perimeter - The distance around the edge of a shape; in general, the sum
of the lengths of its sides.
pi, Π - The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Π is
roughly equal to 3.14.
Polygon - A closed shape made up of several straight line segments.
Radius - A line segment from the center of the circle to a point on the
edge of the circle. Half of a diameter.
Rectangle - A 4-sided polygon in which opposite sides have the same
length and all angles have the same measure (90 degrees).
Square - A 4-sided polygon in which all sides are equal and all angles
have the same measure (90 degrees).
 85

Perimeter

Prev SectionNext Section

Perimeter
The perimeter of a shape is the distance around its edges--the distance
you would have to travel to walk once around the shape along its edge. In
general, the perimeter of a shape is the sum of the lengths of its sides.
Perimeter of a Polygon
A polygon is a closed shape made up of several straight line segments.
The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the length of all these sides. For
example, the perimeter of the polygon pictured below is equal to 1 + 5 + 4
+ 2 + 7 = 19:

Perimeter of a Polygon
Perimeter of a Rectangle
A rectangle is a 4-sided polygon in which opposite sides have the same
length and all angles have the same measure. Since opposite sides have
the same length, we have only to add the lengths of twoadjacent sides and
multiply by 2 (so each side is "counted" twice). The formula for the
perimeter of a rectangle is 2×(h + w), where h and w are the height and
width of the rectangle. For example, the perimeter of the rectangle below
is 2×(3 + 6) = 2×9 = 18.
 86

Perimeter of a Rectangle
Perimeter of a Square
A square is a 4-sided polygon in which all the sides are the same length.
Therefore, to find the perimeter of a square, we have only to multiply one
side by 4. The formula for the area of a square is 4×s, where s is the length
of a side. For example, the perimeter of the square below is 4×8 = 32:

Perimeter of a Square
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem :

Diagram of a Polygon
What is the perimeter of this polygon?
21
Problem :
 87

Diagram of a Polygon
What is the perimeter of this polygon?
28
Problem :

Diagram of a Rectangle
What is the perimeter of this rectangle?
22
Problem :

Diagram of a Rectangle
What is the perimeter of this rectangle?
18
Problem :
 88

Diagram of a Square
What is the perimeter of this square?
28
Problem :

Diagram of a Square
What is the perimeter of this square?
12
Area

Prev SectionNext Section

Area
The area of a shape is the total number of square units that fill the shape.
Area of a Rectangle
When we divide a rectangle into squares with side length one, we see that
the width is the number of square units in a row and the height is the total
number of rows. Thus, the total number of squares inside the rectangle is
equal to the number of rows times the number of units in each row, or the
height times the width of the rectangle. Area of a Rectangle = (h×w),
where h is the height and w is the width. In the sample rectangle from the
previous section, h = 3 and w = 6, so the area is 3×6 = 18. In other words,
there are 18 squares in the interior of the rectangle:
 89

Area of a Rectangle
Area of a Square
When we divide a square into squares with side length one, we see that the
number of square units in a row is the same number of total rows, or
that h = w. Thus, the area of a square is equal to the length of a side times
the length of a side, or to the length of a side squared (the term squared is
no coincidence). Area of a Square = s2, where sis the length of a side. In
the sample square from the previous section, s = 8, so the area is 82 = 64.
In a square of side length 3, the area is 32 = 9:

Areas of Two Squares

Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem :

Diagram of a Rectangle
What is the area of this rectangle?
24
Problem :
 90

Diagram of a Rectangle
What is the area of this rectangle?
20
Problem : What is the area of a rectangle with height 3 and width 2.6?
7.8
Problem :

Diagram of a Square
What is the area of this square?
49
Problem :

Diagram of a Square
What is the area of this square?
9
Problem : What is the area of a square with side length 12?
144
Circumference and Area of a Circle

Prev Section
Page 1 of 2
 91

Next Page

Terms Associated with Circles

The circumference of a circle is its "perimeter," or the distance around its
edge. If we broke the circle and bent it into one flat line, the length of this
line would be its circumference:

Circumference of a Circle
The diameter of a circle is a line segment from one point on the edge of the
circle to another point on the edge, passing through the center of the circle.
It is the longest line segment that cuts across the circle from one point to
another. There are many different diameters, but they all have the same
length:

Diameters of a Circle
The radius of a circle is a line segment from the center of the circle to a
point on the edge of the circle. It is half of a diameter, and thus its length is
half the length of the diameter. Again, there are many radii, but they all
have the same length. In the following diagram, a, b, andc are all radii:
 92

Radii of a Circle
The area of a circle is the total number of square units that fill the circle.
The area of the following circle is about 13 units. Note that we count
fractional units inside the circle as well as whole units.

Area of a Circle
Formula for the Circumference of a Circle
Mathematicians have discovered a special number, called pi (represented
by Π), which is the ratio of the circumference of anycircle to the length of its
diameter. Π is roughly equal to 3.14--most scientific calculators have a "Π"
button that will produce more digits. Π is a non- terminating, non- repeating
decimal; thus, Π is an irrational number.
Since Π is the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, Π = c/d; c = Π×d;
and d = c/Π; where c and d are the circumference and the diameter,
respectively. The most important equations to remember are the last two.
Thus, to find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by Π. If you
know only the radius (a more likely scenario), multiply the radius by 2 to
find the diameter: c = 2×Π×r. To find the diameter of a circle, divide the
circumference by Π. Use 3.14 for Π.
Try it! Find a pan, trash can, or other large circular object. Measure around
the edge, and then measure the diameter. The circumference divided by
the diameter should be roughly equal to Π.
 93

Formula for the Area of a Circle

Interestingly enough, Π is also the ratio between the area of a circle and
the square of its radius. Thus, Π = A/r2; A = Π×r2; and r = . The most
important equation to remember is the middle equation, A= Π×r2. Thus, to
find the area of a circle, square the radius and multiply by Π. If the radius is
unknown but the diameter is known, divide the diameter by 2 to find the
radius.

Examples:

What is the circumference of a circle with diameter 5?

c = d×Π = 5×3.14 = 15.7

What is the circumference of a circle with radius 3?

d = 3×2 = 6;c = d×Π = 6×3.14 = 18.8

What is the area of a circle with radius 3?

A = Π×r2 = 3.14×32 = 28.3

What is the area of a circle with diameter 5?

r = 5/2 = 2.5;A = Π×r2 = 3.14×2.52 = 19.6

What is the diameter of a circle with circumference 11?

d = c/Π = 11/3.14 = 3.50

What is the radius of a circle with circumference 11?

r = d /2 = 3.50/2 = 1.75

What is the area of a circle with circumference 11?

A = Π×r2 = 3.14×1.752 = 9.62
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

 94

Diagram of a Circle
Problem : What is the diameter of a circle with radius 7?
14
Problem : What is the circumference of a circle with radius 7?
43.96
Problem : What is the area of a circle with radius 7?
153.86

Diagram of a Circle
Problem : What is the radius of a circle with diameter 8?
4
Problem : What is the circumference of a circle with diameter 8?
25.12
Problem : What is the area of a circle with diameter 8?
50.24
Problem : What is the radius of a circle with area 23?
2.71
Problem : What is the diameter of a circle with area 23?
5.42
Problem : What is the circumference of a circle with area 23?
17.0
 95

Prealgebra: Variables
Table of Contents
Introduction and Summary
Terms

Summary and Analysis

Variables
Problems
Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
Problems
Solving Algebraic Equations
Problems
Introduction and Summary

Prev SectionNext Section

As the final SparkNote within Pre-Algebra, this guide serves as the jumping
off point from pre-algebra to algebra. As such, this chapter will introduce
the reader to variables and how to evaluate expressions and solve
equations that contain variables.
The first section will explain what a variable is and how variables are used.
This is essential knowledge--variables are the crux of algebra.
The second section will deal with algebraic expressions--that is,
expressions containing a variable. It will explain how to evaluate an
algebraic expression, given a quantity for the variable.
The final section is an introduction to solving algebraic equations--
equations that contain a variable. It will teach the reader how to determine
which number a variable represents by using inverse operations. This topic
will reappear in algebra; in fact, much of algebra is concerned with solving
equations for variables.
The material covered in this section is very important. It is the gateway from
pre-algebra to algebra. Much of this study guide has been concerned with
understanding operations and how they can be applied to given numbers.
Now, we will begin to explore operations on unknown numbers. This
chapter will introduce the concept of representing unknown numbers by
 96

variables, which will be used in all of mathematics--algebra and beyond--as

well as physics, chemistry, statistics, and economics.
Terms

Prev SectionNext Section

Denominator - The number below the line in a fraction. Denotes how

many parts the whole is divided into.
Equivalent - Two fractions that express the same part of a whole. There
is a number by which both the numerator and denominator of one fraction
can be multiplied or divided to yield an equivalent fraction. 1/4, 2/8, and
3/12 are all equivalent fractions.
Fraction - Describes part of a whole. 3/4, 1/6, and 19/4 are all examples
of fractions.
Improper Fraction - A fraction whose numerator is equal to or greater
than its denominator.
Least Common Denominator - The least common multiple of the
denominators of two or more fractions. That is, the lowest number which is
a multiple of both denominators.
Lowest Terms - A fraction whose numerator and denominator have no
common factors is in lowest terms.
Mixed Number - A number composed of a whole number and a fraction.
Numerator - The number above the line in a fraction. Denotes the
number of parts out of the whole that are being taken.
Proper Fraction - A fraction whose numerator is smaller than its
denominator.
Reduced - Written in lowest terms; that is, written as a fraction whose
numerator and denominator have no common factors.
Repeating Decimals - Decimals that endlessly repeat one number or a
group of numbers.
Terminating Decimals - Decimals that do not continue after a certain
place (that continue in an endless string of zeros).
Variables

Prev SectionNext Section

 97

A variable is a symbol that represents a number. A variable can represent

any number. In the algebraic expression 27 + b, b is a variable. Likewise,
variables can appear in equations. In the algebraic equation 11×s = 22, s is
a variable. If we replace s with the number 2, the equation will be true,
since 11×2 = 22.
We use variables in algebraic expressions when the quantity of something
is unknown. For example, if I want to talk about "Peter's monthly salary plus
$200," but I do not know his monthly salary, I might write s + 200,
where s represents Peter's monthly salary in dollars. Or, if I want to say,
"My book weighs three times as much as yours, plus 5 lbs. more," but I do
not know how much your book weighs, I might write that my book
weighs 3w + 5, where wrepresents the weight of your book in pounds.
We also use variables to represent unknowns in algebraic equations.
Consider the statement, "If Greg grows 2 inches, he will be 60 inches tall."
This statement says that Greg's current height plus 2 inches is equal to 60
inches. We write h + 2 = 60, where h represents Greg's current height.
Algebraic expressions and algebraic equations can contain more than one
variable. For example, 2×(h + w) is an algebraic expression that contains
two variables, h and w.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Identify the variable(s) in the following expressions:

a) 5k + 1
b) 7b2 - (6×5)
c) 19 - y
d) 2×(h + w)
a) k
b) b
c) y
d) h, w
Problem : If m represents the number of miles Katy ran, write an
expression for:
a) The distance Katy ran plus 3 miles
b) Half of the distance Katy ran
 98

a) m + 3
b) m/2
Problem : If b represents the number of hours Becky spent painting, write
an expression for:
a) Twice the time Becky spent painting
b) Twice the time Becky spent painting, plus 8 more hours
a) 2b
b) 2b + 8
Problem : If s represents the number of shots Jeff made on the basketball
court, write an expression for:
a) The number of shots Jeff would have made if he had made 4 fewer
shots
b) The number of shots Jeff would have made if he had made 3 times as
many shots
a) s - 4
b) 3s
Problem : If k represents the amount of money (in dollars) Kara spent at a
thrift shop, write an expression for:
a) The amount of money she would have spent if she had spent 3 more
dollars
b) The amount of money she would have spent if she had spent 8 times as
much, plus 6 more dollars
a) k + 3
b) 8k + 6
Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Prev SectionNext Section

Sometimes, we are given a known quantity for a variable. In the earlier

example from last section, I might discover that Peter's monthly salary is
$600, or that your book weighs 12 lbs.
To evaluate an algebraic expression, plug in the known quantity for the
variable and evaluate the resulting expression. For example, given the
known quantities described above, s + 200 = 600 + 200 = 800and 3×w + 5
= 3×12 + 5 = 36 + 5 = 41.
 99

You probably have been evaluating algebraic expressions without even

knowing it. Every time you plug a number into a formula, like the formula for
perimeter of a square, p = 4×s, you are evaluating an expression.

Example 1: What is the perimeter of a square with side length 1? 5? 2.5?

a) p = 4×s = 4×1 = 4
b) p = 4×s = 4×5 = 20
c) p = 4×s = 4×2.5 = 10

Example 2: What is s + 200 if s = 1, 800? If s = 15? If s = - 100?

a) s + 200 = 1, 800 + 200 = 2, 000
b) s + 200 = 15 + 200 = 215
c) s + 200 = - 100 + 200 = 100

Example 3: What is 3×w + 5 if w = 5? If w = 10? If w = 0?

a) 3×w + 5 = 3×5 + 5 = 15 + 5 = 20
b) 3×w + 5 = 3×10 + 5 = 30 + 5 = 35
c) 3×w + 5 = 3×0 + 5 = 0 + 5 = 5
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : What is r + 5 if r = 7? If r = - 11?

12, - 6
Problem : What is 2k if k = 15? If k = 100?
30, 200
Problem : What is r2 if r = 15? If r = 2/3?
225, 4/9
Problem : What is 15f - 12 if f = 1? If f = 3?
3, 33
Problem : What is 4×(m - 6) + 34 if m = 12? If m = 0?
58, 10
Solving Algebraic Equations

Prev Section
 100

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Next Page

Solutions to Algebraic Equations

When we solve an algebraic equation, instead of plugging in
a givennumber for the variable, we find a number that, when plugged in for
the variable, would make the equation true. Such a number is called a
solution to an equation. 58 is a solution to the equation h + 2 = 60,
because 58 + 2 = 60. 46 is not a solution to h + 2 = 60, because 46 +
2does not equal 60.
Some equations have more than one solution. For example, 4 and -4 are
both solutions to r2 = 16. Most of the equations we will deal with, however,
have only one solution.
Fundamentals of Equations
The goal in solving an equation is to get the variable by itself on one side of
the equation and a number on the other side of the equation.
Generally, the variable will start on one side with operations being
performed on it. We must reverse these operations by performing the
inverse of each operation. However, we cannot just perform the inverse
operation on on e side, because that would change the equation. However,
if you perform the same operation on both sides of an equation the
equation will not change.
Performing an operation on one side of an equation will change the
equation and make it false.

Given, 5×6 = 30
5×6 = 30×3; 5×6 = 30 while 30×3 = 90
5×6 = 30 + 18; 5×6 = 30 while 30 + 18 = 48
5×6 = 30/10; 5×6 = 30 while 30/10 = 3

Performing the same operation on each side of an equation won't change

the equation:

Given, 7 + 4 = 11
(7 + 4)×12 = 11×12; both sides equal 132
(7 + 4) + 3 = 11 + 3; both sides equal 14
- (7 + 4) = - 11; both sides equal -11
 101

Herein lies a vital role of solving algebraic equations: whatever operation is

carried out on one side of the equal sign in an equation must be carried out
on the other side as well.
Solving Algebraic Equations
To solve an algebraic equation, reverse all the operations on the variable
side of the equation by performing their inverse operations on both sides of
the equation.
Here are some examples of how to solve an algebraic equation:

Example 1: y + 11 = 18

(y + 11) - 11 = 18 - 11
y=7

Example 2: 4×q = 12

(4×q)/4 = 12/4
q=3

Example 3: m/5 = 6

(m/5)×5 = 6×5
m = 30

Example 4: h - 2 = 7

(h - 2) + 2 = 7 + 2
h=9
When there is more than one operation, reverse the "outside" operation
first. Follow the reverse of the order of operations to reverse the operations
in an algebraic equation:

Example 5: 7g + 5 = 33

(7g + 5) - 5 = 33 - 5
7g = 28
(7g)/7 = 28/7
g=4
 102

Example 6: (4 + w)/6 = 8

((4 + w)/6)×6 = 8×6

(4 + w) = 48
(4 + w) - 4 = 48 - 4
w = 44

Example 7: 7×(2y + 6) = 56

(7×(2y + 6))/7 = 56/7

(2y + 6) = 8
(2y + 6) - 6 = 8 - 6
2y = 2
(2y)/2 = 2/2
y=1

Example 8: 22 - x = 25

(22 - x) - 22 = 25 - 22
-x=3
x=-3
Remember to check your answers--plugging the answer in for the
variable should make the equation true.
Problems

Prev SectionNext Section

Problem : Solve for y: 7 + y = 13

y=6
Problem : Solve for m: 17 + m + 13 - 20 = 15
m=5
Problem : Solve for k: 3k + 2 = 11
k=3
Problem : Solve for c: (6 + c)/2 = 5
c=4
Problem : Solve for u: 18 - u = 5
u = 13
 103

Problem : Solve for q: 3×(9 - q) = 27

q=0
Problem : Solve for j: 14 + j = 7
j=-7

Review of Prealgebra
Table of Contents
Review Test
Further Reading
Review Test

Prev SectionNext Section

1. (3 - 1)×(2 + 12/2) = ?

 7
 14
 16
 8
2. Which property of addition is used in the following equation:

(67 + 11 + 23) + (48 + 16) = (67 + 23 + 11) + (48 + 16)

 Associative Property of Addition

 Commutative Property of Addition
 Distributive Property of Addition
 Identity Property of Addition
3. Which property of multiplication is used in the following equation:

(11 + 3)×5 = (11×5) + (3×5)

 Associative Property of Multiplication

 Commutative Property of Multiplication
 Distributive Property of Multiplication
 Identity Property of Multiplication
4. Which property is used in the following equation:

11×1 + 15×(5 + 6) = 11 + 15×(5 + 6)

 Zero Product Property

 104

 Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition

 Identity Property of Addition
 Identity Property of Multiplication
5. 76 + ? - (7×4×0) - 12 = 76

 12
 40
 28
 0

6. Which of the following numerals represents the following: 6 ten millions, 2 millions, 5
hundred thousands, 7 thousands, 3 hundreds.

 62,573
 62,573,000
 62,057,300
 62,507,300

7. 159,024 is divisible by which of the following?

 1, 2, 3, and 4, but not 6, 8, and 9.

 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, but not 8 and 9.
 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8, but not 9.
 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 9.

8. 82,709 is divisible by which of the following?

 3
 3 and 9
 8
 None of the above

9. Which of the following numbers is prime?

 56
 91
 71
 1
 105

10. What is the prime factorization of 1,100?

 10×10×11
 2×5×11
 2×2×5×5×11
 2×5×10×11

11. What are the greatest common factor and least common multiple of 82 and 123?

 GCF = 41, LCM = 246

 GCF = 246, LCM = 41
 GCF = 6, LCM = 41
 GCF = 41, LCM = 6

12. Which is greatest?

 8.70
 8.07
 8.709
 8.079

13. Round 72,091 to the nearest hundred.

 72,000
 72,100
 72,900
 721
14. 3.02 + 5.011 = ?

 8.31
 8.031
 8.13
 8.013
15. 1.1×0.11 = ?

 121.0
 12.1
 1.21
 0.121
 106

16. Convert 11 3/8 into an improper fraction.

 35/8
 41/8
 91/8
 41/3

17. Reduce 64/12 to lowest terms.

 32/6
 16/12
 16/6
 16/3

18. What is the least common denominator of 45 and 30?

 15
 90
 135
 270
19. 4/15 + 7/12 = ?

 17/20
 11/27
 11/60
 28/180

20. What is 5/6 of 8/15?

 8/2
 4/15
 4/9
 41/30
21. (21/4)/(3/22) = ?

 237/44
 63/88
 7/22
 77/2
 107

22. Express 0.175 as a fraction in lowest terms.

 175/1,000
 175/100
 35/200
 7/40

23. Express 56.4% as a decimal.

 564.0
 56.4
 5.64
 0.564

24. Express 7/8 as a percent.

 0.875%
 8.75%
 87.5%
 78%

25. Express 649/1,000 as a percent.

 0.649%
 6.49%
 64.9%
 649%

26. What is 5% of 125?

 6.25
 25
 62.5
 625
 108

27. Which of the following number lines is correctly labeled?

Number Lines

 Top
 Middle
 Bottom
 All three are correctly labeled.

28. On the following number line, which pair of points corresponds to numbers that are
opposites?

Number Line

 A and F
 B and F
 B and E
 C and D
29. -7 fits into all the following categories EXCEPT

 Integers
 Rationals
 Irrationals
 Real Numbers
 109

30. All the following are whole numbers EXCEPT

 0
 -12
 14
 1
31. 99 - (- 13) = ?

 86
 -86
 112
 -112
32. -11×(- 3) - (12/(- 4)) = ?

 36
 30
 -30
 -36
33. | 3 - 6| - | - 3×4| = ?

 15
 -15
 9
 -9
34. 34 = ?

 12
 64
 81
 243
35. (- 4/3)2 = ?

 16/3
 -16/3
 16/9
 -16/9
36. (5/3)-3 = ?

 125/27
 -125/27
 27/125
 -27/125
 110

37. 642/3 = ?

 16
 24
 512
 1/16
38. Simplify .

 12×
 6×
 3×
 144×
39. (7 - 3)2 = ?

 40
 16
 58
 100

40. What is 83,500 in scientific notation?

 8.3500×10-4
 8.35×104
 8.3500×104
 8.35×105

41. How many significant digits does 520.03 have?

 2
 3
 4
 5

42. How many inches are in 17.9 feet?

 1.49
 5.9
 179
 215
 111

43. What is the perimeter of a rectangle with height 6 and width 7?

 13
 26
 42
 52

44. What is the area of a square with side length 0.5?

 0.25
 2
 2.5
 5

45. What is the area of a circle with diameter 7?

 10.99
 21.98
 38.47
 153.86
46. If h represents the number of hours Bonnie spends reading, which expression represents
twice the number of hours she spends reading, plus 11 more hours?

 (2 + 11)h
 h/2 + 11
 2h + 11
 2 + 11h
47. What is 5t - 11 if t = 6?

 19
 45
 55
 -25
48. What is (8 + h)/4 if h = 20?

 5
 7
 9
 13
 112

49. Solve for d: 3 + 4d = 19

 d = 22/4
 d=4
 d = 16
 d = 64
50. Solve for s: 3×(17 - s) = 18

 s=6
 s=-6
 s = 11
 s = - 11