The Punjab School

Khayaban-e-Jinnah GW
Science Class 7 Resource Material Chapter 1,2,3
Chapter 1 Heating and Cooling
Touch something hot and your senses immediately tell you to pull your hand away. Hotness is about the amount of
energy an object has. A spark from a firework maybe very hot but it will not hurt you very much because it does not
contain much heat energy. However, even though a cup of tea may not be very hot it can still burn the tongue because it
contains a lot of heat energy.
Temperature and heat:
Heat and temperature are not the same. Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is. It is measured in
degrees Celsius. The temperature is measured with thermometer.
Heat is a transfer of energy from a high temperature object to a low-temperature object. It is measured in joules or
kilojoules.
You already know that solids, liquids and gases are made up of tiny
particles. These particles are moving about all the time. The more energy
the particles have the more they move about. The opposite is also true as
they lose energy they move about less. This change in energy is what
heat is.
As solid cools heat energy is removed. The particles will move more
and more slowly until they stop moving altogether. The temperature at
which the particles stop moving is called absolute zero. Absolute
zero is the temperature at which a material has no heat energy. This
temperature is - 273° Celsius. The temperature scale starting from
absolute zero is called the Kelvin scale. It has degrees which are the
same size as degrees on the Celsius scale.
Heat is about moving particles:
You have learned that everything is made of particles called atoms and molecules. They are constantly on the move either
vibrating or moving freely. It is the motion of particles that creates form of energy called heat. The movement of particles
is affected by temperature. The higher the temperature the faster particles move. This is known as kinetic theory.
The Kinetic Theory can help explain how substances behave.
The loss or gaining of heat can change the state of matter.
Melting:
If a solid is warmed, its particles move faster until some break free and become a part of a liquid.
Evaporation:
If heat is applied to a liquid, the particles move faster still. At the surface the faster particles break free to form a gas
above it.
Condensing:
When heat energy is removed from a gas, it's temperature falls. The gas particles slow down and move close together.
Eventually they will come close enough to form a liquid.
Freezing:
As a liquid cools, the particles slow down. Eventually they will start to form a framework which is like that of a solid.
Mass is conserved:
In these changes of state, only the behavior of the particles changes. The actual particles remain the same all the time.
Therefore, the total mass of the substance never changes.
Transfer of heat:
Heat can be transferred from one place to another in three ways.
Conduction:
Heat can travel through solids. You will know this if you have ever tried stirring hot soup in a saucepan with a metal
spoon. Heat energy flows quickly from the soup through the spoon to your fingers, which soon begin to get hot. The
movement of heat through a solid such as a metal is called conduction.
The metal spoon conducts heat from the hot soup to your hand. Metals are the best conductors of heat because heat can
travel through them easily. Cooking utensils are made of metal so that the heat from the cooker can get to the food
quickly. Non-metal solids such as glass and plastic tends to be poor conductors and so do most liquids. Poor conductors of
heat are called insulators. Air is a very good insulator. Materials such as fur, feathers, wool, plastic, foam and glass or
mineral wool are good insulators because they contain pockets of trapped air.
Conduction and kinetic theory:
If one end of a metal bar is heated, the particles gain thermal energy and vibrate faster. This causes the particles next to
them to vibrate faster as well. Bit by bit increased vibration of particles is passed along the bar until the whole bar is hot.
Heat has been conducted along the bar. Copper is the best conductor of heat, it conducts heat 10 times better than iron.

Convection:
Liquids and gases maybe poor conductors of heat, but they can carry heat because their particles are free to move around.
Convection cannot happen in solids because the particles are held in a framework and cannot move around as they do in
liquids and gases. This happens when water is boiled in an electric kettle. The heating element in the kettle only warms
the water touching it. Warm water is less dense than cold water so the warm water rises. This is called convection. Cold
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water replaces the rising warm water and this, in turn, also becomes warm and rises. A continuous circulating stream is set
up in the kettle. This is called convection current.
Heat energy must travel through gases because a room can be warmed by a heater. Warm air is less than the cold air, so
the warm air above the heater rises and is replaced by denser cold air. A convection current is set up and air circulates
around the room.
Radiation:
When we cook food under a grill, heat must travel downwards from the heating element in the grill to the food.
This heat cannot be carried by convection because convection carries hot air upwards.
The heat cannot be conducted to the food because air is a bad conductor of heat.
So, there must be another way of moving heat to the food--- this is by radiation.
The heat travels as tiny electromagnetic waves called infrared waves. The hotter an object is; the more infrared radiation
it emits.
No particles are involved, unlike in the processes of conduction and convection, so radiation can even work through the
vacuum of space. This is why we can still feel the heat of the Sun, although it is 150 million kms away from the Earth.
Emitters and absorbers:
Some surfaces are better at emitting thermal radiation than others. Good
emitters of radiation are also good absorbers. White or silvery surfaces are
poor absorbers because they reflect most of the radiation. That is why in
hot, sunny countries houses are often painted white to keep them cool
inside.
The vacuum flask:
A vacuum or thermos flask can keep drinks hot or cold for hours. The flask
has a number of features which reduce the rate at which heat flows in or
out of it.
 The stopper reduces heat loss by convection and conduction.
 The space between the walls has the air removed (vacuum) so heat
loss by convection and conduction is reduced.
 The silver lining of the walls reduces heat loss by radiation.
The vacuum flask was designed and invented by Scottish scientist Sir
James Dewar in 1892. The thermos company was the first to mass
produce vacuum flasks for everyday use.
More about changing state:
You have already read about the Kinetic Theory for the way particles behave during melting, evaporation and condensing.
Let us see what happens when some crushed ice is heated. The ice is gently warmed until it melts. The heat is then turned
up until the water begins to boil. The temperature is taken every 30 seconds from start to finish.

What does the graph show?

Stage 1: The heat energy is raising the temperature of the ice up to 0° Celsius (melting point).
Stage 2: Here there is a very little temperature rise. The heat energy is being used to allow water molecules to break away
from their fixed positions in the ice. The solid is turning to a liquid.
Stage 3: The heat energy is raising the temperature of water up to 100° Celsius (boiling point).
Stage 4: Here there is no temperature rise. The heat energy is being used to allow water molecules to break free
completely. The liquid is changing to a gas.

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 Chapter 2 Plants and their systems
Plants are living organisms but not all plants look the same as each other. A tree is very different from a primrose and a
piece of pondweed looks nothing like a rose bush. However, they all have a similar structure.
Roots hold plant in place in the ground and also take in the water that is needed by the plant.
Stem is a plant’s main support above the ground. It holds the leaves so they can get light for
photosynthesis and the flowers to attract insects.
Leave are where plant makes its food during photosynthesis. Leaves come in all shapes and
sizes.
Flowers contain the reproductive organs of a plant. There are many types of flowers but most of
them have brightly coloured petals and are sweet smelling.
Buds are where growth starts. Growth takes place at the tips of roots and shoots.
Plant tissues and organs:
Plants are multicellular and are made up of different types of cells. Cells that do the same job
group together to make tissue.
For example, cells that contain chloroplast make photosynthetic tissues whose job is to carry
out photosynthesis.
Xylem tissue carries water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Phloem tissue carries food from the leaves to other parts of the plant protective tissue covers the surface of root stem and
leaves.
Different tissues combine to make an organ. These organs together make a plant which is an organism. An organism is
something that is able to survive on its own. A leaf is a plant organ whose job is to make food by photosynthesis. A leaf is
made from different issues that are xylem, phloem, protective and photosynthetic tissues.
Trees are the longest living organisms on the earth.
Transport in plants:
Roots and stems are plant organs which contain transport system of a plant. They have thin tubes inside them which carry
liquids up and down the plant. There are two kinds of tubes xylem and phloem, collectively called vascular tissues. Xylem
tubes carry water and minerals in solution from the soil up to the parts of the plant above the ground. They have thick and
strong walls which help the xylem support the plant. Xylem is a dead tissue. In plants such as trees new xylem is made
each year forming rings in the trunk. Xylem is wood.
The word xylem comes from the Greek word xylon which means wood.
Phloem tubes are made from living cells joined end to end. They carry sugar solution from the leaves, where it is made
during photosynthesis, to every other part of the plant. There are holes at the end of each phloem cell so sugar solution can
pass through. Sugar solution can go both up and down a phloem tube at the same time. Xylem and phloem tubes are
bundled together in vascular bundles.
Inside a root:
Root hairs give a big surface area to take in water and minerals from the soil. The growing root tip is protected by a root
cap. Sugar from the leaves moves down the phloem tubes. The sugar is used by the cells of the root in respiration. Water
and minerals move up the xylem tubes to the stem.
Leave:
Leaves are the food factories of the plants. They are where plant make food
during photosynthesis. Leaves are usually green, however the other colours
exist. Whatever their colour, all leaves contain chlorophyll the chemical that
absorbs light energy from the sun. Leaves are well adapted to do their job
They are broad and flat to absorb lots of light and exchange gases with the
surrounding air.
They are thin so gases can get to all the cells easily.
They have holes called the stomata to let gases get in and out from the
surrounding air.
They have lots of veins made from vascular bundles to carry water to
photosynthesizing cells and carry sugar away. Veins also help support the leaf.

Inside a leaf:
The upper skin of the leaf is transparent to let light through to the cells below.
It is covered by a layer of wax. This is called cuticle and it makes the leaf
waterproof. Chloroplast contain chlorophyll which absorbs the light energy
needed for photosynthesis. A tiny hole in the bottom skin is called a stoma.
Lots of holes are called stomata. Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells.
Transporting food:
Sugar is made in the leaves by photosynthesis. It mixes with water to make a strong sugar solution which is transported in
the phloem tubes out of the leaves and into the stem. From there it may go up to the growing shoot or down to the
roots. The speed and direction of the movement of sugar solution depends on how much is needed by the parts of the plant
and when. In Spring, when shoots are growing, most of the sugar solution goes to the growing shoots. In the autumn, a lot
of sugar is stored so it goes up to fruits and seeds or down to the roots.
Phloem tubes are underneath the bark of a tree. Sticky sap is sugar solution.
Sugar is stored in the roots as starch.

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Osmosis:
Moving water molecules:
Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. While diffusion can describe the movement of any kind of molecules, Osmosis is
only about the movement of water molecules.
The movement of water molecules from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration
across a partially permeable membrane is known as osmosis.
A partially permeable membrane has very tiny holes in it which only allows some molecules to pass through. Water
molecules will fit through these holes because they are very small. Large molecules, such as sugar molecules, are too big
to get through the holes. Osmosis is the process by which water enters and leaves the cells.

Experiment Showing Osmosis:

Transpiration:
Transpiration is a process by which a plant loses water from its leaves into the surrounding air. The water evaporates from
cells inside the leaf. Water vapour then passes out of the leaf mainly through the tiny holes called stomata. Stomata are
mainly found on the lower side of the leaf.
Controlling transpiration:
Each stroma is surrounded by two sausage shaped guard cells which control the size of the hole.
What affects the speed of transpiration?
The speed or rate of transpiration can be affected by a number of things.
Temperature: on warm days more water will evaporate from the leaf cells so transpiration will speed up.
Wind: on windy days’ water vapours will be blown away as it comes out through the stomata so the transpiration will
speed up.
Humidity: on dry days the air can hold more water vapours so transpiration will speed up.
Time of Day: stomata are only open during the day in most plants so transportation will be fastest during daytime.
Support in plants:
The leaves of a plant need to get as much light as they can for photosynthesis. Flowers must be held up in the air so they
can be pollinated by the wind or passing insects. Plants are supported by a framework of vascular bundles also called
veins. Cells within this framework are supported by the water pressure inside them. Xylem tubes in vascular bundles have
thick strong walls which makes them ideal for supporting a plant. They are like a skeleton running all through a plant
from the ends of the roots to the tips of the leaves.
Turgid cells and flaccid cells:
When a plant has plenty of water, the water will enter each of its cells by
osmosis. The water enters the vacuole causing the cell to expand. The cell
contents pushed out against the strong cellulose cell wall making the cell
turgid. Turgid cells give lot of support and each one is like a brick in a
wall. If a plant does not get a good supply of water, water leaves the cell,
causing them to go floppy or flaccid. Flaccid cells give no support and the
plant wilts.

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Flowers:
Flowers contain the plants male and female reproductive organs. There are many types of flowers but the more obvious
ones are usually brightly colored and sweet smelling to attract insects, birds and even bats. These animals come to feed on
the sugar in nectar stored at the base of the petals.
Parts of flower:
Petals are brightly coloured and have a scent to attract insects.
Nectar is made at the bottom of the petals. It is a sweet liquid that attract insects.
Sepals protect the flower when it is in bud.
The male reproductive organ is called the stamen which is made up of anther and pollen.
The female reproductive organ is called carpel which is made up of stigma, style and ovary.

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 Chapter 3 The Periodic Table
Introduction:
It is very difficult to imagine as small as an atom. 100 million of them side by side would only measure about 1 centimeter
across. Despite this, scientists have been able to find out a great deal about atoms. Scientists currently believe that an atom
consists of a dense nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The nucleus contains positively
charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.

Scientists have taken over 100 years to produce this atomic model and work is still going on. Below are some scientists
that made important discoveries about atoms:
Dalton’s atomic model:
John Dalton (1766-1844) was the first scientist who worked out that everything was made of atoms. Dalton found that
water could only evaporate into the air if air and water were made of particles that could mix together. Dalton then had the
idea that everything is made of particles which could not be broken down into anything smaller. He called these particles
atoms. Dalton also thought different atoms have different weights and did experiments to prove it.
Joseph John Thompson’s atomic model:
Joseph John Thompson (1856-1940) had the idea that there were particles
even smaller than the atom. Using a cathode ray tube, Thompson
discovered the existence of a subatomic particle electron. In Thompson
model most of the space in an atom is made up of positively charged
material with lots of tiny negatively charged electrons scattered through it.
Thompson’s model of the atom was called the ‘plum pudding model’.
Electrons are like negative plums embedded in a pudding of positive
matter.
Ernest Rutherford’s atomic model:
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1973) studied with JJ Thompson at the
Cambridge University in England. In 1911, Rutherford fired a beam of
positive particles against thin gold foil expecting them all to pass through.
However, some particles were repelled. Since positive particles can only be
repelled by something positive. Rutherford decided there must be a
positive bit in the center of each atom. Also this positive bit must be very
small, otherwise most of the particles would not have got through the gold
foil. Rutherford’s atomic model therefore had a tiny positively charged
nucleus with electrons whizzing about in the space around it.
Niels Bohr’s atomic model:
Niels Bohr (1885-1962) and Rutherford developed the atomic model further by suggesting that electrons orbit the nucleus
at high speed in fixed orbits around the nucleus. The Rutherford-Bohr atomic model helps us to explain the periodic table.
Chemical symbols:
Each element had its own unique symbol- a sort of chemical shorthand recognized all over the world. A chemical symbol
can be a capital letter e.g. C which is the symbol of element carbon or a capital letter followed by a lowercase letter.
Calcium for example has the symbol Ca which comes from the first two letters of its English name. Iron on the other hand
has the symbol Fe which comes from its Latin name ferrum. Other elements have symbols made up from their first letter
and one other letter in its name. Magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn) are examples of these.
Atomic number:
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Each element has a different atomic number. Elements
contain neutral atoms. Since protons are positively charged particles, there must be an equal number of negatively charged
electrons. So, the atomic number also tells us how many electrons the atom has.

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Mass number:
Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass. Electrons have a mass so
small it can be ignored. The mass of an atom depends on how many protons and
neutrons it has.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

The arrangement of electrons:

Bohr and Rutherford worked out a theoretical model for the atom in which the
electrons were arranged in layers around the nucleus. Each layer or shell can hold a
certain number of electrons. The first shell can hold a maximum of two electrons. The
second shell can hold a maximum of eight electrons, and the third shell can hold a
maximum of 18 electrons but it fills up to 8. The electrons build up from the first
shell, filling each one until all the electrons are in place. This means all the electrons
are as close to the nucleus as they can be.

What are ions?

In some chemical reactions the electrons that surround the nucleus move from one atom to another. An atom with one or
more additional electrons are called negative ions or anions. An atom which has lost one or more electrons is called a
positive ion or a cation. Metal atom loses electron in chemical reactions so their atoms become ions with a positive
charge. Non-metal atoms accept these extra electrons to become negatively charged ions.

The periodic table:

There are over 100 different elements each with different properties. The periodic table displays all the elements in the
order of their atomic numbers. The table has several rows called periods arranged on top of each other. As a result,
elements with similar properties are arranged in vertical columns called groups. The zigzag line at the right hand side of
the periodic table divides the metals and non-metals.

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Notice that hydrogen is outside the main table. It does not fit in any particular group.
The electron arrangements in the atoms explain why a new row starts when it does. An electron shell is full when it has
eight electrons in it. If another electron has to be added, it will to go into the next shell. This means that every element in
group 8 has eight electrons in its outermost cell. Every element in group one has one electron in the outer shell and so on.
The number of electrons in the outer shell of its atoms has a big effect on the way an element reacts. That is why elements
in the same group of the periodic table tend to react in the same way as each other. A full outer shell of eight electrons is a
very stable arrangement. Elements with full outer shells are very unreactive because the electrons tend to stay where they
are.
Alkali metals:
However, elements with one electron or with one space in their outer shell are very reactive. The elements in group 1 are
sometimes called the alkali metals. These are reactive because they have one electron in their outer shell.
Alkali metals such as sodium are soft and can be cut with a knife. They react violently with water. Sodium reacts with
water to make Sodium Hydroxide, an alkali.
Halogens:
Group VII of the periodic table contains the halogens. These are reactive elements because their atoms have one empty
space in their outer shell. Halogens are coloured gases and very poisonous.
Noble Gases:
The most famous group in the periodic table is group VIII also known as (groups 0), the noble gases. They are famous
because they do not react. This is because their outer electron shells are completely full.
Atoms and molecules and Formula:
Elements contain only one type of atom. However, sometimes two or more atoms join together to form a molecule. The
outer electron shells of these atoms are not full.
The atoms become more stable by joining together to form molecules of elements in compounds come in many different
shapes and sizes and can be represented by atomic diagrams, models, or a chemical formula.
A chemical formula of a molecule tells you the number of types of atoms a molecule contains. A formula is written as
the chemical symbols of the elements followed by a number which tells you the number of atoms.
The outer electrons of noble gases are completely full so they are atoms that cannot lose, gain, or
share electrons easily. This means these atoms cannot join together and so their molecules contain
just one atom.
Molecule of hydrogen contains two atoms of hydrogen joined together. Formula of hydrogen
gas is H2.
Combining elements:
To make compounds, elements combine during chemical reactions to fill up the outer shell of the
atoms. An atom is more stable when its outer shell is completely full. When two or more elements
join they form a compound.
Ionic compounds:
When an atom loses an electron to another atom, it changes. The loss of an electron leaves the atom with all its protons
but - 1 electron. This makes an atom with a positive charge, a positive Ion or cation.
When an atom gains an electron from another atom, it changes. The gain of an electron leaves the atom with all its protons
but + 1 electron. This makes an atom with a negative charge, a negative ion or anion.
Ionic Bond:
The bond formed between two atoms by the loss or gain of electrons is called an ionic bond.

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Sodium and chlorine:
Sodium is a reactive grey matter and chlorine is a smelly poisonous gas. When they react, electrons are lost by Sodium
and gained by chlorine. The reaction is vigorous. The ionic compound they form is a white crystal of sodium chloride that
is common salt. Sodium chloride is called an ionic compound. These ions are pulled close to each other by electrostatic
attraction. This is called an ionic bond.

Magnesium and oxygen:

Another pair of elements that forms ionic bond is magnesium and oxygen. Magnesium is a grey matter and oxygen is a
colourless gas. Magnesium burns in oxygen with a bright white flame. During the reaction to electrons are lost by
magnesium and gained by oxygen. A white solid ionic compound called magnesium oxide is produced.

Covalent bond:
Covalent compounds are formed when an atom complete its outer shell by sharing
electrons with each other. The bond formed after sharing of electrons is called a covalent
bond.
Chlorine molecule:
In the outer shell of chlorine atom there are 7 electrons, 3 pairs and a single electron.
Two chlorine atoms can share their single electrons as a pair. The combined
chlorine atoms form a chlorine molecule.
Formation of water:
A water molecule is made when two hydrogen atoms share their electrons with one
oxygen atom. This gives each hydrogen atom 2 electrons, and oxygen now has 8 electrons in its outer shell.