EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

Excretion is the removal of nitrogenous waste products and other

metabolites from the animal body which is normally associated
with the process of maintenance of osmotic concentrations, i.e.,
osmoregulation within the body.
Both excretion and osmoregulation are important for the
maintenance of homeostasis, i.e., for keeping the internal
environment of the body constant that is necessary for normal life
processes.
Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of nitrogenous
wastes excreted by animals. These substances get accumulated
in the animal body either by metabolic activities or by other means
like excess ingestion.
Types of Nitrogenous Excretion
Depending upon the nature of excretory product, animals exhibit
different processes of nitrogenous excretion.
These are described as follows
(i) Ammonotelism Ammonia is the most toxic form of nitrogenous
waste, it requires large amount of water for its elimination. The
organism that excrete ammonia are called ammonotelic and this ,
process to eliminate ammonia is known as ammonotelism.
Examples of ammonotelic animals are Many bony fishes, aquatic
amphibians and aquatic insects. Ammonia, as it is readily soluble,
is generally excreted by diffusion across body surfaces or through
gill surfaces (in fish) as ammonium ions.Kidneys do not play any
significant role in its removal.
(ii) Ureotelism The process of excreting urea is called ureotelism.
Animals, which does not live in high abundance of ‘water convert
ammonia produced in the body into urea (in the liver) and release
into the blood, which is filtered and excreted out by the kidneys.
Examples of ureotelic animals are Mammals, many terrestrial
amphibians and marine fishes.
(iii) Uricotelism The process of excreting uric acid is called
uricotelism. Uric acid, being the least toxic nitrogenous waste can
be removed with a minimum loss of water from the animal body.
Thus, it is excreted in the form of pellet or paste (i.e., semi-solid
form). Normally, the animals which live in desert exhibit
uricotelism.
Examples of uricotelic animals are Reptiles, birds, land snails and
insects.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of
ureters, urinary bladder and urethra, these are described below in
detail
I. Kidneys
These are reddish brown, bean-shaped structures situated
between the levels of last thoracic and third lumbar vertebra close
to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. –
Kidneys are mesodermal in origin as they developed from
mesodermal nephrostomes or mesomeres (ciliated structures,
functional in embryonic conditions).

Position of Kidneys
The kidneys are located below the diaphragm on the left and right
sides. The right kidney is lower and smaller than the left kidney
because the liver takes up much space of the right side.
Note:
Each kidney of an adult human measures. 10-12 cm in length, 5-7
cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an average weight of 120-
170 gm (i.e., 150 gm in males and about 135 gm in females).
Structure of Kidney
Structure of kidney can be studied well under two heads, i.e.,
external as well as internal structure.
These are described below as
The outer surface of each kidney is convex and inner surface is
concave, where it has a notch called hilum, through, which the
supply of blood occurs, i.e., renal artery and renal vein, pass in
and out of the kidneys along with the ureter and the nerve supply
of kidney.
If we look from outside to inside, three layers cover the kidneys,
i.e., renal fascia (outermost), the adipose layer and then renal
capsule (innermost layer). These coverings protect the kidneys
from external shocks and injuries.
The LS of a mammalian kidney seems to have of an outer cortex
and inner medulla.
Inside the kidney, the ureter is expanded as a funnel-shaped
cavity called pelvis. The free end of pelvis has number of cup-like
cavities called calyces (sing, calyx) major and minor.
Medulla projects into the calyces as conical processes, called
renal pyramids or medullary pyramids. The tip of pyramids are
called renal papillae. The cortex spreads in between medullary
pyramids as renal columns called columns of Bertini.
II. Ureters
The pelvis of each kidney is continued as a ureter and emerges
out at hilus. Ureter is a long and muscular tube. Ureters of both
sides extend posteriorly and open into the urinary bladder.
III. Urinary Bladder
It is a thin-walled, pear-shaped, white transparent sac present in
the pelvic cavity. It temporarily stores the urine.
IV . Urethra
It is a membranous tube, which conduct urine to the exterior. The
urethral sphincters keep the urethra closed except during voiding
of urine.
Structure of Nephron
Each nephron consists of two parts, i.e., the Malpighian body or
renal corpuscle and the renal tubule.
i. Malpighian Body or Renal Corpuscle
Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule is called the Malpighian
body or renal corpuscle which filters out large solutes from the
blood and delivers small solutes to the renal tubule for
modification.
ii. Bowman’s Capsule (Glomerular capsule) It is a double
walled cup-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus. The outer
parietal wall which is composed of flattened (squamous) cells and
the inner visceral wall is composed of a special type of less
flattened cells, called podocytes.
iii. Renal Tubules
Just below the glomerulus, the tubule has a very short neck.
Attached to each Bowman’s capsule is a long, thin tubule with
three distinct regions.
These regions are described as follows
(a) Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) Behind the neck, it
makes few coils and is restricted to the cortical region of the
kidney.
(b) Henle’s Loop It is quite narrower and U-shaped (or hair pin-
shaped) having a descending limb that ends into the medulla and
an ascending limb that extends back from the medulla into the
cortex.
iii. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
Active reabsorption of sodium ions from the filtrate (under the
influence of aldosterone) takes place. Water is also reabsorbed
here under the influence of Antidiuretic Hormone
+
(ADH). +
With associated secretion of potassium (K ), hydrogen (H ) ions,
NH–, some Cl– (chloride) ions and HCO–are also reabsorbed here.
It is necessary to maintain the pH and sodium-potassium balance
in blood. This makes the filtrate isotonic to blood plasma.

• Peritubular Capillary Network (PTCN), is formed when a

minute vessel of peritubular capillaries runs parallel to the
loop of Henle forming a U-shaped vasa recta.
All these capillaries join to form renal venules, which join to form a
renal vein that opens into the inferior vena cava.
Types of Nephrons
Based on the location in the kidney, nephrons are of following two
types
1. Cortical Nephrons
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short and extends
only very little into the medulla i.e., lie in the renal cortex. Such
two nephrons are called cortical nephrons.
Juxtamedullary Nephrons
In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very long and runs
deep into the medulla. These nephrons are called juxtamedullary
nephrons.
The cortical nephron forms about 80% of the total nephron count
while rest 20% are the juxtamedullary nephron.
FORMATION OF URINE :
The formation of urine is the result of the following processes
1. Glomerular Filtration
The first step of urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is
carried out by the glomerulus. That’s why this step is called
glomerular filtration.
Kidneys filter about 1100-1200 mL of blood per minute, which
constitute roughly l/5th of the blood pumped out by each ventricle
of the heart in a minute.
The glomerular capillary bloodpressure causes filtration of blood
through three layers, i.e.,
(i) the endothelium of glomerular blood vessels.
(ii) the epithelium of Bowmans capsule.
(iii) a basement membrane (present between the above
mentioned two layers).
The podocytes (epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule) are
arranged in such a manner so, as to leave some minute spaces
called filtration slits or slit pores.
On account of the high pressure in the glomerular capillaries, the
substances are filtered through these pores into the lumen of the
Bowman’s capsule (but the RBC, WBC and plasma proteins
having high molecular weight are unable to pass out).
That’s why this process of filtration through glomerular capillaries
in the Bowman’s capsule is known as ultra filtration and the filtrate
is called glomerular filtrate or primary urine.
It is hypotonic to urine that is actually excreted. Basic function of
nephron is to clear out the plasma from unwanted substrates and
also maintain the osmotic concentration of the blood plasma.
Thus, the fluid coming out is known as urine, whose formation
occurs inside the kidney.
Glomerular Filtration Rate The amount of the filtrate formed by
the kidneys per minute is called Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR).
In a healthy person it was found approximately 125 mL/min, i.e.,
180 L/day.
GFR is regulated by one of the efficient mechanism carried out by
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA).
JGA is a special sensitive region formed by cellular modifications
in the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the
location of their contact.
This apparatus includes
(i) granular juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent arteriole.
(ii) macula densa cells of DCT.
(iii) agranular lacis cells situated in between the above two.
A fall in GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin, which can
stimulate the glomerular blood flow and thereby, the GFR back to
I normal.
2. Selective Reabsorption
This is the second step in the formation of urine from filtrate. The
urine released is 1.5 L as compared to the volume of the filtrate
formed per day (180 L). It suggests that as much as 99% of the
material in the filtrate is reabsorbed by the renal tubules. Thus,
the process is called reabsorption.
Depending upon the types of molecules being reabsorbed,
movements into and out of epithelial cells in different segments of
nephron occur either by passive transport or active transport.
These are described as follows
(i) Water and urea, are reabsorbed by passive transport (i.e.,
water is reabsorbed by osmosis and urea by simple diffusion).
(ii) Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport.
(iii) The reabsorption of Na+, occurs both by passive and active
transport.
3. Tubular Secretion
It is also an important step in urine formation. Certain chemicals in
the blood that are not removed by filtration from the glomerular
capillaries are removed by this process of tubular secretion. It
helps in the maintenance of ionic and acid-base balance+ of body
fluids
–
by removing chemicals like foreign bodies, ions (K , H+,
NH ) and molecules (medicines), etc. that are toxic at elevated
levels.
COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM
Kidney of higher vertebrates (such as mammals, birds including
man) has the ability of absorbing more and more water from
tubular filtrate (in the Henle’s loop region) to make the urine more
concentrated.
This can be achieved by a special mechanism known as counter
current mechanism and also known as urine concentration
mechanism.
Basic Concept
(i) Henles loop and vasa recta (capillary loop) play an important
role in this mechanism. The flow of filtrate in the limbs of Henle’s
loop is in opposite directions and thus, forms a counter current.
The flow of blood with in the two limbs of vasa recta also occur in
the counter current pattern.
(ii) The osmolarity (i.e., number of Osmols of solute per litre) of
renal cortical interstitium is the same (300 m Osmol/ L) as in other
tissues, but that of the interstitium of renal medulla is hypertonic
with a gradient of hyperosmolarity from renal cortex to the tips of
medullary papillae.
The hyperosmolarity of medullary interstitium near the tips of the
papillae is as high as 1200-1450 m Osmol/L.
The Mechanism
The gradient of increasing hyperosmolarity of medullary
interstitium is maintained by a counter current mechanism and the
proximity between the Henle’s loop and vasa recta.

This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl and urea. The transport of

these substances is facilitated by the special arrangement of
Henle’s loop and vasa recta.
There are two aspect of this mechanism
(i) Counter current multiplication (by the Henle’s loop).
(ii) Counter current exchange (by the vasa recta).
NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop, which
is exchanged with the descending limb of vasa recta.
NaCl is returned to the medullary interstitium by the ascending
part of vasa recta. But, contrarily, the water diffuses into the blood
of ascending limb of vasa recta and is carried away into the
general.blood circulation.
Permeability to urea is found only in the deeper parts of thin
ascending limb of Henle’s loops and collecting ducts.
Urea diffuses out of the collecting ducts and enters into the thin
ascending limb. A certain amount of urea recycled in this way is
trapped in medullary interstitium by the collecting tubule. Thus,
collecting tubule also play a minor role in the process
REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTIONS
1.Regulation by the Hypothalamus
Excessive loss of fluid from the body activates osmoreceptors,
which stimulate the hypothalamus to release ADH or vasopressin
form the neurohypophysis. ADH facilitates water reabsorption
from posterior parts of tubule. An increase in body fluid volume
can switch off the osmoreceptors and suppresses the ADH
release to complete the feed back. ADH also causes constrictory
effects on blood vessels.
This causes an increase in blood pressure, which in turn increase
the glomerular blood flow and thereby the GFR (Glomerular
Filtration Rate).
2.Regulation by the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)
As blood pressure/glomerular blood flow /GFR decreases, the
cells of the JGA release the enzyme renin.
Renin converts angiotensinogen in blood to Angiotensin I and
Angiotensin II (active form). This mechanism is generally known
as the Renin-angiotensin mechanism.
Angiotensin has following effects
(a) Raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels (being a
powerful vasoconstrictor) and thereby, GFR.
(b) Activates the adrenal cortex to release +aldosterone.
(c) Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na and water from the
distal parts of the tubule. This also leads
to an increase in blood pressure and GFR.
3.Regulation by the Heart
Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) produced by the atria of heart
can cause vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and thereby,
decrease the blood pressure.
ANF inhibits NaCl reabsorption and concentration of urine.
Role of Other Organs in Excretion
Other than the kidneys, there are some accessory excretory
organs also that help in the elimination of excretory wastes.
These are described as follows
1. Lungs
Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products formed in
respiration. Lungs remove the CO2 and some water as vapour in
the expired air. About 18 L of CO2 per hour and 400 mL of water
per day are eliminated by human lungs.
2. Liver
It changes the decomposed haemoglobin of the worn-out red
blood corpuscles into bile pigments, i.e., bilirubin and biliverdin.
These pigments passes into the alimentary canal with the bile for
elimination in the faeces. The liver also excretes cholesterol,
steroid hormones, certain vitamins and drugs via bile.
Liver deaminates the excess and unwanted amino acids,
producing ammonia, which is quickly combined with CO2 to form
urea in urea cycle or Ornithine cycle, which is further removed by
the kidneys.
3. Skin
The sweat and sebaceous glands in the skin can eliminate certain
substances through their secretions.
(i) Sweat Glands The secretion of sweat glands (sweat) is an
aqueous fluid containing NaCl, lactic acid, small amounts of urea,
amino acids and glucose. Control of sweat lost is an example of
homeostasis control, for regulating the body temperature (i.e., to
facilitate a cooling effect on the body surface).
(ii) Sebaceous Glands Sebum from sebaceous glands eliminates
sterols, fatty acids, waxes and hydrocarbons. This secretion is
mainly meant for protective oily covering of the skin.
4. Intestine
Epithelial cells of colon excrete excess salts of calcium,
magnesium and iron along with faeces.
5. Salivary Glands
Heavy metals and drugs are excreted in the saliva.

Disorders of the Excretory System.

Some of these are as follows
(i) Uremia It is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in
the blood. Urea is highly harmful as it poisons the cells at high
concentration and may lead to kidney failure.
(ii) Renal Calculi It is the formation of stone or insoluble mass of
crystallised salts (calcium, magnesium, phosphates and oxalates
etc.), formed within the kidney.
(iv) Glomerulonephritis It is the inflammation of glomeruli of
kidney.
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