Atomic Structure Notes
1. Introduction to Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. Atoms
consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting around the
nucleus. Understanding the structure of atoms is crucial in chemistry as it explains how
elements interact in chemical reactions.
Historical Models of the Atom
1. Dalton's Model: John Dalton proposed that atoms were indivisible and indestructible
particles, the smallest units of matter, and each element had its unique type of atom.
2. Thomson's Model: J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the 'plum pudding'
model, where electrons were embedded in a positively charged 'soup'.
3. Rutherford's Model: Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment led to the discovery of the
nucleus. He proposed that atoms have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus
surrounded by electrons.
4. Bohr's Model: Niels Bohr suggested that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy
levels or shells, and can jump between levels, emitting or absorbing energy in the form of
light.
2. Subatomic Particles
Atoms are composed of three main subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
1. Protons: Positively charged particles located in the nucleus. They have a relative mass of
1 atomic mass unit (amu).
2. Neutrons: Neutrally charged particles also found in the nucleus. They have a similar mass
to protons.
3. Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus. They have a negligible
mass compared to protons and neutrons.
3. Atomic Number and Mass Number
1. Atomic Number: The number of protons in an atom, which defines the element. For
example, carbon has an atomic number of 6, meaning it has 6 protons.
2. Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus. It gives an
approximation of the atom's mass. Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers.
4. Electron Configuration
Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus. The distribution of
electrons in these shells determines the chemical properties of an element.
1. Aufbau Principle: Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals first.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons can have the same set of four quantum
numbers, meaning each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins.
3. Hund's Rule: Electrons will fill degenerate orbitals (orbitals of the same energy) singly
before pairing up.
5. Periodic Table and Atomic Structure
The periodic table organizes elements based on their atomic number and electron
configuration, which leads to periodic trends in properties such as atomic radius, ionization
energy, and electronegativity.
1. Atomic Radius: Generally decreases across a period (left to right) and increases down a
group (top to bottom).
2. Ionization Energy: The energy required to remove an electron from an atom. It generally
increases across a period and decreases down a group.
3. Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons in a bond. It generally
increases across a period and decreases down a group.
6. Models and Theories
1. Bohr's Model: Proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels, with
energy being emitted or absorbed when electrons jump between levels.
2. Quantum Mechanical Model: The modern model of the atom, which describes electrons as
wavefunctions rather than particles in specific orbits. Electrons occupy orbitals, which are
regions of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron.
3. Orbitals: Orbitals come in different shapes and are labeled as s, p, d, and f. The s-orbital is
spherical, the p-orbital is dumbbell-shaped, and d and f orbitals have more complex shapes.
7. Chemical Bonds and Atomic Structure
The chemical behavior of atoms is largely determined by their valence electrons, the
electrons in the outermost shell.
1. Covalent Bonds: Formed when atoms share electrons to achieve a full outer shell.
2. Ionic Bonds: Formed when one atom donates an electron to another atom, resulting in
positively and negatively charged ions that are attracted to each other.
