Ho Chi Minh City

University of Technology

TR3317
AIRCRAFT
PROPULSION
SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
¡ Chapter 1 - Classifications of aircraft propulsion systems

¡ Chapter 2 - A review of basic laws for a compressible flow

¡ Chapter 3 - Gas power cycles

¡ Chapter 4 - Piston engines

¡ Chapter 5 - Propeller theory

¡ Chapter 6 - Turbine-based engines: turbojet, turbofan

¡ Chapter 7 - Shaft engines: turboprop, turboshaft, and prop-

fan
¡ Chapter 8 - Propulsion system characteristics

2
LECTURE 1:
CHAPTER 1 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

1.1 External combustion engines

1.2 Internal combustion engines
1.3 Other engines.

3
LECTURE 1:
CHAPTER 1 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

1.1 External combustion engines

1.1.1 Steam engine
1.1.2 Stirling engine
1.1.3 Nuclear engine
1.2 Internal combustion engines
1.3 Other engines.

4
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

¡ An aircraft engine, also known as an aero engine, serves as the propulsion

system for an aircraft, acting as a crucial component or the core element
in the advancement of aviation.
¡ The progress of aero engines and aircraft structures has been intertwined
since the inception of successful flight.

5
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Aero engines are required to possess the following characteristics:

1. Reliability: Given that power loss in an aircraft poses a significantly greater challenge than in road vehicles, aero
engines must be exceptionally reliable.
2. Operational Resilience: Aero engines must be capable of functioning under extreme conditions of temperature,
pressure, and speed.
3. Lightweight Design: It is imperative for aero engines to be lightweight to avoid increasing the empty weight of
the aircraft, consequently preserving payload capacity.
4. Powerful Performance: The engines must exhibit substantial power to effectively overcome the combined
influences of aircraft weight and drag.
5. Compact and Streamlined: To minimize drag, aero engines should be designed to be small and easily
streamlined.

6
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

6. Field Repairability: Ensuring cost-effectiveness, aero engines should be field-repairable, enabling minor repairs
to be undertaken inexpensively and outside of specialized facilities.
7. Fuel Efficiency: A crucial factor for achieving the desired range and maneuverability, aero engines should
demonstrate high fuel efficiency aligned with the aircraft's design requirements.
8. High-Altitude Operation: Capability to operate efficiently at sufficient altitudes is essential for the diverse
operational needs of the aircraft.
9. Low Noise Generation: Striving for minimal noise generation, aero engines should be designed to produce the
least amount of noise during operation.
10. Low Emissions: In alignment with environmental concerns, aero engines should generate the least emissions,
contributing to a more sustainable and eco-friendly aviation landscape.

7
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Aero engines may be classified based on input power into three main
categories, namely, internal combustion engines, external combustion
engines, and other power sources.

8
CLASSIFICATIONS
OF AIRCRAFT
PROPULSION
SYSTEMS

Classification of propulsion systems 9

1.1 EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

¡ External combustion engines encompass steam, Stirling, or nuclear

engines, where all heat transfer occurs through the engine wall.
¡ This stands in stark contrast to internal combustion engines, where heat is
introduced through the combustion of fuel within the working fluid's body.
¡ Subsequent sections will provide a detailed exploration of these three
external combustion engine types.

10
 1.1.1 STEAM ENGINES
¡ Steam-powered aircraft refer to aircraft
propelled by steam engines, and their
uniqueness stems from the challenge of
creating a power plant with a practical
power-to-weight ratio, a formidable task
due to the technological constraints of the
time.

(The 1842 Aerial Steam Carriage of Henson and Stringfellow) 11

1.1.1 STEAM ENGINES

¡ Steam is generated from water by burning cheap crude oil. Sealed

condensers return the steam from the cylinders to the boiler with only 1%
loss.
¡ Constant pressure in the boilers is maintained by electric gauges, which
automatically ignite the burners when pressure begins to fall.
¡ Take-off pressure can be generated in 1 min. It was capable of STOL
operation due to the ease of reversing thrust.

12
1.1.1 STEAM ENGINES

¡ The most peculiar aspect of the flight was its notable lack of sound.
¡ The benefits of this engine included the elimination of audible noise and
disruptive vibrations, increased efficiency at both low engine speeds and
higher altitudes, aided by lower air temperatures facilitating
condensation.
¡ Additionally, there was a diminished risk of engine failure, leading to
reduced maintenance and fuel costs.

13
1.1.1 STEAM ENGINES
¡ Despite these advantages, it was
discovered that scaling up steam
reciprocating engines to meet the
requirements of larger aircraft proved
impractical.
¡ Consequently, in contemporary times, no
aircraft is powered by a steam engine.

(Steam Driven Travel Air 2000 in 1933) 14

1.1.2 STIRLING ENGINES

¡ A Stirling engine is a heat engine having

either air or other gas as a working fluid.
¡ It operates by cyclic compression and
expansion of the working fluid, at different
temperature levels such that there is a net
conversion of heat energy to mechanical
work.

15
1.1.2 STIRLING ENGINES

¡ Stirling engines have many advantages like high power density and low cost,
quieter, less polluting, gain efficiency with altitude due to lower ambient
temperatures; more reliable due to fewer parts and the absence of an ignition
system, produce much less vibration (airframes last longer), and safer, less
explosive fuels may be used.
¡ However, they have low power density compared to the commonly used piston
engines and gas turbine. This issue made them critical for use as aircraft engines.

16
1.1.3 NUCLEAR ENGINES

¡ A nuclear-powered aircraft refers to an aircraft propelled by nuclear energy.

¡ During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in
research on these aircraft, driven by the notion that they could potentially
enable a nation to maintain nuclear bombers in continuous flight for extended
periods, serving as a strategic element in nuclear deterrence.
¡ However, neither country successfully produced nuclear aircraft in significant
quantities.

17
1.1.3 NUCLEAR ENGINES

¡ One persistent design challenge, never fully resolved, was the necessity
for substantial shielding to safeguard the crew from radiation sickness.
¡ Additionally, considerations were made regarding the ecological
consequences of a crash during operations.
¡ The potential fallout from radiation in the event of one of these aircraft
crashing in a populated area was deemed to have catastrophic
consequences.

18
1.1.3 U.S PROGRAMMES

¡ In May 1946, the United States Air Force

initiated the Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of
Aircraft (NEPA) project. Research and studies
were conducted under this program until May
1951, at which point NEPA was succeeded by the
Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion (ANP) program.
¡ The ANP program aimed to explore two distinct
types of nuclear-powered jet engines, namely
General Electric’s Direct Air Cycle and Pratt &
Whitney’s Indirect Air Cycle.
(The only US aircraft to carry a nuclear reactor was the NB-36H.
The reactor was never actually connected to the engines. The
19
program was canceled in 1958.)
1.1.3 U.S PROGRAMMES

¡ Additionally, ANP included plans for the

modification of two B-36 aircraft by Convair
under the MX-1589 project.
¡ One of the B-36s was designated for studying
shielding requirements for an airborne reactor,
while the other was intended to become the X-6.
Regrettably, the program was terminated before
the construction of the X-6 took place.
(The only US aircraft to carry a nuclear reactor was the NB-36H.
The reactor was never actually connected to the engines. The
20
program was canceled in 1958.)
1.1.3 SOVIET PROGRAMMES

¡ The Soviet initiative to develop nuclear-powered aircraft

led to the creation of the experimental Tupolev 119 (Tu-
95 LAL), derived from a Tupolev Tu-95M bomber.
¡ Equipped with two conventional turboprop engines and
two innovative 'inboard' direct cycle jet engines, the Tu-
119 featured a minimally shielded nuclear reactor housed
in the main fuselage.
¡ Throughout 34 research flights, primarily conducted with
the reactor shut down, the Tu-119 focused on evaluating
the effectiveness of radiation shielding an imperative
concern for the engineering team.

(The Tu-95LAL test aircraft. The bulge in the fuselage aft of the
wing covers the reactor..)
21
1.1.3 SOVIET PROGRAMMES

¡ The extensive use of protective measures resulted in

radiation levels deemed low enough to contemplate
further development.
¡ However, akin to the situation in the United States,
progression beyond this stage did not occur. The
cancellation of the program in August 1966 was
attributed to budgetary constraints and the concurrent
development of new conventional aircraft designs.
¡ Several other projects within the program remained
confined to the design phase.

(The Tu-95LAL test aircraft. The bulge in the fuselage aft of the
wing covers the reactor..)
22
1.1 EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

¡ As described above, the three external combustion engines are not appropriate for
employment in aviation field for different reasons.
¡ Steam engines are only appropriate for small aircrafts while large ones need heavy
boilers, piping and other accessories.
¡ Stirling engines generate also low power which is also improper for present aircrafts.
¡ Nuclear engines have two drawbacks regarding shielding of flight crew and
passengers versus radiation, as well as the risk of crash in residence areas leading to
catastrophic situation.

23
LECTURE 1:
CHAPTER 1 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

1.1 External combustion engines

1.2 Internal combustion engines
1.2.1 Shaft Engine
1.2.1.1 Intermittent Combustion
1.2.1.2 Continuous Combustion Engine
1.2.2 Reaction Engine
1.3 Other engines.

24
1.2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

¡ Internal combustion engines can be broadly categorized into two groups:

shaft engines and reaction engines.
¡ Shaft engines, in turn, fall into two subcategories: intermittent and
continuous types. Intermittent combustion engines can further be classified
as reciprocating or Wankel (rotary design) types.
¡ Continuous combustion engines, also known as turbine shaft engines, are
then subcategorized into turboprop, turboshaft, and propfan engines.

25
1.2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

¡ The second major category of internal combustion engines is the reaction

engines.
¡ This group can be either athodyd (where athodyd stands for Aero
THermODYnamic Duct) or turbine types.
¡ The athodyd group encompasses ramjet, pulsejet, and scramjet engines,
while the turbine engines include turbojet, turbofan, turbo ramjet, turbo
rocket, and advanced ducted fan engines.

26
1.2.1 SHAFT ENGINES

¡ As previously described, shaft engines are categorized into two subgroups

based on the type of combustion: intermittent combustion and continuous
combustion.
¡ Intermittent combustion engines include either Wankel or reciprocating
engines.

27
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Wankel Engine
¡ Invented by German engineer Felix Wankel in 1950, the
Wankel engine is a form of internal combustion engine
employing a rotary design to translate pressure into
rotational motion.
¡ This figure depicts a Diamond DA20 aircraft equipped
with a Wankel engine. Its four-stroke cycle unfolds within
the space bounded by an oval-like epitrochoid-shaped
housing and a rotor resembling a Reuleaux triangle with
slightly flatter sides.

(Diamond DA20 aircraft)

28
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

¡ This configuration delivers smooth, high-rpm power in a

compact size.
¡ The Lockheed Q-Star, an experimental aircraft from
1968/1969, marked the debut of the Wankel rotary
engine in aviation, boasting a 185 hp Curtiss-Wright RC2-
60 Wankel rotary engine.
¡ The Wankel engine's compact dimensions and quiet
operation have encouraged its adoption in Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs).

(Wankel engine)
29
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

¡ Additionally, Wankel engines are gaining popularity in homebuilt experimental

aircraft due to their affordability compared to certified aircraft engines,
providing power outputs ranging from 100 to 300 horsepower (220 kW) at a
fraction of the cost of traditional engines.
¡ However, Wankel engines operate at relatively high rotational speeds with
lower torque, necessitating the use of a Propeller Speed Reduction Unit (PSRU)
to maintain conventional propellers within the appropriate speed range for
propeller-driven aircraft.

30
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Piston Engine
¡ A piston engine, commonly referred to as a reciprocating engine, is a heat
engine that utilizes one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into
rotational motion.
¡ It is noteworthy that the piston engine played a pivotal role in powering the
first-ever piloted motorized flight achieved by Orville and Wilbur Wright on
December 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA.
¡ Since that groundbreaking moment, ongoing advancements have been made.

31
1.2.1.1 ¡ Piston engines can be categorized into five
groups, as depicted in this Figure: in-line,
INTERMITTENT
rotary, V-type, radial, and opposed. These
COMBUSTION engines are paired with a propeller to propel
ENGINE the forward motion of airplanes.

(Classification of piston engines)

32
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

In-Line
¡ An in-line engine arranges its cylinders in a single row, typically featuring an
even number of cylinders, although instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
exist.
¡ Early aircraft, including the Wright Flyer (12 horsepower) that accomplished the
inaugural controlled powered flight, commonly employed in-line engines.
¡ While an in-line engine may be air-cooled, it is more commonly liquid-cooled.

33
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

In-Line
¡ The primary advantage of an in-line engine lies in its ability to facilitate
the design of an aircraft with a narrow frontal area, minimizing drag.
¡ If the engine's crankshaft is positioned above the cylinders, it adopts the
label of an inverted in-line engine, enabling the mounting of the propeller
at a higher position for ground clearance, particularly useful with short
landing gear.

34
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

In-Line
¡ However, the drawbacks of an in-line engine encompass a suboptimal
power-to-weight ratio due to the elongated and consequently heavy
crankcase and crankshaft.
¡ As a result, the in-line design has become increasingly uncommon in
modern aviation, abandoned in favor of more efficient alternatives.

35
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Rotary
¡ The rotary engine found extensive use during World War I due to its attributes
of being lightweight, powerful, cost-effective, and easily producible in large
quantities.
¡ In a rotary engine, all cylinders are arranged in a circular configuration around
the crankcase, resembling a radial engine.
¡ The key distinction lies in the fact that the crankshaft is attached to the airframe,
while the propeller is affixed to the engine case.

36
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Rotary
¡ Consequently, the entire engine rotates with the propeller, ensuring ample
airflow for cooling regardless of the aircraft's forward speed.
¡ Some of these engines adopted a two-stroke design, affording them a
high specific power and an impressive power-to-weight ratio.

37
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Rotary
¡ Regrettably, the substantial gyroscopic effects stemming from the weighty
rotating engine rendered the aircraft challenging to maneuver.
¡ Furthermore, these engines had a significant drawback in their
consumption of large quantities of castor oil, spreading it across the
airframe and emitting fumes that proved nauseating for the pilots.

38
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Radial Engine
¡ The radial engine features one or more rows of cylinders arranged in a
circular formation around a centrally located crankcase.
¡ To ensure smooth operation, each row must consist of an odd number of
cylinders.
¡ With only one crank throw per row and a relatively compact crankcase,
the radial engine achieves a favorable power-to-weight ratio.

39
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Radial Engine
¡ The arrangement of cylinders exposes a significant portion of the engine's
heat radiating surfaces to the air, resulting in even cooling and smooth
operation by canceling reciprocating forces.
¡ One noteworthy example of a radial engine is the Wasp engine, which
was finalized in 1925.

40
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Radial Engine
¡ This radial piston engine, manufactured by Pratt & Whitney (P&W),
boasted a displacement of 1340 cubic inches.
¡ The Wasp engine dominated various Navy and Army Air Force fighter
planes, as well as commercial transports, powering around 100 different
experimental and production airplanes, including the Boeing 40A, Boeing
F2B-1 shipboard fighters, and the Ford Tri-Motor.

41
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Radial Engine
¡ By the early 1930s, Pratt & Whitney expanded its radial engine offerings
to include twin-row radial engines.
¡ The twin Wasp, with 1830 cubic inches and 1350 horsepower, proved
highly successful, with a total production of 173,618 engines.
¡ Following this success, the Double Wasp, an 18-cylinder twin-row radial
engine with 2800 cubic inches of displacement, was introduced.

42
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Radial Engine
¡ Pratt & Whitney's radial engines, from the Wasp to the Double Wasp,
reached a production, licensing, and affiliation total of over 363,000
engines.
¡ The culmination of this lineage was the Wasp Major, a 28-cylinder radial
engine with a displacement of 4360 cubic inches and a power rating of
up to 4300 horsepower.

43
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Radial Engine
¡ With cylinders arranged in four rows spiraling for enhanced cooling, the
Wasp Major found primary application in heavy transport and bombers.
¡ Notable examples of its use include Boeing's large double-decked Strato-
cruiser, the 377, and the Air Force B-50, both powered by four Wasp
Major engines.

44
 Radial Engine
1.2.1.1
INTERMITTENT ¡ BMW 801 was the first German double-row radial
engine manufactured in 1940/1941. This Figures
COMBUSTION illustrates both rotary and radial piston engines.
ENGINE

(100 hp Gnome Rotary Engine) (P&W R985 Wasp Jr Radial Engine) 45

 1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

V-Type
¡ In a V-type engine, cylinders are organized
into two in-line banks, positioned at an angle
of 30-60 degrees apart from each other. The
predominant configuration for V engines
involves water cooling.
¡ A renowned illustration of this design is the
iconic Rolls Royce Merlin engine, a 27-liter 60-
degree V12 engine employed in significant
aircraft, including the Spitfires that played a
pivotal role in the Battle of Britain.

(The Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 piston aero engine) 46

1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Opposed Type
¡ An opposed-type engine features two sets of cylinders positioned on opposite
sides of a centrally located crankcase, with the ULPower UL260i serving as an
example.
¡ These engines can be either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, although the
prevalence is on air-cooled versions. In aircraft, opposed engines are typically
installed with the crankshaft positioned horizontally, while in helicopters, they
may have a vertical crankshaft orientation.

47
1.2.1.1 INTERMITTENT COMBUSTION ENGINE

Opposed Type
¡ The arrangement of cylinders leads to the cancellation of reciprocating forces,
resulting in a smoothly running engine.
¡ Opposed, air-cooled piston engines with four and six cylinders are the
predominant choice for small general aviation aircraft requiring up to 400
horsepower (300 kW) per engine.
¡ Aircraft with power requirements exceeding 400 horsepower (300 kW) per
engine commonly opt for turbine engines.

48
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

¡ Continuous combustion engines predominantly consist of turbine shaft

engines, incorporating turboprop, turboshaft, and propfan engines.
¡ These engines are distinguished by the presence of rotating elements
referred to as turbomachines, serving as sub-modules.
¡ These modules encompass fans, compressor(s), turbine(s), as well as
propellers/propfans.

49
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboprop
¡ Turboprop engines are utilized to power both civilian and military
transport aircraft with a cruise speed below 450 mph (700 km).
¡ These engines consist of a gas generator, encompassing a compressor,
combustion chamber, and turbine, along with a propeller.
¡ The turbine serves the dual purpose of driving both the compressor and
the propeller.

50
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboprop
¡ Due to the optimal spinning speed of gas turbines being high, a turboprop
incorporates a gearbox to reduce the shaft speed, preventing the propeller tips from
reaching supersonic speeds.
¡ An alternative design involves the addition of a second turbine to the turboprop
engine, which exclusively drives the propeller either directly or through a gearbox.
¡ In this configuration, the first turbine is dedicated to driving the compressor, allowing it
to rotate freely at its optimal speed, referred to as a free- or power-turbine, while the
other turbine is designated as the compressor-turbine.

51
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboprop
¡ Modern turboprop engines generate thrust from both the propeller and
the exhaust jet stream, with approximately 10–20% of the thrust
produced by the jet stream.
¡ Consequently, some individuals classify turboprops as jet engines or
reaction engines.

52
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION
ENGINES
Turboprop
¡ These Figures illustrates two types of turboprop
engines: the top image depicts a single-shafted
design with the propeller coupled to the
compressor-turbine shaft, while the bottom
image showcases the free turbine type.

(Two types of turboprop engine)53

1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboprop
¡ Turboprop engines are exemplified by models such as the Rolls-Royce T56, delivering
3460 shaft horsepower (shp) and utilized in P-3 Orion, C-130, and C-2A aircraft.
¡ Another illustration is the Rolls-Royce AE2100 engine, boasting a power range of
3600–6000 shp, and installed in C-27 J Spartan and ShinMaywa US-1A Kai aircraft.
¡ Additionally, the Rolls-Royce TP400-D6 engine, generating over 11,000 shp, finds
application in the Airbus Military A400M aircraft.

54
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboprop
¡ Among the earliest turboprop engines, the Pratt & Whitney T34 powered various aircraft,
including the B-17 flying testbed, KC-97 J, and Douglas C-133A Cargomaster.
¡ The PT6 turboprop engine, manufactured by Pratt & Whitney Canada, stands as the most
widely chosen power plant in its class, delivering 475–1650 horsepower.
¡ It has been selected for more than 130 different applications, including business, commuter,
trainer, and utility aircraft.
¡ General Electric also contributes to the field with its CT7 turboprop engines, notably powering
the Saab 340 and CASA/IPTN CN235.

55
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboshaft
¡ Turboshaft engines are primarily utilized in helicopters and auxiliary power units.
¡ The design of a turboshaft engine closely resembles that of a turboprop, with a
notable distinction: in a turboprop, the engine supports the propeller, and the entire
assembly is attached to the airframe.
¡ Conversely, in a turboshaft configuration, the engine does not directly provide physical
support to the helicopter's rotors. Instead, the rotor is linked to a transmission, which is
bolted to the airframe, and the turboshaft engine supplies power to the transmission
through a rotating shaft.

56
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION
ENGINES
Turboshaft
¡ While some view the difference as subtle, certain
(Seahawk helicopter)
aircraft manufacturers produce both turboprop
and turboshaft engines based on a common
design.
¡ An example of a turboshaft engine is the GE T700,
employed to power the Seahawk helicopter.

(GE T700 Turboshaft engine)

57
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboshaft
¡ Additional instances of turboshaft engines include the Rolls-Royce RTM322 (with
a power range of 2100–2550 shp, powering the AgustaWestland WAH-64
Apache), the Rolls-Royce Gnome (delivering 1175–1660 shp and used in the
AgustaWestland Sea King and Kawasaki/Boeing Vertol 107), and the T800
(providing 1360–1680 shp and propelling the AgustaWestland Super Lynx
300/3 CTS800).
¡ The T800 is manufactured by LHTEC, a joint venture between Rolls-Royce and
Honeywell.

58
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Turboshaft
¡ The GE T700, a historically significant turboshaft engine, propels the
Marine Corps "SuperCobra" crafted by Bell, military Sikorsky H-60, and
international variants of the Sikorsky S-70.
¡ In the commercial realm, the CT7, a derivative of the T700, serves as the
power source for the Bell 214ST, Sikorsky S-70C, and Westland WS-70.

59
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Propfan
¡ A propfan, also known as an unducted fan or, in the former Soviet Union, a
turbopropfan, represents a modified turbofan engine configuration where the
fan is positioned externally to the engine nacelle on the same axis as the
compressor blades.
¡ Propfans are alternatively referred to as ultra-high bypass (UHB) engines and,
more recently, open rotor jet engines. This design aims to combine the speed
and performance attributes of a turbofan with the fuel efficiency of a
turboprop.

60
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Propfan
¡ The propfan concept emerged as an effort to achieve superior fuel
efficiency compared to contemporary turbofans, albeit with a trade-off in
increased noise levels. Most propfans are still in the experimental phase.
¡ Examples of experimental engines include General Electric's GE36
Unducted Fan and Pratt & Whitney/Allison 578-DX.

61
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS
COMBUSTION
ENGINES

Propfan
¡ General Electric's GE36
Unducted Fan, depicted in
this Figure, represents a
variation on NASA's
original propfan concept
and bears a resemblance
to a pusher configuration
often seen in piston or
turboprop engines. (General electric GE-36 unducted fan (propfan) engine)

62
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Propfan
¡ McDonnell Douglas undertook the development of a proof-of-concept aircraft by
modifying its MD-80. This involved the removal of the JT8D turbofan engine from the
left side of the fuselage, which was then replaced with the GE36.
¡ The test flights, conducted in Mojave, CA, USA, and concluded in 1988, demonstrated
a noteworthy 30% reduction in fuel consumption compared to the turbofan-powered
MD-80, along with minimal levels of exterior and interior noise/vibration.
¡ Despite these promising results, the program was shelved by Douglas in the subsequent
year, influenced by a decline in jet-fuel prices and evolving marketing priorities.

63
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Propfan
¡ In the 1980s, Allison collaborated with Pratt & Whitney on the
development of the 578-DX propfan.
¡ Successful flight tests were conducted on a McDonnell Douglas MD-80.
¡ Regrettably, neither of these projects materialized into commercial
applications, primarily due to concerns related to excessive cabin noise (in
comparison to turbofans) and the prevailing low prices of fuel.

64
 1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Propfan
¡ The Ivchenko-Progress D-27
propfan, developed in the USSR,
features propfan blades
positioned at the front of the
engine in a tractor configuration,
as illustrated in this Figure.

(The Ivchenko-progress D-27 powering an-70 aircraft) 65

1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Propfan
¡ The propfans of the D-27 engine were utilized to propel the Antonov An-70.
¡ This three-shaft propfan engine has a propeller diameter of 4.5 meters and a
dry weight of 1650 kilograms (3638 pounds).
¡ Its gas generator comprises an axial low-pressure compressor, a mixed-flow
high-pressure compressor, an annular combustion chamber, a single-stage high-
pressure turbine, and a single-stage low-pressure turbine.

66
1.2.1.2 CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION ENGINES

Propfan
¡ The SV-27 contra-rotating propfan is driven by a four-stage turbine through a shaft
connected to a planetary reduction gear.
¡ Given the current high prices of jet fuel and the increasing emphasis on enhancing
engine/airframe efficiency to reduce emissions, there is a renewed interest in the
propfan concept for potential use in jetliners beyond the Boeing 787 and Airbus
A350XWB.
¡ For example, Airbus has patented aircraft designs featuring twin rear-mounted
counter-rotating propfans.

67
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

¡ The other primary category of internal combustion engines, known as

reaction engines, is further categorized into the athodyd (where athodyd
stands for Aero THermODYnamic Duct) or turbine types.
¡ The athodyd group encompasses ramjet, pulsejet, and scramjet engines,
while turbine engines comprise engines with turbomachinery modules,
covering all variations such as turbojet, turbofan, turbo ramjet, turbo
rocket, and advanced ducted fan engines.

68
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

¡ In essence, all reaction engines generate propulsive force as a reaction to

the jet exhaust gases.
¡ Common to all reaction types are three crucial modules: an entry duct
(sometimes referred to as an inlet duct or intake), a combustion chamber
or burner, and an exhaust nozzle.
¡ The exhaust nozzle(s) accelerate air/gases to speeds greater than the
flight speed, thereby generating thrust that propels the aircraft forward.

69
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

¡ The athodyd group comprises engines such as ramjet, pulsejet, and

scramjet, all of which lack significant rotating elements or turbomachinery.
¡ The pulsejet operates intermittently and has seen limited applications.

70
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

¡ In ramjet engines, the compression of air by ram action becomes adequate

to eliminate the necessity for mechanical compression.
¡ The ramjet engine is particularly suitable for supersonic flight speeds.
¡ When the flight speed is exceptionally high, requiring supersonic fuel
combustion, the ramjet is referred to as a scramjet.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Ramjet Engine
¡ A ramjet, sometimes colloquially known as a stovepipe jet, represents a type of
jet engine that utilizes the forward motion of the engine to admit and compress
incoming air, dispensing with the need for a rotary compressor.
¡ Ramjets are incapable of generating thrust at zero airspeed, making it
impossible to propel an aircraft from a standstill.
¡ The ramjet comprises three essential modules: an inlet duct, a burner or
combustor, and a nozzle.

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 Ramjet Engine
1.2.2 REACTION ¡ There are two types of ramjets: liquid-fuel and
ENGINES solid-fuel ramjets. Ramjet engines can operate
at either subsonic or supersonic speeds.

(Lorin’s and supersonic ramjet engines) 73

1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Ramjet Engine
¡ Subsonic ramjets do not require a sophisticated inlet, as the airflow is
already subsonic, typically utilizing a simple hole.
¡ In contrast, supersonic ramjets decelerate supersonic flow to subsonic
speeds at the inlet through one or more oblique shock waves, terminated
by a strong normal shock.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Ramjet Engine
¡ Consequently, air achieves subsonic velocities upon entering the combustion chamber.
¡ The combustor enhances the compressed air by introducing heat and mass through the
combustion of fuel.
¡ Within the combustion chamber, flame holders prevent the flames from extinguishing.
¡ A ramjet combustor can operate safely at stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratios, indicating a
combustor exit stagnation temperature on the order of 2400 K for kerosene.

75
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Ramjet Engine
¡ The resulting combustion products exit the combustion chamber and undergo
reacceleration through a nozzle, reaching supersonic velocities via a convergent-
divergent nozzle to generate thrust.
¡ In the case of a subsonically operating ramjet at flight Mach numbers, the
exhaust flow is accelerated through a converging nozzle.
¡ Supersonic ramjet engines exhibit optimal efficiency at speeds approximately
around Mach 3 and can operate at speeds of at least Mach 5.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Pulse Engine
¡ A pulse jet engine, often referred to as a pulsejet, is a straightforward form of
jet engine characterized by intermittent combustion pulses.
¡ Unlike ramjets, which employ a continuous combustion process, pulsejets utilize
intermittent combustion. These engines are distinctive due to their ability to
operate statically with minimal or no moving parts.
¡ They are known for their simplicity and cost-effectiveness, providing a favorable
balance between cost and function.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Pulse Engine
¡ Pulsejet engines can run on various petroleum grades, thanks to their ignition
shutter system. However, their noise levels are deemed unacceptable by modern
standards.
¡ Despite this drawback, they boast both higher efficiency and a remarkably high
thrust-to-weight ratio compared to other jet engines.
¡ Pulsejet engines can be manufactured in various sizes, ranging from a few
pounds to several thousand pounds of thrust.

78
1.2.2 REACTION
ENGINES

Pulse Engine
¡ There are two primary types of
pulsejet engines: valved (refer
to Fig. A) and valveless (refer
to Fig. B). Both types utilize
resonant combustion and
harness the expanding
combustion products to
generate a pulsating exhaust
jet, producing intermittent thrust.

(Figure A: Valved pulsejet operation)

79
1.2.2 REACTION
ENGINES

Pulse Engine
¡ There are two primary types of
pulsejet engines: valved (refer
to Fig. A) and valveless (refer
to Fig. B). Both types utilize
resonant combustion and
harness the expanding
combustion products to
generate a pulsating exhaust (Figure B: Valveless pulsejet)
jet, producing intermittent thrust.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Valved
¡ In valved engines, a mechanical one-way valve, typically a
straightforward leaf-spring type of shutter, is employed.
¡ When the valve is open, a new air charge is allowed to enter.
¡ This air mixes with the fuel, leading to an explosion that subsequently
closes the valve.

81
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Valved
¡ This closure forces the hot gas to exit solely through the tailpipe at the
rear of the engine, creating space for fresh air and additional fuel to
enter through the intake (refer to Fig. A).
¡ The superheated exhaust gases then exit through an acoustically resonant
exhaust pipe.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Valveless
¡ Valveless pulsejets, devoid of any moving parts, rely solely on their geometric
configuration to regulate the exhaust flow from the engine (refer to Fig. B).
¡ These engines expel exhaust through both the intakes and the exhaust, with the
objective of directing the majority of the exhaust through the longer tailpipe for
enhanced propulsion efficiency.
¡ The operation of valveless pulse jet engines is based on the same principle as
the valved type.

83
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Valveless
¡ The combustion process generates two shockwave fronts-one traveling
down the upper long tube and the other down the shorter lower tube.
¡ Through careful system "tuning," a resonating combustion process is
achieved, resulting in significant thrust.
¡ However, these engines exhibit high fuel consumption, and their noise
levels are considered unacceptable.

84
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Pulse Detonation Engine

¡ The pulse detonation engine (PDE) represents a novel approach to non-
continuous jet engines, offering the potential for superior fuel efficiency,
especially at very high speeds, even surpassing turbofan jet engines.
¡ Both Pratt & Whitney and General Electric are currently engaged in active PDE
research programs. In the early stages of the design process, many PDE
research programs employ pulsejet engines to test concepts and ideas.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Scramjet Engine
¡ A scramjet is an advancement of ramjets, capable of operating at significantly
higher speeds than ramjets or any other type of airbreathing engines.
¡ The term "Scramjet" stands for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, signifying the
combustion of fuel and air in a supersonic flow relative to the engine.
¡ Scramjets become operational at speeds of at least Mach 4, with a theoretical
maximum speed reaching Mach 17.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Scramjet Engine
¡ Experimental scramjet engines were developed and ground-tested in the USA and the
UK during the 1950s and 1960s, with subsequent tests in Australia in 1981.
¡ Currently, various countries, including Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Italy,
Japan, Russia, South Korea, and Sweden, have active hypersonic propulsion programs.
¡ However, no scramjet-powered vehicle has been produced outside experimental
programs. Scramjet engines have applications in recent hypersonic vehicles such as
rockets, future commercial transports in the twenty-first century, and single-stage-to-
orbit (SSTO) launchers.

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1.2.2 REACTION
ENGINES

Scramjet Engine
¡ Scramjets offer a highly
integrated engine-
vehicle design for
aircraft and missiles, with
the engine occupying the
entire lower surface of
the vehicle body.
(Scramjet engine)

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Scramjet Engine
¡ The propulsion system comprises five major engine components (internal
inlet, isolator, combustor, internal nozzle, and fuel supply subsystem) and
two vehicle components (the craft’s forebody, crucial for air induction, and
aft-body, a critical part of the nozzle component).

89
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Scramjet Engine
¡ Both hydrocarbon and hydrogen are used as fuels for scramjets. While scramjets
are mechanically simple, their aerodynamics are more complex than traditional
jet engines.
¡ They leverage the aircraft's speed to compress air, requiring minimal moving
parts. However, reaching the minimum functional speed necessitates acceleration
by another jet engine to hypersonic speed before the scramjet becomes active.

90
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Scramjet Engine
¡ The experimental Boeing or NASA X-43 holds the world speed record for a jet-
powered aircraft, achieving Mach 9.7, nearly 12,000 km/h (7000 mph) at an
altitude of about 36,000 m (110,000 ft) on November 16, 2004.
¡ Additionally, the Boeing X-51, also known as X-51 WaveRider, is an unmanned
scramjet demonstration aircraft that completed its first powered hypersonic
flight on May 26, 2010, lasting over 6 minutes and reaching speeds exceeding
Mach 5. On May 1, 2013, it achieved the longest-duration hypersonic flight for
210 seconds.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbine Engine
¡ The turbine engine category encompasses five types:
¡ turbojet, turbofan, turboramjet, turbo-rocket, and advanced ducted fan
engines.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbojet Engine
¡ A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine co-invented by Frank Whittle (in the
UK) and von Ohain (in Germany) in the thirties. It stands as the simplest among
all aircraft gas turbines.
¡ It incorporates one or more compressors to intake and compress air, a
combustion section that adds and ignites fuel, one or more turbines extracting
power from the expanding exhaust gases to drive the compressor(s) and
provide power to aircraft systems, and an exhaust nozzle accelerating the
exhaust for thrust creation. Each compressor is linked by a shaft to a turbine.

93
 Turbojet Engine
1.2.2 REACTION ¡ The compressor can be either axial or
ENGINES centrifugal in type.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbojet Engine
¡ The initial turbojet engines designed by Frank Whittle and von Ohain featured a
centrifugal compressor.
¡ All the turbines employed are of the axial type. Axial compressors and turbines consist
of multiple blade rows: some rotating, known as the rotor, and others stationary,
identified as the stator.
¡ Upon the introduction of turbojets, fighter aircraft equipped with them achieved a top
speed at least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-driven aircraft.

95
1.2.2 REACTION
ENGINES

Turbojet Engine
¡ To enable fighter
planes to achieve
supersonic speeds, an
afterburner is
incorporated into a
(Subsonic and supersonic turbojet engines)
core turbojet.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbojet Engine
¡ Activating the afterburner involves injecting extra fuel, which burns to generate
additional thrust.
¡ While this provides increased thrust, it also results in significantly higher fuel
consumption.
¡ When the afterburner is deactivated, the engine functions similarly to a basic
turbojet. Afterburners are exclusively employed in fighter planes and the
supersonic airliner Concorde.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbojet Engine
¡ It became evident that below approximately Mach 2, turbojets exhibited
significant fuel inefficiency and produced excessive noise.
¡ These disadvantages ultimately contributed to the decline of pure turbojets, with
only a few models still being manufactured. Consequently, turbojet engines were
succeeded by turbofan engines.
¡ The Concorde, the last airliner utilizing turbojets, achieved efficient turbojet
operation during its Mach-2 flights.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ The majority of modern airliners, troop and cargo transports, as well as
military aircraft, employ turbofan engines due to their high thrust and
excellent fuel efficiency.
¡ Similar to other gas turbines, these engines feature a core engine
resembling a turbojet, surrounded by a fan at the front (or rear for aft
turbofan engines) and an additional turbine at the rear.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ Both the fan and fan turbine consist of multiple blade rows connected to
an extra shaft.
¡ This configuration, known as a two-spool engine (one "spool" for the fan
and one "spool" for the core), involves some fan blades turning with the
shaft, while others remain stationary.
¡ Some advanced engines include additional spools for enhanced efficiency.

100
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ The incoming air is captured by the engine inlet.
¡ Part of this air passes through the fan and proceeds into the core
compressor and then the burner, where it mixes with fuel for combustion.
¡ The resulting hot exhaust moves through the core and fan turbines before
exiting through the nozzle, similar to a basic turbojet.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ The remaining incoming air bypasses the core, flowing around the engine, much
like air through a propeller.
¡ The air passing through the fan gains a slightly increased velocity from free
stream.
¡ Consequently, a turbofan derives thrust from both the core and the fan. The
ratio of air bypassing the core to the air passing through it is termed the bypass
ratio.

102
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ Engines with bypass ratios of 1–2 are generally categorized as low
bypass ratio turbofans, while high bypass turbofans, prevalent in current
transport aircraft, have bypass ratios continuously increasing, reaching 10
or more in some cases.

103
1.2.2 REACTION
ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ The diagram in this
Figure illustrates high
and low bypass ratio
turbofan engines.

(High and low bypass ratio turbofan engines)

104
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ Since the fuel flow rate for the core experiences only a minor change with
the addition of the fan, a turbofan generates more thrust for nearly the
same amount of fuel consumed by the core.
¡ This characteristic makes turbofans highly fuel-efficient, with high bypass
ratio turbofans approaching the fuel efficiency of turboprops.

105
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ Additionally, due to the enclosed design with multiple blades, the fan can
operate efficiently at higher speeds compared to a simple propeller.
¡ Therefore, turbofans are preferred for high-speed transports, while
propellers are employed on low-speed transports. Even low bypass ratio
turbofans exhibit higher fuel efficiency than basic turbojets.

106
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ Numerous contemporary fighter aircraft are equipped with low bypass ratio
turbofans featuring afterburners. This configuration enables efficient cruising
while maintaining high thrust during dogfights.
¡ Despite the aircraft's capability to achieve speeds surpassing the speed of
sound, the incoming air must travel at subsonic speeds for optimal efficiency.
¡ Consequently, the airplane's inlet is designed to decelerate the air from
supersonic velocities.

107
1.2.2 REACTION
ENGINES

Turbofan Engine
¡ This Figure depicts a
layout (A) and a
schematic diagram (B)
for an afterburning low
bypass ratio turbofan
engine.
(Low by-pass ratio afterburning turbofan)

108
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES
Turbo Ramjet Engine
¡ The turbo ramjet is a hybrid engine
designed to function as both a turbojet
and a ramjet, catering to high-speed
flight. This jet engine, illustrated in this
Figure, seamlessly integrates the
turbojet's capabilities for speeds up to
Mach 3 with the ramjet's superior
performance at higher Mach numbers.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbo Ramjet Engine

¡ Enclosed within a duct featuring a variable intake at the front and an
afterburning jet pipe with a variable nozzle at the rear, the engine
undergoes a dynamic transition during takeoff and acceleration.
¡ In these phases, it operates as a conventional turbojet with the afterburner
engaged. However, at other flight conditions below Mach 3, the
afterburner remains inactive.

110
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbo Ramjet Engine

¡ As the aircraft surpasses Mach 3, the turbojet is deactivated, redirecting
the intake air from the compressor, guided by vanes, directly into the
afterburning jet pipe, transforming it into a ramjet combustion chamber.
¡ This engine configuration is well-suited for aircraft requiring high speed
and sustained cruise conditions at elevated Mach numbers, operating
effectively in the ramjet mode.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbo Rocket Engine

¡ The turbo rocket, also known as the air turbo rocket (ATR) engine, represents a
unique airbreathing engine that combines features of both a jet engine and a
rocket.
¡ It falls under the broader category of Turbine-Based Combined-Cycle (TBCC)
engines, serving as an alternative to the turbo ramjet. However, a key distinction
lies in the fact that the ATR carries its own oxygen supply to facilitate combustion
at high speeds.

112
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES
TURBO ROCKET ENGINE

113
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbo Rocket Engine

¡ The engine features a low-pressure compressor, powered by a multi-stage turbine, with the
turbine being driven by the combustion of kerosene and liquid oxygen in a rocket-type
combustion chamber.
¡ Given the anticipated gas temperature of around 3500°C, additional fuel is introduced into
the combustion chamber for cooling before the gas enters the turbine.
¡ This fuel-rich mixture is then diluted with air from the compressor, and the excess fuel is burned
in a conventional afterburning system. The exhaust is directed through a convergent-divergent
propelling nozzle. In some ATR configurations, the hot gas can be generated through the
combustion of a solid propellant.

114
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Turbo Rocket Engine

¡ Despite being smaller and lighter than the turbo ramjet, the turborocket
exhibits higher fuel consumption.
¡ This characteristic makes it well-suited for interceptor or space-launcher
aircraft types that demand high-speed, high-altitude performance,
typically following an accelerative flight plan of short duration.

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1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Advanced Ducted Fan Engine

¡ Advanced ducted fans essentially resemble turbofans, featuring large
swept fan blades equipped with pitch control and reduction gearing
similar to propfans.
¡ However, these fans are enclosed in ducts akin to turbofan engines. The
bypass ratio for advanced ducted fans typically ranges from 15:1 to
25:1.

116
1.2.2 REACTION ENGINES

Advanced Ducted Fan Engine

¡ Two fundamental types exist: one incorporates a geared, variable-pitch,
single-propeller fan, while the other utilizes counter-rotating blades.
¡ Substantial research and development efforts have been undertaken by
aero engine manufacturing companies such as Pratt & Whitney, MTU, and
Fiat Avio in designing engines of this kind. Achieving such a high bypass
ratio necessitates a thin-lip, slim-line nacelle.

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LECTURE 1:
CHAPTER 1 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

1.1 External combustion engines

1.2 Internal combustion engines
1.3 Other engines.
1.3.1 Electric Powered Aircraft
1.3.2 Human Powered Aircraft

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1.3 OTHER ENGINES

¡ The third and final category of aircraft engines, classified as "others," is

further divided into human-powered and electric-powered engines.

119
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ An electric aircraft utilizes electric motors instead of internal combustion

engines, drawing power from sources such as fuel cells, solar cells, ultra-
capacitors, power beaming, and/or batteries.
¡ The advantages of electric aircraft include increased safety, reduced risk
of mechanical failure (e.g., from volcanic ash), lower likelihood of
explosion or fire in collisions, decreased noise, and zero emissions and
pollution.

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1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ However, a notable drawback is the reduced range, which can be

partially addressed by incorporating solar cells into the aircraft's
structure, resulting in a solar airplane.
¡ Electrically powered model aircraft, both manned and unmanned, have
been operational since the 1970s, with around 60 electric aircraft designs
emerging since the 1960s, including military drones.

121
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ The world's first solar-powered flight occurred on November 4, 1974, with

the 27 lb (12 kg) unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise.
¡ The improved Sunrise II flew on September 27, 1975, at Nellis AFB.
¡ The maiden manned solar-powered flight took place on April 29, 1979,
utilizing photovoltaic cells that produced 350 W at 30 V.

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1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ The Solar Challenger achieved an altitude record of 14,300 feet on July

7, 1981, and completed a 163-mile flight across the English Channel in
1981.
¡ The German Solair 1, featuring 2500 wing-mounted solar cells, flew for
the first time on August 21, 1983, followed by Solair II in May 1998.

123
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

(NASA Pathfinder)
124
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ NASA Pathfinder and Helios represented a series of solar and fuel cell
system-powered unmanned aircraft.
¡ In 1990, the solar-powered Sunseeker successfully crossed the USA,
relying on a small battery charged by wing-mounted solar cells for
takeoff and direct solar power during flight.
¡ The Sunseeker II, updated in 2005–2006, became the first solar-powered
aircraft to cross the Alps in 2009.

125
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

(SunSeeker II solar airplane)

126
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ China's initial solar-powered aircraft, "Soaring," was designed and

constructed in 1992, featuring a hand-built structure primarily composed
of carbon fiber, Kevlar, and wood.

127
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ On December 3, 2009, the Solar Impulse prototype undertook its first

brief test flight, covering a distance of 350 m.
¡ In its current configuration, the aircraft boasts a wingspan of 64 m, a
weight of 1588 kg, and is propelled by four 10-horsepower (7 kW)
electric motors, each driving a propeller.

128
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

(Solar impulse airplane)

129
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ The Solar Impulse harnesses sunlight through 12,000 photovoltaic cells

distributed on its wings and horizontal stabilizer.
¡ The energy generated by these solar cells is stored in lithium polymer
batteries, subsequently powering 3.5-m (11 ft) propellers rotating at
speeds ranging from 200 to 400 rpm.
¡ The take-off speed is 19 knots (35 km/h), while the cruising speed is
maintained at 60 knots (111 km/h).

130
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ On April 7, 2010, the aircraft achieved its first high-altitude flight,

ascending to 1200 m (3937 ft) during a 1.5-hour flight powered solely
by battery.
¡ In July 2010, the Solar Impulse's HB-SIA prototype marked a significant
milestone by completing its inaugural night flight attempt at Payerne
airport. Taking off at 06:51 am on July 7, the aircraft reached an altitude
of 8700 m (28,543 ft) by the day's end.

131
1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ Descending to 1500 m (4921 ft), it flew through the night using energy stored in
the batteries, charged during the day by the 12,000 solar cells, powering the
four electric motors. The flight concluded on July 8 at 09:00 am (GMT 2), lasting
26 hours and 9 minutes, setting a record for the longest and highest flight by a
solar plane.
¡ Subsequent achievements included successful solar-powered flights from
Switzerland to Spain and Morocco in 2012, as well as a multi-stage journey
across the United States in 2013.

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1.3.1 ELECTRIC POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ In 2014, Solar Impulse 2 was developed, equipped with additional solar cells
and more powerful motors. In March 2015, Solar Impulse 2 embarked on a
global circumnavigation attempt, commencing from Abu Dhabi in the United
Arab Emirates.
¡ By June 1, 2015, the plane had traversed Asia, and on July 3, 2015, it
completed its longest leg, flying from Japan to Hawaii. However, the aircraft's
batteries suffered thermal damage during this leg, necessitating months for
repairs.

133
1.3.2 HUMAN POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ A human-powered aircraft (HPA) is an aircraft that achieves sustained and

controlled flight solely through human power, typically generated by
pedaling, which activates a mechanism turning a propeller for propulsion.
¡ HPAs inevitably benefit from thermals or rising air currents. True HPAs
refrain from utilizing hybrid energy sources (such as solar energy, wound
rubber bands, fuel cells, etc.) for thrust.

134
1.3.2 HUMAN POWERED AIRCRAFT

(Human powered airplane)

135
1.3.2 HUMAN POWERED AIRCRAFT

¡ The first documented successful flight of an HPA occurred in 1936 with the
"Pedaliante," an aircraft constructed and designed in Italy.
¡ Since 2008, human-powered aircraft have achieved successful flights over
considerable distances. However, these aircraft are primarily designed as
engineering challenges rather than for recreational or utilitarian purposes.

136
SUMMARY

Chapter 1 provides an overview of aircraft propulsion systems, categorizing them into three main groups.
The first category, external combustion engines, includes steam engines, Stirling engines, and nuclear
engines. The second category, internal combustion engines, is further divided into shaft engines and
reaction engines. Shaft engines are classified into intermittent combustion and continuous combustion
engines. Lastly, the chapter explores other engines, specifically electric-powered aircraft and human-
powered aircraft. This classification serves as a foundation for understanding the diverse range of
propulsion systems used in aviation, spanning from traditional combustion engines to innovative electric and
human-powered solutions.
 Ho Chi Minh City
University of Technology

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

[email protected] A.R Abu Talib Abd.Rahim Abu Talib

138