Atomic Structure: Orbitals

and Electronic Configuration

Learning Objectives
•Describe the structure of the atom.
•State the location, relative charge, and atomic mass of the sub-atomic particles.
• Define basic terms in relation to an atom.
•Understand the chemical properties of atoms in relation to their states within the
body and in drugs.
• Apply the understanding of atomic structure to explain the key concepts in
chemical structure , bonding, reactions .
• Describe different kinds of bonding existing in molecules and how bonding
influences molecular shapes.
Structure of an Atom
• An atom is not the smallest particle of matter

• Atoms are the basic unit of matter

• All atoms are made up of subatomic particles which are identical in all atoms
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• It is the way in which these subatomic particles are put together which determine
the properties and type of atom that is formed
• There are a number of different subatomic particles of which there are three that
we concern ourselves with:
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass. However, one proton
weighs more than 1,800 electrons.

• Atoms always have an equal number of protons and electrons, and the number of
protons and neutrons is usually the same as well.

• Adding a proton to an atom makes a new element, while adding a neutron makes
an isotope, or heavier version, of that atom.
3 • Facts About Sub-Atomic Particles
• The location, charge, and atomic mass of sub-atomic particles
are how they are distinguished.
• These masses and charges are so small (e.g. mass of proton =
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 67 kg), that we use
new units more suitable.
• For mass, we use atomic mass units (u) and for charge,
• we use elementary charge.

Particle Location Charge Atomic

Proton Nucleus + Mass1
Neutron Nucleus 01 1

1
Electron Outside the -1
nucleus 1850
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• The number of protons in an atom determines the identity and to a large extent the
chemical properties of an atom

• The number of protons is known as the Atomic Number

Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• All atoms which have the same number of protons will have very similar chemical
properties and are considered the same element. There are currently discovered
atoms that contain up to 118 protons.
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• Protons have a charge of +1 and a relative mass of 1 AMU.

• Neutrons have a charge of 0 and a relative mass of 1 AMU.

• Electrons have a charge of -1 and a relative mass of 0 AMU.

Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• The number of neutrons can vary and will affect the mass, but not the identity, of
an atom. The chemical properties may vary slightly but will be very similar.
• Atomic Mass= Number of protons + Number of neutrons

• Atoms of an element which have a different atomic mass are called Isotopes.
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• The average atomic masses given on the periodic table are a weighted average of
the different naturally occurring isotopes of an element.

• http://www.chemicalelements.com/show/mass.html
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• The entire atomic mass is made up of only protons and neutrons and therefore the
number of neutrons can be found by taking the mass and subtracting the number
of protons.
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• An electrically neutral atom will always have the same number of positively
charged protons and negatively charged electrons.

• If the number of protons and electrons is not equal, then it is referred to as an ion.
Structure of an Atom Cont’d
• Ions can be either negatively charged if they have more electrons than protons, or
they can be positively charged if they have more protons than electrons.
Structure of an Atom Cont’d

• Protons and neutrons (and therefore

all of the mass) are located in the
center of the atom in a region called
the nucleus.
• Neutrons act as a type of “insulation”
between the protons, preventing
them from repelling each other.
Atomic Structure Notes

• Protons and neutrons vibrate, but are

basically motionless.
• The nucleus is very tiny compared to
the atom as a whole, taking up less
than 1% of the total volume
• http://www.phrenopolis.com/perspect
ive/atom/#electron
Atomic Structure Notes
• Electrons are located relatively far from
the nucleus in “energy levels” where they
move randomly at very high speeds
creating “shells”

• These “electron clouds” make up more

than 99% of the volume of an atom, but
almost none of the mass.
• The number of protons that an atom has in its nucleus is called the atomic number.

• The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is known as
the mass number.

• For example, a carbon atom containing six protons and six neutrons has a mass
number of 12.
Atomic Models
• There are two models of atomic structure in use today: the Bohr model and the
quantum mechanical model.
• Neil's Bohr presented his atomic model retaining the basic idea of Rutherford’s
model. The important postulates are:
• 1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite, closed, circular paths called
orbits.
• 2. Each orbit is associated with a definite amount of energy therefore also called
as energy level or shells.
• 3. These orbits or energy levels are numbered 1,2,3,4….. or K,L,M,N…. from
inside onwards. Bigger the orbit, greater is the energy associated with it.
Atomic Models Cont’d
The energy of an electron is quantized, meaning electrons can have one energy level
or another but nothing in between.

•The energy level an electron normally occupies is called its ground state.
•But it can move to a higher-energy, less-stable level, or shell, by absorbing energy.
•
•This higher-energy, less-stable state is called the electron’s excited state.

•After it’s done being excited, the electron can return to its original ground state by
releasing the energy it has absorbed, as shown in the diagram above
Atomic Models Cont’d
• Sometimes the energy released by electrons occupies the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum (the range of wavelengths of energy) that humans detect
as visible light.
• Slight variations in the amount of the energy are seen as light of different colors.
• Electrons lose or gain energy by jumping from one allowed orbital to another,
absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with frequency (v) determined by
the energy difference of the levels according to planck relation; E = hν
• E is the energy of each packet (or 'quanta') of light, measured in Joules; v is the
frequency of light, measured in hertz; and h is of course Planck's constant
Atomic Models Cont’d
• Bohr found that the closer an electron is to the nucleus, the less energy it needs,
but the farther away it is, the more energy it needs.
• Bohr numbered the electron’s energy levels. The higher the energy-level number,
the farther away the electron is from the nucleus — and the higher the energy.

• Bohr also found that the various energy levels can hold differing numbers of
electrons: energy level 1 may hold up to 2 electrons, energy level 2 may hold up
to 8 electrons, and so on.
Atomic Models Cont’d
• The Bohr model works well for very simple atoms such as hydrogen (which has 1
electron) but not for more complex atoms.

• Although the Bohr model is still used today, especially in elementary textbooks, a
more sophisticated (and complex) model — the quantum mechanical model — is
used much more frequently.
Atomic Structure: The Quantum Mechanical
Model
• The quantum mechanical model is based on mathematics.
• It is based on quantum theory, which says matter also has properties associated
with waves.
• According to quantum theory, it’s impossible to know the exact position and
momentum of an electron at the same time. This is known as the Uncertainty
Principle.
• The quantum mechanical model of the atom uses complex shapes of orbitals
(sometimes called electron clouds), volumes of space in which there is likely to be
an electron. So, this model is based on probability rather than certainty.
Four numbers, called quantum numbers, were introduced to describe the
characteristics of electrons and their orbitals:

•Principal quantum number (n)

•Angular momentum quantum number (l)

•Magnetic quantum number (m1)

•Spin quantum number (ms)

The principal quantum number

• The principal quantum number (n) describes the average distance of the orbital
from the nucleus and the energy of the electron in an atom. It can have positive
integer (whole number) values: 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.

• The larger the value of n, the higher the energy and the larger the orbital.

• Chemists sometimes call the orbitals, electron shells.

The angular momentum quantum number

• The angular momentum quantum number (l) describes the shape of the orbital.
• the shape is limited by the principal quantum number (n).
• The angular momentum quantum number (l) can have positive integer values from
0 to n–1. For example, if the n value is 3, three values are allowed for l: 0, 1, and
2.
• Orbitals that have the same value of n but different values of l are called subshells.
These subshells are given different letters to help chemists distinguish them from
each other.
• The table below shows the letters corresponding to the different values of l.
The angular momentum quantum number Cont’d

Value of l (subshell) Letter

0 s
1 p
2 d
3 f
4 g
The following figure shows the shapes of the s, p, and d orbitals.
• When chemists describe one particular subshell in an atom, they can use both the
n value and the subshell letter — 2p, 3d, and so on.

• Normally, a subshell value of 4 is the largest needed to describe a particular

subshell. If chemists ever need a larger value, they can create subshell numbers
and letters.

• As shown in the top row of the figure (a), there are two s orbitals — one for
energy level 1 (1s) and the other for energy level 2 (2s).
• The s orbitals are spherical with the nucleus at the center. Notice that the 2s orbital
is larger in diameter than the 1s orbital.

• In large atoms, the 1s orbital is nestled inside the 2s, just like the 2p is nestled
inside the 3p.

• The second row of the figure (b) shows the shapes of the p orbitals

• the last two rows (c) show the shapes of the d orbitals. Notice that the shapes get
progressively more complex.
The magnetic quantum number
• This number describes how the various orbitals are oriented in space. The value of
this number depends on the value of l.
• The values allowed are integers from –l to 0 to +l. For example, if the value of l =
1 (p orbital), you can write three values for this number: –1, 0, and +1.
• This means that there are three different p subshells for a particular orbital. The
subshells have the same energy but different orientations in space.

• The second row (b) of the figure shows how the p orbitals are oriented in space.
Notice that the three p orbitals correspond to magnetic quantum number values of
–1, 0, and +1, oriented along the x, y, and z axes.
The spin quantum number

• This number describes the direction the electron is spinning in a magnetic field ie
either clockwise or counter clockwise.

• Only two values are allowed: +1/2 or –1/2. For each subshell, there can be only
two electrons, one with a spin of +1/2 and another with a spin of –1/2.
Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals
Aufbau Principle: Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest
energy orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom
have been accounted for. Because a 1s orbital is closer to the
nucleus it is lower in energy than a 2s orbital, which is lower in energy
than a 3s orbital.

Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can hold a maximum of two

electrons. To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must spin in
opposite directions. For example, the two electrons of a helium atom
must occupy the
1s orbital in opposite spins.
Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals Cont’d
Hund’s Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a maximum
number of unpaired electrons results.

When degenerate orbitals (orbitals that have same energy) are present but not
enough electrons are available to fill all the shell completely, then a single
electron will occupy an empty orbital first before it will pair up with another
electron.

This is understandable, as it takes energy to pair up electrons.

Electron Configurations
Orbital Filling
Electron
Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration

H 1s1

He 1s2

Li 1s22s1

C 1s22s22p2

N 1s22s22p3

O 1s22s22p4

F 1s22s22p5

Ne 1s22s22p6

Na 1s22s22p63s1
 8
O
Notation 15.9994

• Orbital Diagram

O
8e- 1s 2s 2p
• Electron Configuration

1s 2s 2p 2 2 4
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
 16
S
Notation 32.066

• Longhand Configuration

S 16e -
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 4

Core Electrons Valence Electrons

• Shorthand Configuration

S 16e -
[Ne] 3s 3p 2 4
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
 Energy Level Diagram of a Many-
Electron Atom
6s 6p 5d 4f

32

5s 5p 4d

18

4s 4p 3d

18
Arbitrary
Energy Scale
3s 3p

2s 2p

1s

NUCLEUS
O’Connor, Davis, MacNab, McClellan, CHEMISTRY Experiments and Principles 1982, page 177
 Maximum Number of Electrons Maximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel

In Each Sublevel
Maximum Number
Sublevel Number of Orbitals of Electrons

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

LeMay Jr, Beall, Robblee, Brower, Chemistry Connections to Our Changing World , 1996, page 146
Quantum Numbers

n shell 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
l subshell 0, 1, 2, ... n - 1
ml orbital - l ... 0 ... +l
ms electron spin +1/2 and - 1/2
Order in which subshells are filled
with electrons
1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d …
2 10
The Periodic Table
 Across the Periodic Table
• Periods: Are arranged horizontally across the
periodic table (rows 1-7)
• These elements have the same number of valence shells.
1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
2nd Period
2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

5
6th Period
6

7
 Down the Periodic Table
•Family: Are arranged vertically down the periodic table (columns or group,
1- 18 or 1-8 A,B)
•These elements have the same number electrons in the outer most shells, the valence shell.

1 18
IA VIIIA
2 Alkali
AlkaliFamily:
Family: 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
11e-e-ininthe
thevalence
valenceshell
shell
2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

4
Halogen
HalogenFamily:
Family:
5 77e-e- ininthe
thevalence
valenceshell
shell

7
Infamous Families of the Periodic Table
• Notable families of the Periodic Table and some important members:
Alkali Halogen
Noble Gas
Alkaline Chalcogens
1
IA
(earth) 18
VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA Transition Metals IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

7
 Important members - the Elements
• Individual members of selected Elements & their characteristics
1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1
H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
2
Li C N O F
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3
Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl
4
K Ca Fe Cu Zn Br
5
Ag I
6

7
 Periodic Table
e- configuration from the periodic periodic table
(To be covered in future chapters)

1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1s1 1s2
2 Li Be B •CB N O F Ne
2s1 2s2 2p1 •2p
2p21 2p3 2p4 2p5 2p6
Na 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
3s1 3s2 3p1 3p2 3p3 3p4 3p5 3p6
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Be Kr
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 4s13d5 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 4s13d10 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Ni Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5s1 5s2 4d1 4d2 4d3 5s14d5 4d5 4d6 4d7 4d8 5s14d10 4d 10
5p1 5p2 5p3 5p4 5p5 5p6
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Ni Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6s1 6s2 5d1 5d2 5d3 6s15d5 5d5 5d6 5d7 5d8 6s15d10 5d 10
6p1 6p2 6p3 6p4 6p5 6p6
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
7s1 7s2 6d1 6d2 6d3 7s16d5 6d5 6d6 6d7
Periodic Table: electron behavior
• The periodic table can be classified by the behavior of their electrons

West (South) Mid-plains East (North)

METALS METALLOID NON-METALS
Alkali Noble gas
Alkaline Halogens
Transition Calcogens
1
IA These elements These elements These elements 18
VIIIA
1
2
IIA tend to give up will give up e- or tend to accept
13
IIIA
14
IVA
15
VA
16
VIA
17
VIIA
e - and form accept e- e - and form
2
CATIONS ANIONS
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

7
Development of the Periodic Table

• Mendeleev developed periodic table to group elements in

terms of chemical properties.
• Alkali metals develop +1 charge, alkaline earth metals + 2
• Nonmetals usually develop negative charge (1 for halides, 2
for group 6A, etc.)
• Blank spots where elements should be were observed.
Discovery of elements with correct properties.
Periodic Properties

• Periodic law = elements arranged by atomic number gives

physical and chemical properties varying periodically.

• We will study the following periodic trends:

• Atomic radii
• Ionization energy
• Ionic radii
• electronegativity
• Electron affinity
The Periodic Table: Families and Periods

• In the periodic table of elements, there are seven horizontal rows of elements
called periods.

• The vertical columns of elements are called groups, or families.

Periods in the periodic table

• In each period (horizontal row), the atomic numbers increase from left to right.
The periods are numbered 1 through 7 on the left-hand side of the table.
• Elements that are in the same period have chemical properties that are not all that
similar.
• Consider the first two members of period 3: sodium (Na) and magnesium (Mg). In
reactions, they both tend to lose electrons (after all, they are metals), but sodium
loses one electron, while magnesium loses two.

• Chlorine (Cl), down near the end of the period, tends to gain an electron (it’s a
non - metal).
Families in the periodic table

• Members of the families (vertical columns) in the periodic table have similar
properties. The families are labelled at the top of the columns in one of two ways:
• The older method uses Roman numerals and letters. Many chemists prefer and
still use this method.
• The newer method uses the numbers 1 through 18.
• So why do the elements in the same family have similar properties? You can
examine four families on the periodic table and look at the electron configurations
for a few elements in each family.
• The figure below lists some important families that are given special names:
• The IA family is made up of the alkali metals. In reactions, these elements all tend to lose a single
electron.

• This family contains some important elements, such as sodium (Na) and potassium (K). Both of
these elements play an important role in the chemistry of the body and are commonly found in
salts.

• The IIA family is made up of the alkaline earth metals. All these elements tend to lose two
electrons. Calcium (Ca) is an important member of the IIA family (you need calcium for healthy
teeth and bones).

• The VIIA family is made up of the halogens. They all tend to gain a single electron in reactions.
Important members in the family include chlorine (Cl), used in making table salt and bleach, and
iodine (I).
• The VIIIA family is made up of the noble gases. These elements are very
unreactive.
• For a long time, the noble gases were called the inert gases, because people
thought that these elements wouldn’t react at all.

• A scientist named Neil Bartlett showed that at least some of the inert gases could
be reacted, but they required very special conditions.

• After Bartlett’s discovery, the gases were then referred to as noble gases.
Valence electrons and families
• An electron configuration shows the number of electrons in each orbital in a particular atom.

• These electron configurations show that there are some similarities among each group of
elements in terms of their valence electrons.

• The IA family has 1 valence electron; the IIA family has 2 valence electrons; the VIIA family
has 7 valence electrons; and the VIIIA family has 8 valence electrons
• The Roman numeral gives the number of valence electrons.

• It makes it very easy to determine that oxygen (O) has six valence electrons (it’s in the VIA
family), that silicon (Si) has four, and so on. You don’t even have to write the electronic
configuration or the energy diagram to determine the number of valence electrons.
 PERIODIC TABLE: Organization
• Rows are called periods.
• Periods: Are arranged horizontally across the periodic table (rows 1-7)
• These elements have the same number of valence shells.
• Periods 1 ,2 and 3 are called short periods, the remaining are long Periods.
• Periods 4 and 5 containing a series of transition elements whilst 6 and 7 contain
both a1 transition and a ‘rare earth’ series. 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
2nd Period
2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

5
6th Period
6

7
 PERIODIC TABLE: Basic understanding
• Columns are called families or groups.
• Groups: Are arranged vertically down the periodic table (1- 18 or 1-8 A,B)
• These elements have the same number electrons in the outer most shells, the valence
shell hence similar properties
1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

7
Various schemes have been used to label the groups
 PERIODIC TABLE: Classification
1 18
p-block

IA VIIIA
2
s-block 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

2
d-block
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

7
f-block

The Periodic Table can be arrange by subshells. The s-block is Group IA and &
IIA, the p-block is Group IIIA - VIIIA. The d-block is the transition metals, and the
f-block are the Lanthanides and Actinide metals
PERIODIC TABLE: Classification
• The three broad Classes:
• Main (Representative), Transition metals, lanthanides and actinides (rare earth)
 PERIODIC TABLE: Classification
• Several of the groups have names in addition to a number.
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
NaMg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr NbMo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo HaMe

Ce Pr Nd PmSmEu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er TmYb Lu
Th Pa U Np PuAmCmBk Cf Es FmMd No Lr
The Alkali Metals The Halogens
The Alkaline
The Noble Gases
Earth Metals
 PERIODIC TABLE: Classification
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
NaMg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V CrMn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa U Np PuAmCm Bk Cf Es FmMd No Lr

Boron family Nitrogen family

Carbon Family Oxygen Family
 PERIODIC TABLE
• The elements in the periodic table based on their metallic
characteristics are also divided into three broad categories:
• Metals Nonmetal Metalloids
 Classification of elements
• Metallic elements are characterized by the following properties under ordinary conditions:
• High electrical and thermal conductivity .
• They tend to be malleable (capable of being shaped by hammering) or ductile (capable of being drawn out in a wire).
• All but mercury (Hg) are shiny solids at room temperature.
• high lustre, high opacity over the visible spectrum;

• Non metals: among them tend to be brittle, and bromine is a low-boiling liquid.
• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• most are gases at room temperature, the solids
• no lustre, high transparency over the visible spectrum;
• low electrical and thermal conductivity.

• Metalloids or semimetals:
• They tend to have properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals.
• high opacity over the visible spectrum, little or no lustre;
• intermediate electrical conductivity.
• Elements are organized in the periodic table according to their physical
characteristics and chemical behaviours.
• The representative elements in group one are called the alkali metals, and they
each possess only one valence electron in their outermost electron shell.
• The alkali metals are soft, lustrous metals that are highly conductive. The reaction
of these elements with water is very exothermic and can even produce fire or an
explosion.
• Group two representative elements are called the alkaline earth metals. These
elements are harder than the alkali metals in group one.
• The extent to which the alkaline earth metals react with water increases while
moving down the periodic table. Beryllium, for example, is unable to react with
water at all, while magnesium reacts with steam, but not water in the liquid phase.
• From calcium downward, the alkaline earth metals react with room-temperature
water, but the reaction is slower and not as violent as a reaction with a group one
alkali metal.
• Many of the representative elements on the right side of the periodic table are
nonmetals. The nonmetals in group 18 are called the noble gases, and they mostly
do not form bonds with other elements because their electron configurations are
stable on their own, although there are exceptions.
• Transition metals
• Transition metals can use the two outermost shells/orbitals to bond with other
elements. It's a chemical trait that allows them to bond with many elements in a
variety of shapes.

• Example: Molybdenum (Mo), with 42 electrons. The configuration is 2-8-18-13-1.

The shells with 13 and 1 are desiring more electrons. Those two orbitals can use
the electrons to bond with other atoms.
• The general properties of the transition elements are
• They are usually high melting point metals.
• They have several oxidation states.
• They usually form coloured compounds.
• They are often paramagnetic.
• The transition elements include the important metals iron, copper and silver. Iron
and titanium are the most abundant transition elements. Many catalysts for
industrial reactions involve transition elements.
Alkali Metals

• The alkali family is found in the

first column of the periodic
table.
• Atoms of the alkali metals have
a single electron in their
outermost level, in other words,
1 valence electron.
• They are shiny, have the
consistency of clay, and are
easily cut with a knife.
Alkali Metals

• They are the most reactive

metals.
• They react violently with water.
• Alkali metals are never found
as free elements in nature. They
are always bonded with another
element.
What does it mean to be reactive?
• We will be describing elements according to their reactivity.
• Elements that are reactive bond easily with other elements to make compounds.
• Some elements are only found in nature bonded with other elements.
• What makes an element reactive?
• An incomplete valence electron level.
• All atoms (except hydrogen) want to have 8 electrons in their very outermost
energy level (This is called the rule of octet.)
• Atoms bond until this level is complete. Atoms with few valence electrons
lose them during bonding. Atoms with 6, 7, or 8 valence electrons gain
electrons during bonding.
5
Alkaline Earth Metals

• They are never found uncombined in nature.

• They have two valence electrons.
• Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and calcium, among others.
Transition Metals

• Transition Elements include those

elements in the B families.
• These are the metals you are
probably most familiar: copper, tin,
zinc, iron, nickel, gold, and silver.
• They are good conductors of heat
and electricity.
Transition Metals

• The compounds of transition metals are usually brightly colored and are often
used to color paints.
• Transition elements have 1 or 2 valence electrons, which they lose when they
form bonds with other atoms. Some transition elements can lose electrons in
their next-to-outermost level.
Transition Elements
• Transition elements have properties similar to one another and to other metals, but
their properties do not fit in with those of any other family.
• Many transition metals combine chemically with oxygen to form compounds
called oxides.
Boron Family

• The Boron Family is named

after the first element in the
family.
• Atoms in this family have 3
valence electrons.
• This family includes a
metalloid (boron), and the rest
are metals.
• This family includes the most
abundant metal in the earth’s
crust (aluminum).
Carbon Family

• Atoms of this family have 4

valence electrons.
• This family includes a non-metal
(carbon), metalloids, and metals.
• The element carbon is called the
“basis of life.” There is an entire
branch of chemistry devoted to
carbon compounds called organic
chemistry.
Nitrogen Family

• The nitrogen family is named

after the element that makes up
78% of our atmosphere.
• This family includes non-metals,
metalloids, and metals.
• Atoms in the nitrogen family have
5 valence electrons. They tend to
share electrons when they bond.
• Other elements in this family are
phosphorus, arsenic, antimony,
and bismuth.
Oxygen Family

• Atoms of this family have 6

valence electrons.
• Most elements in this family
share electrons when forming
compounds.
• Oxygen is the most abundant
element in the earth’s crust. It is
extremely active and combines
with almost all elements.
Halogen Family

• The elements in this family are

fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, and astatine.

• Halogens have 7 valence

electrons, which explains why
they are the most active non- Halogen atoms only need to gain 1
metals. They are never found electron to fill their outermost energy
free in nature. level.
They react with alkali metals to form salts.
Noble Gases

• Noble Gases are colorless gases that are extremely un-reactive.

• One important property of the noble gases is their inactivity. They are inactive
because their outermost energy level is full.
• Because they do not readily combine with other elements to form compounds,
the noble gases are called inert.
• The family of noble gases includes helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and
radon.
• All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the earth's atmosphere.
Rare Earth Elements

• The thirty rare earth elements

are composed of the
lanthanide and actinide
series.
• One element of the
lanthanide series and most of
the elements in the actinide
series are called trans-
uranium, which means
synthetic or man-made.
Periodic Patterns
s
1 1s p 1s

2 2s 2p

3 3s d (n-1) 3p

4 4s 3d 4p

5 5s 4d 5p

6 6s 5d 6p

7 7s 6d 7p

6 4f
f (n-2) 7 5f
• All periodic table trends are influenced by three factors:
1. Energy Level
• Higher energy levels are further away from the nucleus.
2. Charge on nucleus (# protons)
• More charge pulls electrons in closer. (+ and – attract
each other)
• 3. Shielding effect (blocking effect?)
Size Trends
Atomic Radii follows two trends:

1) Radii increases going down a group

2) Radii decreases going across a period

But how do we measure Atomic Radii?

97
Sizes of Atoms

The bonding atomic radius is defined as one-

half of the distance between covalently
bonded nuclei.
 Atomic Radii Trends
Atomic Radii

Decreasing radii

increasing

99
Atomic Radii
As we move down a group what happens to the principal
Energy level ?

As the principal energy level increases, electrons move

further and further from the nucleus.

Nucleus n=1 2 3 4
100
Atomic Radii in groups
Since the s orbital is further from the nucleus the radii of the
Atom increases. But …

The nuclear charge is also increasing since Atomic Number is

increasing. Nuclear Radii (pm) change
charge
Increasing nuclear charge Li (3) 155 -
Diminishes the rate of
Na (11) 190 35
Change of increasing
Atomic Radii Down a K (19) 235 45
Group. Rb (37) 248 13

Electrons are pulled Cs (55) 267 19

Toward the nucleus more Fr (87) 270 3
strongly 101
Atomic Radii across periods

We’ve seen how atomic radii increases going down a group

But what happens when we go across a period?

We’ll, in fact atomic radii decreases. But why?

We can begin to understand what is happening if we look at

Both the Atomic number and what principle energy level
electrons are being added to.

102
Core charge is the effective nuclear charge
experienced by an outer shell electron.

Can be found by subtracting the number of

inner-shell electrons from the nuclear charge.
Atomic Radii across periods
As we move across a period Atomic numbers increase

- Pos. Nuclear charge also increases so would expect

the electrons to be pulled closer to the nucleus.
So this could explain decreasing Atomic radius.

- BUT … this same thing happens as we move down

a group. And for groups Atomic Radii increases as we
add more electrons? So why does radius increase in
groups but not across a period?

104
Atomic radii across periods
The difference is that when we go across a period electrons do
Not fill higher energy levels. They either occupy lower energy
Levels or the same energy level

Whereas when going down a group electrons occupy

successively Higher principle energy levels. For example …
group
1 2 3 13
n=3 2-8-1 2-8-2 2-8-3
n=4 2-8-8-1 2-8-8-2 2-8-9-2 2-8-18-3

n=5 2-8-18-8-1 - - -
105
 Atomic radii across periods
As atomic number increases across a row additional electrons
are added to the same (or lower) energy level.
The effective nuclear charge may also be increasing and electrons are pulled in
more strongly towards the larger more positive nucleus.

e- e-
+11 +16
2-8-1 2-8-6
Na: Effective nuclear charge = +1 S: Eff. Nuclear Charge = +6

Unlike when moving down a group, there are no new principal

energy levels being added to counteract the effect of increasing
nuclear charge and increasing effective nuclear charge.

106
Ionic Radii

what happens when Atoms either gain or lose electrons to form ions?

How does Ionic Radii vary down Groups & across Rows?
Ionic Radii
When atoms lose all their valence electrons they lose the
outermost quantum level (n).

Consider Aluminums electron configuration. What is it?

2-8-3 (principle energy levels 1, 2 and 3 are occupied)

What is the electron configuration after Al loses its 3 valence electrons?

2-8 (only principle energy levels 1 and 2 are occupied)

What is the charge on Aluminum?

109
Positive Ions
The loss of the outermost valence shell has two effects:

1) The atoms radius shrinks because it loses it’s outermost

principle quantum level

2) The Nucleus now has more positive charge than the total
negative charge from electrons. The larger effective nuclear
charge will now pull electrons in closer to the nucleus
110
Positive Ions
Notice that even though the ionic electron configuration is the same
ionic radius gets progressively smaller moving across the period.

Na Mg Al
Atomic No. 11 12 13
Ionic charge +1 +2 +3
Atomic Radius 190 160 143
(pm)
Ionic Radius (pm) 99 65 50
Ionic Elec. Config 2-8 2-8 2-8
This happens because the positive eff. nuclear charge seen by the
same number of electrons increases as we move across a the row
Negative Ions
Let’s next look at the non-metals, for example Chlorine

Non-metals form ions by gaining electrons

Cl 2-8-7  2-8-8 Cl- (negative ion)

When we add electrons the effective nuclear charge per

electron decreases AND there is increases electron repulsion

So … you would expect the ionic radius to increase and it does

Cl atomic radius = 99 nm
Cl- ionic radius = 181 nm
112
Negative Ions
Moving down groups the principal energy level increases

- This is true for all atoms, Anions (-) and Cations (+)

Li 2-1 Li+ 2 F 2-7 F- 2-8

Na 2-8-1 Na+ 2-8 Cl 2-8-7 Cl- 2-8-8
K 2-8-8-1 K+ 2-8-8 Br 2-8-18-7 Br- 2-8-18-8

So atom and ionic size increases going down Groups

Going across periods Ionic size first decreases then increases up

When Oxidation states change from positive to negative.

- after the jump up the downward trend in size continues 113

 The ionic compound MgO
Mg atom

O atom
Electron Configuration 2-8
2-8

If we were to look at individual atoms Mg would

Actually be larger than Oxygen
114
Sizes of Ions
Ionic size depends upon:
• Nuclear charge.
• Number of electrons.
• Orbitals in which
electrons reside.
Sizes of Ions

• Cations are smaller than

their parent atoms.
• The outermost electron is
removed and repulsions are
reduced.
Sizes of Ions
• Anions are larger
than their parent
atoms.
• Electrons are added
and repulsions are
increased.
Sizes of Ions
• Ions increase in size as
you go down a column.
• Due to increasing value
of n.
Sizes of Ions

• In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same number of electrons.

• Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear charge.
Sizes of Ions

• In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same number of electrons.

• Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear charge.
Atom/ion size examples

• Put the following in order of size, smallest to largest:

• Na, Na+, Mg, Mg2+, Al, Al3+, S, S2-, Cl, Cl-

Atom size examples
Al3+, Mg2+, Na+, Cl, S, Al, Mg, Na, Cl-, S2-
Start with atoms with no n=3 electrons, order isoelectronic by nuclear charge.
Next, neutral atoms highest Eff first
Last, anions, highest Eff first
Ambiguity: anions versus neutrals (is Cl- really larger than Na?)
Don’t worry about it.
Ionization Energy
• IE = energy required to remove an electron from an
atom in the gas phase. First ionization energy is that
energy required to remove first electron.

• Second ionization energy is that energy required to

remove second electron, etc.

Mg (g) + 738 kJ ---> Mg+ (g) + e-

Ionization Energy
Mg (g) + 735 kJ ---> Mg+ (g) + e-
Mg+ (g) + 1451 kJ ---> Mg2+ (g) + e-

Mg2+ (g) + 7733 kJ ---> Mg3+ (g) + e-

Energy cost is very high to dip into a shell of lower energy

level (n).
This is why ox. no. = Group no.
The electron configuration of Fe is

Fe...1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2 or [Ar]3d64s2

Since the charge on the ion is +3, three electrons must have been removed
from a neutral iron atom (Fe).

We now remove electrons successively from subshells having the largest principal
quantum number:

Fe+ [Ar]3d64s1 one 4s electron removed

Fe2+ [Ar]3d6 a second 4s electron removed
Fe3+ [Ar]3d5 since no electrons are left in the n = 4 shell, one 3d electron is removed
 1st Ionization energy (kJ/mol)
2500
He
Ne
2000

Ar
1500
Kr

1000

500

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
H Li Na K
Atomic Number
Ionization Energy
• It requires more energy to remove each successive electron.
• When all valence electrons have been removed, the ionization
energy takes a quantum leap.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
• going down a
column, less energy
to remove the first
electron.
• For atoms in the
same group, Zeff is
essentially the
same, but the
valence electrons
are farther from the
nucleus.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
• Generally, it gets harder to
remove an electron going
across.
• As you go from left to
to right, Zeff increases.

• There are two

exceptions to this trend.
Trends in First Ionization Energies

• The first occurs between

Groups IIA and IIIA.
• Electron removed from p-
orbital rather than s-orbital
• Electron farther from
nucleus
• Small amount of repulsion
by s electrons.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
• The second occurs
between Groups VA and
VIA.
• Electron removed
comes from doubly
occupied orbital.
• Repulsion from other
electron in orbital helps
in its removal.

versus:
Trends in Ionization energy
• IE increases across a period because
Z* increases.

• Metals lose electrons more easily

than nonmetals.
• Metals are good reducing agents.
• Nonmetals lose electrons with
difficulty.
Trends in Ionization energy
• IE decreases down a group
• Because size increases.

• Reducing ability generally increases

down the periodic table.
TRY I
• Which of the following will have the highest ionization energy?
• A. C
• B. O
• C. Al
• D. Si
• E. N
TRY II
• Which of the following will have the highest ionization energy?
• A. I1 Na
• B. I2 Na
• C. I1 Mg
• D. I2 Mg
• E. I3 Mg
 Electron Affinity

A few elements gain electrons to form anions.

Electron affinity is the energy change when an electron is added:

A(g) + e- ---> A-(g) E.A. = -∆E

• The more positive the electron affinity of an element, the greater is the
affinity of an atom of the element to accept an electron.
 Electron Affinity of Oxygen

O atom [He]      ∆E is EXOthermic

because O has an
+ electron affinity for an e-.

O - ion [He]     

EA = - 141 kJ
Electron Affinity of Nitrogen
N atom [He]      ∆E is zero for N- due
to electron-electron
+ electron repulsions.
N- ion [He]     

EA = 0 kJ
Trends in Electron Affinity

In general, electron affinity becomes more exothermic as

you go from left to right across a row.
Trends in Electron Affinity

There are also two discontinuities

in this trend.
 Trends in Electron Affinity
On a smaller scale, there are
two jags in each line. Why?
• The electron affinity of a
Group 2A element is lower
than that for the
corresponding Group 1A
element,
AND
• the electron affinity of a
Group 5A element is lower
than
• that for the corresponding
Group 4A element.
Trends in Electron Affinity

• The first occurs between Groups

IA and IIA.
• Added electron must go in p-
orbital, not s-orbital.
• Electron is farther from
nucleus and feels repulsion
from s-electrons.
Trends in Electron Affinity

• The second occurs

between Groups IVA
and VA.
• Group VA has no empty
orbitals.
• Extra electron must go
into occupied orbital,
creating repulsion.
Trends in Electron Affinity

Atom EA
• Affinity for electron increases
across a period (EA becomes F -328 kJ
more negative). Cl -349 kJ
Br -325 kJ
• Affinity decreases down a group
(EA becomes less negative). I -295 kJ
Periodic trends in electron affinity
• electron affinity describes the ability of an atom to accept an electron.
• Electron affinity increases from left to right within a period. This is caused by the
decrease in atomic radius.
• Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused by
the increase in atomic radius.
Trends in Electron Affinity
Periodic trends in Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is the strength an atom has to attract a
bonding pair of electrons to itself.
• When a chlorine atom covalently bonds to another chlorine
atom, the shared electron pair is shared equally.
• The electron density that comprises the covalent bond is
located halfway between the two atoms.
• But what happens when the two atoms involved in a bond aren’t the same?
• The two positively charged nuclei have different attractive forces; they “pull” on
the electron pair to different degrees.

• The end result is that the electron pair is shifted toward one atom.
• The larger the value of the electronegativity, the greater the atom’s strength to
attract a bonding pair of electrons.

• The figure above shows the electronegativity values of the various elements
below each element symbol on the periodic table.

• With a few exceptions, the electronegativities increase, from left to right, in a

period, and decrease, from top to bottom, in a family.
• Electro negativities give information about what will happen to the bonding pair
of electrons when two atoms bond.
• A bond in which the electron pair is equally shared is called a nonpolar covalent
bond.

• You have a nonpolar covalent bond anytime the two atoms involved in the bond
are the same or anytime the difference in the electronegativities of the atoms
involved in the bond is very small.
• Now consider hydrogen chloride (HCl). Hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.1,
and chlorine has an electronegativity of 3.0. The electron pair that is bonding HCl
together shifts toward the chlorine atom because it has a larger electronegativity
value.

• A bond in which the electron pair is shifted toward one atom is called a polar
covalent bond. The atom that more strongly attracts the bonding electron pair is
slightly more negative, while the other atom is slightly more positive. The larger
the difference in the electronegativities, the more negative and positive the atoms
become.

• In most cases, the molecule has a positive end and a negative end, called a dipole
• Now look at a case in which the two atoms have extremely different
electronegativities — sodium chloride (NaCl). Sodium chloride is ionically
bonded.
• An electron has transferred from sodium to chlorine. Sodium has an
electronegativity of 1.0, and chlorine has an electronegativity of 3.0.

• That’s an electronegativity difference of 2.0 (3.0 – 1.0), making the bond between
the two atoms very, very polar.
• The electronegativity difference provides another way of predicting the kind of
bond that will form between two elements, as indicated in the table below.
Electronegativity Group Trend
• As you go down a group the electronegativity decreases

• Reason - because the further down a group, the farther the electron is
away from the nucleus, thus, more willing to share.
Electronegativity Period Trend
• As you move across a period, electronegativity generally
increases from left to right because…..

• At the right end are the nonmetals. They want more

electrons.
• Electronegativity is related to ionization energy.

• Electrons with low ionization energies have low electronegativities because their
nuclei do not exert a strong attractive force on electrons.

• Elements with high ionization energies have high electronegativities due to the
strong pull exerted on electrons by the nucleus.
Summary of Periodic Table Trends