Chapter 2:

Atomic structure & inter-atomic bonding

Dr Daniel A. Vella

MME1203
Introduction to Material Science

Department of Metallurgy and Materials and Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
University of Malta

[email protected]
Room 223, Tel: 2340 2061
Overview
n Atomic structure
n Sub-atomic particles and electronic configuration

n The periodic table of elements

n Atomic bonding
n Primary bonds
n Metallic
n Ionic
n Covalent
n Secondary bonds
 Atomic structure: fundamentals
§ An atom is the smallest recognized division
of a chemical element.
§ The atom consists of a very small
nucleus containing:
• protons
• neutrons An illustration of the He atom,
depicting the nucleus (pink) and
§ A lot of empty space to host electrons the electron cloud distribution
(black). The scale bar is 1
angstrom (10−10 m or 100 pico-
§ Protons, neutrons and electrons are meters), from Wikipedia

collectively called sub-atomic particles.

 Atomic Structure: Fundamentals
§ Electrons and protons are charged:
• 1.6x10-19 C (NB: Q = It, 1C = 1A x 1s)
• negative for electrons
• positive for protons
• neutrons are neutral, non-charged.

§ Mass of sub-atomic particles:

• Proton mass = 1.672 x 10-24g
• Neutron mass = 1.675 x10-24g
• Electron = 9.11 x 10-28g

me is of negligible mass compared to protons and neutrons

 Atomic Structure: Fundamentals
§ The atomic number, Z:

• Corresponds to the number of protons in the nucleus

• For a neutral atom, the proton number is equivalent to the
number of electrons
• The atomic number ranges in integral numbers from 1 for
hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the highest naturally occurring
element
• The atomic number defines the chemical element

Chemical element: is a pure chemical substance of one type of

atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of
protons in its nucleus.
Atomic Structure: Fundamentals
§ The atomic mass, A is equivalent to the total mass of protons
and neutrons in an atom, neglecting me

§ For convenience, we measure the mass of a collection of

atoms, more precisely 6x1023 atoms, equivalent to 1 mole of
atoms.

§ The mass of 1 mole of atoms of an element is equivalent to the

atomic mass of that element expressed in grams.

§ The atomic mass of an element can be obtained from the

periodic table which lists the atomic number and atomic mass
of the elements.
The Periodic Table
Working example:

• Elemental iron, atomic number 26 has an atomic

mass of 56g/mol.

§ Find the number of protons, electrons and neutrons

for atomic Fe.
§ Calculate the mass in grams of the individual sub-
atomic particles. (consider neutrons and protons to
have roughly the same mass).
 Atomic Structure: Fundamentals
Relative Atomic Mass

While for a given element the atomic number or proton

number is fixed, the number of neutrons varies.

This leads to atoms of the same element having different

atomic masses. These atoms of the same element are
known as isotopes.
atomic number
Different
Isotopes of
elemental
carbon 13 12

Neutrons: 8 7 6
Atomic Structure: Fundamentals

The relative atomic mass is the weighted-average of the atomic

isotopic masses with respect to their relative abundance in nature.

atomic number

element symbol
13 12

Few parts per million Relative natural

c.1% c.99%
abundance

atomic weight
Fitting in the electrons – early work

J.J. Thomson (1904): atom consists of

electrons surrounded by a cloud of
positive charge.

E. Rutherford and his team (1911) : ‘plum-pudding’ model, ref. wiki

discovers that positive charge is
concentrated into a small space
within the atom, the nucleus.
Electrons were envisaged to circle the
nucleus in a planetary- orbit fashion.

Rutherford model, 1911, ref. wiki

Fitting in the electrons –The Bohr model
attractive force
• N. Bohr (1913), refined the Rutherford
model for the hydrogen atom: e-

Electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed

circular orbits, referred to as shells. +
nucleus

The energy of an electron within a

specified shell is fixed or quantized. Shell within which electron orbits
with a fixed energy

The energy of the electron stems from a balance between the

electrostatic attractive force and the centripetal force because of
motion around the nucleus.

For a mathematical treatment of the Bohr H-atom refer to the advance physics text by
Nelkon & Parker, pp. 861-863
 Bohr Atomic Model
An electron may change its energy state
by:

• Jumping to a higher energy state. This is

accomplished by absorbing (a quantum
of) energy equivalent to the difference
between the ‘energy levels’ (DE).
Showing how an electron loses
energy as it falls from a higher
energy state n= 3 to a lower state
• Falling back into a lower energy state. n=2. As the electron falls from a
This occurs by emission of energy higher energy state to a lower one
it emits a quantum of energy
equivalent to the difference in energy equivalent to the difference in
states between the two energy levels energies between states. Note that
the energy levels are not drawn to
(DE). scale in this representation.
Fitting in the electrons –The Bohr model
e- high energy state
E2 where E2> E1

energy energy

low energy
e- state E1

+
n=1 n=2

shell

Energy states are fixed and, no ‘in-between’ energies are allowed

Fitting in the electrons –The emission
spectrum for Hydrogen

Top – the emission spectrum for

hydrogen showing emission lines in
the Balmer series. These emission
lines can be seen visually as they
fall within the visible spectrum of
light.

Were it not for the fact that the

energy of electron orbits are
quantized, the spectrum would
appear as a continuum of light
rather than sharp lines.
The Bohr model

Energy of the electron is expressed in electron-

volts (eV).

Distance away from the nucleus

By convention, the electron closest to the
nucleus has the lowest energy or the more
negative eV value.

Energy levels are not equally spaced. A large

energy gap exists between n= 1 and n=2. The
difference between energy levels becomes
smaller with higher energy states.

Schematic showing first three electron energy states

+ for the Bohr hydrogen atom.
Bohr Atomic Model

For an electron to move from energy state n = 1

to energy state n=2, it needs to be supplied
with 10.2eV. This energy is required to

Distance away from the nucleus

overcome the electrostatic attractive force of
the nucleus.

If enough energy is supplied, the electron is

released completely from the atom. At this
point we say the atom is ‘ionized’.

For the H-atom 13.6eV (2.176x10-18J/atom or

1306 KJ/mol) of energy are required to ionize
the atom.

Schematic showing first three electron energy

+ states for the Bohr hydrogen atom.
Fitting in the electrons (Bohr model)

We will fit up to:

2 electrons in energy level #1
8 electrons in energy level #2
3 18 electrons in energy level #3
2
1 32 electrons in energy level #4 (not shown)

Energy levels n = 1, 2 and 3 for a Hydrogen

hypothetical atom (N.B. energy
atomic # 1
levels are not to scale).

Fit electrons for the elements Na and Ar...

The Periodic Table
Fitting in the electrons in atoms (Bohr model)

Na Ar

Sodium Argon
atomic #11 atomic #18
 Atomic Models: wave-mechanical

§ The wave-mechanical model is an improvement over

the Bohr model since it can better explain the
situation in a ‘many-electron’ atom.

§ In the wave-mechanical model:

• The dual ‘wave-like’ and ‘particle-like’ nature of an electron

is considered

• The electron is no longer treated as a particle moving in a

discrete circular orbit. Rather, the probability of finding the
electron in a pre-defined space
Bohr vs wave-mechanical model

(b) Wave-mechanical model

(a) Bohr atomic model

In the wave-mechanical
model the shape of the
(a) (b)
circular orbit takes the
form of a sphere
Quantum numbers

§ Every electron in an atom is characterized by four

quantum numbers

§ These quantum numbers define the position, shape

and spatial orientation of the space where the
electron is most likely to be within the atom

§ This space where the electron is most likely to be

situated is termed the probability density
The quantum numbers

§ Principal quantum number n: marks distance away from the

nucleus. The shell number is identical to the Bohr radius. n
= 1,2,3,4.... The principal quantum number is also denoted
by the letters K,L,M,N..corresponding to the numbers
1,2,3,4..etc.

§ The second quantum number describes the ‘shape’ of the

sub-shell. l = 0,1,2...up to (n-1) where n is the principal
quantum number. The second quantum number l is
denoted by the letters s, p, d and f corresponding to l =
0,1,2,3.
 Quantum numbers
Describing the 1st and 2nd quantum numbers:
occupancy

n=1, K-shell l = (n-1) = 0 2e-

1s

n =2, L-shell l = 0…(n-1) = 0, 1

8e-
2s, 2p

n = 3, M-shell l = 0… (n-1) = 0, 1, 2
3s, 3p, 3d 18e-
Quantum numbers
§ The sub-shells occupy different spatial orientations. These
are defined by the third quantum number, ml :
-l, -(l-1),... 0, +(l-1), +l, also called the orbitals

s=0
p = -1, 0, +1
d = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2.

§ The spin moment of the electron defines the fourth

quantum number, ms . The spin moment of an electron is
either ‘spin-up’ (+ ½) or ‘spin-down’ (- ½) . Simple stated, 2
electrons can fit into each orbital
Quantum numbers
1st 2nd 3rd

No. of
Orbitals
Quantum Numbers
(a) First three electron
energy states for the
Bohr hydrogen atom

(b) Electron energy states

for the first three shells
of the wave-mechanical
hydrogen atom.
Quantum Numbers
Schematic representation of
the relative energies of the
electrons for the various
shells & sub-shells.

Note that there is some

degree of overlap of sub-
shells. For n=4, the ‘s’ sub-
shell falls below the ‘d’ sub-
shell of n=3.
This becomes important
when writing down the
electronic configuration of
elements.
Filling up the electrons: wave-
mechanical model

The ‘building-up’ principle:

§ Electrons fill-up orbitals starting with the lowest

available energy states before they fill up the higher
states (e.g. 1s before 2s).

§ A maximum of 2 electrons can fill an orbital or

energy state (in accordance with quantum #4).
Filling up with electrons

s, p, d and f sub-shells
may each
accommodate
respectively 2, 6,10
and 14 electrons.

Energy structure for the sodium Na11-atom

Electronic configuration Na11: 1s22s22p63s1
 Electron Configuration
When all electrons occupy the lowest possible energy
states of an atom, the atom is said to be in its ‘ground
state’.

The electrons that occupy the outermost shell/sub-shells

of an atom are called the valence electrons.

The valence electrons are important because they are

directly responsible for bond formation.

Many of the physical and chemical properties of elements

result from these valence electrons
Electron Configurations
When the valence electron shell (or sub-shell) is completely
occupied by electrons, a stable (noble) electronic
configuration results.

This is the case for inert elements He, Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe
(group 8 of the periodic table)

He: 1s 2
4
2 2 6
10Ne:1s 2s 2p
Ar:1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
18
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6
36Kr: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p

When atoms bond to form compounds, they achieve

energetically more stable electronic configurations. This is
the driving force for bonding.
 The Periodic Table
18 groups (vertical columns)
7 periods (horizontal rows)
The Periodic Table
§ Elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number along seven horizontal rows or
periods.

§ Elements that fall in the same column or group ( 8

groups excluding the transition block) display a
similar valence. These elements have similar
chemical and physical properties.

§ These properties change gradually and

systematically across each period.
 The Periodic Table
§ Group IA or alkali metals - 1e- in excess of having a stable structure
(electronic configuration ends with a ns1)

§ Group II A or alkaline earth metals - 2 e- in excess of having a stable

electronic configuration (ns2)

§ Group VI A - 2e- deficient from having a stable electronic configuration

(np4)

§ Group VII A or the halogen group – 1e- deficient from having a stable
electronic configuration (np5)

§ Group 0 or the noble gas group. Complete stable electronic

configuration (np6)

§ Groups (IB to VIII) – transition metal group or d-block elements

 The Periodic Table

§ Transition metals have partially filled d electron states and in some

cases, one or two electrons in the next higher energy shell.

§ Group IIIA, IVA and VA display characteristics that are intermediated

between metals and non-metals by virtue of their valence electron
structures.
Bonding Forces & Energies
Consider two atoms that are so distant apart that the interactive
forces are negligible....

+ +
separated by distance d

electron
cloud
 Bonding Forces & Energies
As the two atoms slowly approach, they experience a mutual
(long range) attractive force

overall
attraction
+ +
electron
cloud

The nuclear charge on each atom attracts the electron cloud of the opposite
atom. An attractive force is felt between the two atoms.
Bonding Forces & Energies
As the atoms approach further, the attractive force is countered
by a repulsive force (repulsion of the electron clouds and
eventually repulsion of nuclear charge)

+ +

d = ro

A point is reached where Fattraction = Frepulsion and net force

equates to zero. The corresponding distance = ro
 Bonding Forces & Energies
An attractive force is experienced as
the two distant atoms approach.

On further approach a repulsive force

starts to operate (repulsive
electrostatic force between nuclei and
e- clouds)

Overall net force Fnet drops to zero as

atoms settle at an equilibrium
distance of closest approach, ro ~ Force vs. inter-atomic distance r
0.3nm.

At this equilibrium distance ro, the net force: FAttractive + FRepulsive = 0

If the atoms are ‘forced’ beyond ro, they will experience an net repulsive force
(electrostatic repulsion)
NB: Attractive force – long range; repulsive force is short ranged.
 Bonding Forces & Energies
The corresponding potential
energy profile:
ro
ENet = Eattr. + Erep.

The equilibrium distance ro

corresponds to an ‘energy
well’ which is asymmetric with
respect to the potential energy
minimum.

The binding or bond energy energy vs. inter-atomic distance

(E0) is the energy released in

Note that by convention energy is
bond formation.
positive when repulsive and negative
when attractive
Bonding Forces & Energies
§ Energy- / force- vs. distance profiles for a two-
atom system: can be extended (very qualitatively)
to bulk materials.

§ The general shape of the curve and magnitude of

the binding energy serve as useful indicators for:

§ Melting temperature of the material.

§ Stiffness (modulus of elasticity).
§ Linear coefficient of thermal expansion of the material.
 Bonding Forces & Energies
Melting temperature

§ Large binding energies (E0) – expect relatively high melting

temperature. Material very probably solid at room
temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).
§ Small binding energy: expect low melting temperature
material. Material is probably liquid or gas at r.t.p.

Metallic material Binding energy Mpt. oC

KJ/mol
Hg 68 -39
Al 324 660
Fe 406 1538
W 849 3410
 Bonding Forces & Energies
Mechanical stiffness (modulus of elasticity)

§ For stiff materials, slope

of the net force curve at
r=r0 is steep.

§ For flexible materials

slope at r=r0 is shallow.
Force vs. inter-atomic distance curves
 Bonding Forces & Energies
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion a = DL/LoDT

§ Shallow and wide ‘energy

well’ = high coefficient of
thermal expansion.

§ Deep, narrow ‘potential

energy well’ = low
coefficient of thermal
expansion
 Bonding Forces & Energies
At temperatures just above 0K
atoms in the solid phase vibrate ro
about their axes and at an
average bonding distance r
around ro

The asymmetry of the PE well

means however that as T is
increased, the vibrational amplitude
increases and the ‘average distance’
of closest approach r shifts to
slightly larger values and away from At 0K, atomic vibrations cease, and r
approaches ro
ro
 Bonding in materials
Classification of bonding types:
n Primary strong bonds:
n Metallic (metals and their alloys).
n Ionic (ceramics).
n Covalent (ceramics and polymers).

n Secondary ‘weak’ bonds (polymers)

n Van der Waals
n Hydrogen bonding

NB: an alloy is a material that has metallic properties and is composed of two
or more chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. Example steel
Metallic Bonding

Ion cores in a ‘sea’

of valence
electrons

Schematic representation of bonding in metals and

their alloys.
Metallic Bonding
§ Metallic bonding: ‘sea of electrons’ shield positively
charged ion cores from mutual electrostatic repulsion.

§ Free valence electrons: act as a glue to hold the ion cores

together

§ Metallic bond: non-directional.

§ Bonding energy: ranges from weak to very strong;

Examples Hg (68kJ/mol or 0.7eV) and W (849kJ/mol or

8.8eV) with respective melting points -39°C and 3410°C
 Ionic Bonding
§ Occurrence: compounds formed between metal and non-
metallic elements.

§ Mechanism: metals readily dispose of their valence electron/s

to non-metallic elements.

§ Formation: between elements situated at the extremities of the

periodic table (e.g. group IA and VIIA)

§ Charged ions: Loss and gain of electrons is accompanied by the

formation of respectively positively (cations) and negatively
charged (anions) ions.
 Ionic Bonding
Example NaCl:
neutral atoms charged ions
11Na 1s22s22p63s1 10Na 1s 2s 2p
+ 2 2 6

17Cl 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 18Cl 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 5 - 2 2 6 2 6

The sodium atom adopts The chlorine ion has

the electronic a net negative
configuration of neon by charge and electron
transferring its 1e- 3s1 configuration
valence electron to the identical to that of
chlorine atom. argon.

2-d representation of NaCl

Ionic Bonding
Example NaCl:

Left, NaCl lattice, large green spheres are chloride anions

and small grey spheres are sodium cations, from:
http://www.3dchem.com/ and right: characteristic cubic
shape for NaCl crystals

Note that every cation is surrounded by 6 anions and vice

versa. The co-ordination number is 6.
 Ionic Bonding
§ In ionic bonding: atoms exist as ions.

§ Attractive bonding forces: electrostatic (coulombic)

§ Ionic bonding: non-directional, i.e. the magnitude of the bond

is equal in all directions around the ion.

§ Typical bond energies: 600 -1500kJ/mol.

§ Ionic materials typified by having:

• relatively high melting temperatures
• low electrical conductivity (in the solid state)
• extremely brittle.

e.g. M.pt. for NaCl ~ 801oC, MgF2 – 1263oC

Ionic Bonding

Schematic explaining the brittle nature of ionic compounds. Taken from:

http://chewtychem.wiki.hci.edu.sg/Properties+of+Ionic+Compounds
 Covalent Bonding
§ In covalent bonding sharing of Separate hydrogen atoms
electrons rather than an exchange.
H x H x
§ Covalently bonded atoms will each
contribute at least one electron
to the bond.

§ Shared electrons belong to both

atoms.
H x H
x
§ In the case of H2, both atoms
acquire a stable electronic
configuration. (1s2 corresponding
to that of He) a H2 hydrogen molecule
 Covalent Bonding
Example - the methane molecule (CH4)

Before bond formation:

carbon atom: four valence electrons
C6: 1s2 2s2 2p2

Each hydrogen atom has one

valence electron, H1 -1s1

After bond formation:

The carbon atom acquires 4e- and achieves

the electronic configuration of Neon. covalent bonding in
Each hydrogen atom has acquired an extra molecular methane, CH4
e- from carbon (He configuration)
Covalent Bonding
§ Covalent bonding: directional

§ Bonding occurs: only between atoms which are

participating in the electron sharing process.

§ Covalent bonding: occurs in the formation of small

molecules.

§ Covalent bonding: main form of bonding in certain

elemental solids (C and Si) and solid compounds (e.g.
SiC, SiO2).
 Covalent Bonding
Examples: covalent materials:
§ Non-metallic, elemental molecules:
H2, Cl2, N2, O2
§ Molecules containing dissimilar atoms:
CH4, H2O, H2S, HCl
§ Elemental solids
diamond, silicon and germanium
§ Solid compounds
silicon dioxide (SiO2), and silicon carbide (SiC)
§ Polymers (PE, PVC, etc.)
Covalent Bonding
Elemental solid Solid compound e.g. (SiO2)

3-d structure
representing silicon and 2-d structure of amorphous silica (SiO2). Each
diamond (carbon). Solid silicon atom (red sphere) is surrounded by
spheres represent the three oxygen atoms (blue spheres). Note that
silicon or carbon atoms, the forth oxygen atom is not shown in the 2-
d representation.
respectively.
Covalent Bonding in Polymers
n Polymer meaning ‘many parts’
n Polymers result from the covalent linking of smaller
molecules termed ‘monomers’.

monomers polymerization

one polymer chain

covalent bond

nCH2=CH2 → -[CH2-CH2]n-
ethylene poly(ethylene)
Covalent Bonding in Polymers
polymerized monomer units
thermoplastics

thermosets

Polymer strands come together to make up the bulk polymeric

material.
 Covalent Bonding
Electronegativity:

Attraction that elements have for the bonding electrons in a

covalent bond. The element which least attracts the bonding
electrons is termed ‘electropositive’.

Element A attracts electrons in bond pair by the

A •
• A same amount. The bond pair of electrons lie in
the middle of the bonded pair

Element B is more electronegative than element A.

d+ d-
A B
• Element B assumes a partial negative charge while
• element A adopts an equal (in magnitude) but opposite
partial charge.
Covalent Bonding
§ Bonding of identical atoms (same element): effect
of electronegativity not an issue.

§ Bonding of dissimilar atoms (different elements):

electronegativity can impart a degree of ionic
character to the material.

§ Real systems: very few materials exhibit purely

covalent (or purely ionic bonding). Most often a
mixed bonding behaviour is evident.
 Mixed Bonding behaviour
Electronegativity value for
the various elements can
be found in books of data.

The % ionic character of a

covalent bond is expressed
by the following equation:
Mixed Bonding behaviour
Material Chemical formula % Ionic character
Calcium fluoride CaF2 89
Magnesium oxide MgO 73
Sodium chloride NaCl 67
Alumina Al2O3 63
Silica SiO2 51
Silicon nitride Si3N4 30
Zinc sulfide ZnS 18
Silicon carbide SiC 12

Percent ionic character for several ceramic materials.

 Secondary Bonds
§ Collectively: Van der Waals attractive forces but several forms
can operate.

§ Secondary bonds: weak compared to primary bonds.

§ Typical bond energies: 10 - 50 KJ/mol

§ Secondary bonding: occurs in molecules where bonding is

primarily covalent.

§ Examples: molecular gases, molecular liquids (e.g. solvents) and

polymers.
Secondary Bonds
Van der Waals attractive forces:
n Induced dipole-induced dipole (fluctuating induced
dipole)
n Dipole – induced dipole
n Dipole-dipole

n Hydrogen bonding (a special type of dipole-dipole)

 Induced dipole – induced dipole
Situation in solids:

Symmetrical
electron Induced ‘dipole’ atoms attract
cloud

+ d+ d- d+ d-
A
+ +

B
Vibration of the
atom A about an
axis in a solid
Temporary induced Induced dipole in
dipole in atom A nearby atom B
Induced dipole – induced dipole
n In solids, atoms are constantly vibrating above 0K

n Vibrational motion induces slight distortion to the electrical

symmetry of the atom setting up a temporary dipole. This
occurs when the nuclear charge (+) lags slightly behind
negative electron cloud.

n This ‘induced dipole’ sets up a similar distortion in a nearby

atom causing electrostatic attraction between atoms.

n Induced dipoles are very short-lived.

Induced dipole – induced dipole

Occurrence of induced dipole-induced dipole

attractive forces:

n In atomic and molecular gases such as

He, Ar, O2, H2, N2 , CH4, Cl2
Explains why these gases can be liquefied at P and low T.

n Non-polar covalent polymers such as

polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP).
Dipole (polar molecule) – induced Dipole Bonds

n A covalent molecule composed of dissimilar atoms may

experience an overall permanent dipole as a result of the
different electronegativities of the constituent atoms.

Example: the permanent

d+ d-
dipole set up in molecular
hydrogen chloride gas

Electronegativity values for H –

2.1 and Cl – 3.5
Dipole (polar molecule) – induced Dipole Bonds

n Molecules with permanent dipoles can induce a

temporary dipoles in other non-polar molecules.
d+ d- A HCl and non-
polar
H Cl + molecule ‘A’
approach.

d+ d- d+ d- The polar HCl

molecule
H Cl + temporarily
induces a dipole in
non-polar
temporary attractive A
molecule A
force
 Dipole – Dipole Bonds

n This type of secondary bonding occurs between polar

molecules.

n Polar molecules align in such a manner so as to maximize

interaction between opposing poles.

d+ d- d+ d- d+ d-

etc. H Cl H Cl H Cl etc.

attractive forces
Dipole – Dipole (hydrogen bonding)

n An abnormally strong dipole-dipole interaction

operates when a hydrogen atom is directly bonded
to either an oxygen, fluorine or nitrogen atom.

n In this case the dipole-dipole interaction is termed

hydrogen bonding:

d+ d- d+ d- d+ d-

H F H F H F
H-bonding in water H2O

Hydrogen bonding explains

why water, which is a very
small molecule with a very
low molecular weight, forms
a liquid at room
temperature with an
‘abnormally’ high boiling
point.
 Why study atomic structure & bonding?

The type of bonding in materials allows us to

explain material properties:

Diamond
mounted on
drill bits used
for petroleum
exploration

Graphite: soft material Diamond: hardest material

Diamond and graphite

Van der
Waals
attractive
forces

Adapted from : http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_h.html