Electronic Devices and Digital Systems vvvvvvvvvvwwwYYV¥Y Overview of Semiconductors, Diodes and Transistors Introduction to JFET and MOSFET Construction and Working of Power Devices-SCR Switching Characteristics of SCR Types of Power Converters. Natural and Forced Commutation Linear Voltage Regulator Realize the Logic Expression Using Basic Logic Gates Combinational Logic Design Sum of Product form (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) form Minterm and Maxterm Karnaugh Map (K-Map) representation of logical functions J104 Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2.1 OVERVIEW OF SEMICONDUCTORS Depending on their conductivity, materials can be classified into three types as conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Conductor is a good conductor of electricity. Insulator is a poor conductor of electricity. Semiconductor has its conductivity lying between these two extremes, 2.1.1 Classifications of Semiconductors Intrinsic Semiconductor: A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. Extrinsic Semiconductor: Due to the poor conduction at room temperature, the intrinsic semiconductor, as such, is not useful in the electronic devices. Hence the current conduction capability of the intrinsic semiconductor should be increased. This can be achieved by adding a small amount of impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor, so that it becomes impurity semiconductor or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurity is known as doping. N-type Semiconductor: A small amount of pentavalent impurities such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorus is added to the pure semiconductor (germanium or silicon crystal) to get N-type semiconductor. Thus, the addition of pentavalent impurity (antimony) increases the number of electrons in the conduction band thereby increasing the conductivity of N-type semiconductor, ‘Asa result of doping, the number of free electrons far exceeds the number of holes in an N-type semiconductor. So electrons are called majority carriers and holes are called minority carriers P-type Semiconductor: A small amount of trivalent impurities such as aluminium or boron is added to the pure semiconductor to get the P-type semiconductor. The number of holes is very much greater than the number of free electrons in a P-type material, holes are termed as majority carriers and electrons as minority carriers. 2.2 PN JUNCTION DIODES p-n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor material, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. Fig. 2.1 PN Junction Diode Diodes allow electricity to flow in only the direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flowElectronic Devices ond Digital Systems 105 Biasing of Diode: The process of applying an external voltage is called as “biasing”. Zero Bias: When no external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode called Zero Biased Junction Diode. Forward Biased PN Junction Diode When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the n-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the p-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow. For VF > VO, the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence, the holes cross the junction from P-type to N-type and the electrons cross the junction in the opposite direction, resulting in relatively large current flow in the external circuit. electrons —~ => holes Fig. 2.2 Forward Biased PN junction Diode Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The Positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. For large applied reverse bias, the free electrons from the N-type moving towards the Positive terminal of the battery acquire sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge valence electrons from semiconductor atoms in the crystal. These newly liberated electrons, in turn, acquire sufficient energy to dislodge other parent electrons. Thus, a large number of free electrons are formed which is commonly called as an avalanche of free electrons. This leads to the breakdown of the junction leading to very large reverse current. The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is known as breakdown voltage.106 Electrical and Electronics Engineering depletion region electrons =~ —_holes Fig. 2.3 Reversed Biased PN Diode Forward Current +H1(mA) Forward Bias Reverse Breakdown Voltage Forward Voltage Reverse Voltage t -50mA, ‘Zener Germanium 0.3v Germanium Breakdown -20mA Silicon 0.7v Silicon ‘or Avalanche Region Reverse, UWA) y Current Fig. 2.4 PN Diode Applications (i) rectifiers in de power supplies (ii) switch in digital logic circuits used in computers (iii) clamping network used as de restorer in TV receivers and voltage multipliers (iv) clipping circuits used as wave shaping circuits used in computers, radars, radio and TV receivers (v) demodulation (detector) circuits. 2.3 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR [BJT] A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the ‘operation depends on the interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name Bipolar. It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern communication systems. The BJT consists of a silicon (or germanium) crystal in which a thin layer of N-type SiliconElectronic Devices and Digital Systems 107 is sandwiched between two layers of P-type silicon. This transistor is referred to as PNP. Alternatively, in a NPN transistor, a layer of P-type material is sandowiched between two layers of N-type material. The two types of the BIT are represented in Fig 2.5. E- Emitter B-Base C-Collector Fig. 2.5 Transistor (a) NPN and (6) PNP 2.3.1 Operation of NPN Transistor As shown in Fig.2.6, the forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of an NPN transistor causes a lot of electrons from the emitter region to crossover to the base region. As the base is lightly doped with P-type impurity, the number of holes in the base region is very small and hence the number of electrons that combine with holes in the P-type base region is also very small. Hence a few electrons combine with holes to constitute a base current I, The remaining electrons (more than 95%) crossover into the collector region to constitute a collector current J.. Thus the base and collector current summed up gives the emitter current, i.e. I, = - (i. + I). is In the external circuit of the NPN bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of the emitter current I, the base current I, and the collector current IC are related byl, =I, + I. N o> fare ees oe oe oe ore | Fig. 2.6 Operation of NPN Transistor 2.3.2. Operation of PNP Transistor As shown in Fig. 2.7, the forward bias applied to the emitter-base junction of a PNP transistor Causes a lot of holes from the emitter region to crossover tot he base Tegion as the base is lightly doped with N-types impurity. The number of electrons in the base region is very small and hence the number of holes combined with electrons in the N-type base region is also “ery small. Hence a few holes combined with electrons to constitute a base current I, The108 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Temaining holes (more than 95%) crossover into the collector region to constitute a Collect current Ic. Thus the collector and base current when summed up gives the emitter curren, =e +1). 7 In the external circuit of the PNP bipolar junction, transistor, the magnitudes of the emitter current I, the base current I, and the collector current I, are related by IL=1,+1, , This equation gives the fundamental relationship between the currents in a bipolar transistor circuit. E Fig. 2.7 Operation of PNP Transistor 2.3.3 Transistor Configurations As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain. The Common Base (CB) Configuration As jits name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the BASE connection is common to both the input signal AND the output signal with the input signal being applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage point.Electronic Devices and Digital Systems 109 Vee Vec Fig. 2.8 Common Base Configuration ic (ma) 20 0.5 1.0 Vue (V) Vee (V) Fig. 2.9 Input Output Characteristics The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied between the base, while the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based amplifiers and which represents the “normal” method of bipolar transistor connection. Fig. 2.10 Common Emitter Configuration110 Electrical and Electronics Engineering | | | | | | | | (VOLTS) Fig. 2.11 Output Characteristics 2.4 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR FET is a device in which the flow of current through the conducting region is controlled by an electric field. Hence the name Field Effect Transistor (FET). As current conduction is only by majority carries, FET is said to be a unipolar device. Based on the construction, the FET can be classified into two types as Junction FET (JFET) and Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET). Depending upon the majority carriers, JFET has been classified into two types named as (1) N-channel JFET with electrons as the majority carriers and (2) P-channel JFET with holes as the majority carriers. 2.4.1 Construction of N-Channel JFET It consists of an N-type bar which is made of silicon. Ohmic contacts, (terminals) made at the two ends of the bar, are called Source and Drain. Source (S) This terminal is connected to the negative pole of the battery, Electrons which are the majority carriers in the N-type bar enter the bar through this terminal. Drain (D) This terminal is connected to the positive pole of the battery. The majority carriers leave the bar thruogh this terminal. Gate (G) Heavily doped P-Type silicon is diffused on both sides of the N-type silicon bar by which PN junctions are formed. These layers are joined together and the called Gate G. 2.4.2 Operation of N-Channel JFET © When V,, = 0 and V,, = 0 When no voltage is applied between drain and source, and gate and source, the thickness of the depletion regions around the PN junction is uniform as shown in Fig.Electronic Devices and Digital Systems 111 Depletion region eis \ se ] = | Fer ona) | Fig, 2.12 N-Channel JFET 9?) When V,. = 0 and V,,, is decreased from zero In this case PN junctions are reverse biased and hence the thickness of the depletion region increases. As V5 is decreased from zero, the reverse bias voltage across the PN junction is increesed and hence the thickness of the depletion region in the channel increases until the two depletion regions make contact with each other. In this condition, the channel is said to be curoff. The value of Veg which is required to cutoff the channel is called the cutoff voltage V.. When V,, = 0 and V,. is increased from zero Drain is positive with respect to the source with V,, = 0. Now the majority carriers (electrons) flow through the N-channel from source to drain. Therefore the conventional current I, flows from drain to source. AS Ving is increased, the cross-sectional area of the channel will be reduced. At a certain value V, of V,,, the cross-sectional area at B becomes minimum. At this voltage, the channel is said to be pinched off and the drain voltage V, is called the pinch-off voltage. When VGS is negative and VDS is increased When the gate is maintained at a negative voltage less than the negative cutoff voltage, the reverse voltage across the junction is further increased. Hence for a negative value of V,,, the curve of I, versus V,. is similar to that for V., = 0, but the values of V, and BV,.,. are lower, as shown in Fig. 13.21, From the curves, it is seen that above the pinch-off voltage, at a constant value of Ves Ip increases with an increase of V,.. Hence a JFET is suitable for use as a voltage amplifier, similar to a transistor amplifier.112 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Vos =o Vos=-1¥ Vos=-2Y -~ Vos (Vv) BVoco Fig. 2.14 Drain Characteristics Comparison of JFET and BJT 1. FET operation depends only on the flow of majority carriers - holes for P-channel FETs and electrons for N-channel FETs. Therefore they are called Unipolar devices. Bipolar transitor (BJT) operation depends on both minority and majority current carriers. 2. FETs are less noisy than BJTs. FETs exhibit a much higher input impendance (> 100 MQ) than BJTs. FETs are much easier to fabricate and are particularly suitable for ICs because they occupy less space than BJTs. 5. FET is normally less sensitive to temperature. FET amplifiers have less voltage gain and produce more signal distortion except for small signal operation. 2.5 METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (MOSFET) MOSFET is the common term of the Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET). There are two forms of MOSFET: (i) Enhancement MOSFET and (ii) Depletion MOSFET. Principle By applying a transverse electric field across an insulator, deposited on the semiconducting material, the thickness and hence the resistance of a conducting channel of a semiconducting material can be controlled. Enhancement MOSFET Construction: The construction of an N-channel Enhancement MOSFET is shown it Fig.13.23. Two highly doped N* regions are diffused in a lightly doped substrate of P-YPe silicon substrate. One N* region is called source S and the other one is called the drain D. They are separated by 1 mil (10° inch). A thin insulating layer of SiO, is grown over the surface of the structure and holes are cut into the oxide layer, allowing contact with source and drain. Then a thin layer of metal aluminium is formed over the layer of SiO,. This meetal layer covers the entire channel region and it forms the gate G. FFElectronic Devices and Digital Systems 113 The metal area of the gate, in conjunction with the insulating oxide layer of SiO, and the semiconductor channel forms a parallel plate capacitor. This device is called the insulated gate FET because of the insulating layer of SiO,. This layer gives an extremely high input resistance for the MOSFET. Operation: If the substrate is grounded and a positive voltage is applied at the gate, the positive charge on G induces an equal negative charge on the substrate side between the source and drain regions. Thus an electric field is produced between the source and drain regions. The | direction of the electric field is perpendicular to the plates of the capacitor through the oxide. | The negative charge of electrons which are minority carriers in the P-type substrate forms an | inversion layer. As the positive voltage on the gate increases, the induced negative charge in | the semidconductor increases. Hence the conductivity increases and current flows from source | to drain through the induced channel. Thus the drain current is enhanced by the positive gate | voltage as shown in figure. ee t Sie Indveed channel ___Paype substrate eee (I Yoo Fig. 2.15 N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET 2.6 SCR (SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER) SCR is a three-terminal and four layers solid-state device from the thyristor family. This article discusses the SCR symbol, construction, working, applications, packages, and VI Characteristics of SCR. SCR stands for Silicon-controlled rectifier. The SCR is a very important member of the thyristor family. It is more popular than other thyristor family members like TRIAC, and DIAC even though that thyristor is used interchangeably with SCR.The SCR symbol is very similar to the diode symbol, but it has an additional gate terminal. As SCR only allows current in one direction like a diode, the symbol is very similar to the diode symbol. As the anode current is triggered by the gate, therefore the gate terminal is denoted in contrast to the diode symbol. ate Anode > J Cathode Fig. 2.16 SCR Symbol114 Electrical and Electronics Engineering The three terminals of the SCR are named anode, cathode, and gate. For proper w, connect the anode of the SCR with positive and cathode with negative of the battery. 4. Pulse for a short duration is required at the gate to kick start the conduction. Orking, Positive 2.6.1 SCR Construction and Working SCR has four layers of extrinsic semiconductor materials. These four-layer form three p junctions named 31, J2, and J3. The layers are either NPNP or PNPN. The anode and cathog, terminals are placed at the end layers and where the gate terminal is placed with the third layer. The outer layers are heavily dopped and the inner two layers are lightly doped. The SCR Construction is illustrated here below. Fig. 2.17 4 Layers of SCR Construction SCR working depends upon the battery polarity and the gate input. The SCR can operate in three different modes. 1. Forward Blocking Mode 2. Forward Conduction Mode 3. Reverse Blocking Mode Forward Blocking Mode of SCR: When anode of SCR connects to the positive and cathode of SCR with the negative of the battery terminal. And no pulse is applied at the gate terminal. The SCR work in the forward blocking mode. This means that SCR will not conduct even thought the polarity of SCR is forward bias. In forward blocking mode, the J1 and J3 PN junctions are forward biased. But the middle junction J2 is reverse biased, therefore, the SCR will not conduct in the forward blocking mode. Forward Conduction Mode of SCR: Forward conduction mode is the only mode of SCR for conduction. The SCR can be set into the forward conduction mode in two ways: Fis! by providing the gate pulse to forward bias the J2 junction, Second by increasing the anode ° cathode voltage to break down the J2 junction. The gate pulse method is preferred and suitable for many applications. The breakdown method reduces the SCR lifetime. The SCR will remElectronic Devices and Digital Systems 115 in conduction mode even after the removal of the gate pulse or reducing the applied voltage. If the anode current of the SCR drops below the holding current the SCR will stop falling back to forward blocking mode. Reverse Blocking Mode in SCR: If the anode terminal of the SCR connects to the negative and cathode terminal of SCR connects to the positive of battery terminals. The SCR is in reverse blocking mode. In this mode, J1 and J3 junctions are reverse biased. Where the middle junction J2 is forward bias. As two Junctions are reverse bias, so there is no current flowing through it but only a small leakage current due to the drift charge carrier. 2.6.2. VI Characteri ies of SCR The curve of VI characteristics of SCR is obtained by changing the voltage across the SCR and noticing the current through SCR. When connecting in reverse polarity, the SCR will conduct a small current, leakage current up to breakdown voltage, VBR. After that point, the SCR will break down and start to act like a short circuit. Below the breakdown point, the region is called reverse blocking mode. If connect in the forward polarity, the SCR will not allow any current. This region is called forward blocking mode, the region is below the VBO point. The portion of the VI characteristic curve is in the first quadrant. In this region, the current is below the latching current. Ade Carr Fond oon Made 4 (3 MI Voltage Yo Forward Blocking Mode Y ae fee cing ade Fig. 2.18 When the voltage reaches the VBO point, the SCR starts the current flow. Alternatively, the SCR can be put into the forward conduction mode by applying the gate that will increase the anode current above the latching current. A higher gate current can put SCR faster in the forward conduction mode as in the graph Ig3 >Ig2>Igi. The SCR will remain in the forward Conduction mode if the anode current is above the holding current.116 Electrical and Electronics Engineering SCR Applications The most common SCR application is the DC motor speed control. The DC motor has two windings, where the armature winding is connected to the AC supply by two SCR. The SCR controls the amount of current to the motor and ultimately the speed of the DC motor. 2.7 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) The IGBT or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is the combination of BJT and MOSFET, Its name also implies the fusion between them. “Insulated Gate refers to the input part of MOSFET having very high input impedance. It does not draw any input current rather it operates on the voltage at its gate terminal. “Bipolar” refers to the output part of the BJT having bipolar nature where the current flow is due to both types of charge carriers. It allows it to handle very large currents and voltages using small voltage signals. This hybrid combination makes the IGBT a voltage-controlled device. Cc c otk a ( Ik ) E Ee IGBT - Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor Symbol Fig. 2.19 2.7.1 Construction and Working of IGBT IGBT is made of four layers of semiconductor to form a PNPN structure. The collector (C) electrode is attached to P layer while the emitter (E) is attached between the P and N layers. A P+ substrate is used for the construction of IGBT. An N- layer is placed on top of it to form PN junction J1. Two P regions are fabricated on top of N- layer to form PN junction J2. The P region is designed in such a way to leave a path in the middle for the gate (G) electrode. N+ regions are diffused over the P region as shown in the figure. Emitter sion £™ Gate Emitter Mea! Collector c Fig. 2.20 Structure of IGBTElectronic Devices and Digital Systems 117 The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. ‘The emitter is directly attached to the N+ region while the gate is insulated using a silicon dioxide layer. The base P+ layer inject holes into N- layer that is why it is called injector layer. While the N- layer is called the drift region. Its thickness is proportional to voltage blocking capacity. The P layer above is known as the body of IGBT. The N- layer is designed to have a path for current flow between the emitter and collector through the junction using the channel that is created under the influence of the voltage at the gate electrode. The two terminals of IGBT collector (C) and emitter (E) are used for the conduction of current while the gate (G) is used for controlling the IGBT. Its working is based on the biasing between Gate-Emitter terminals and Collector-Emitter terminals. Collector ¢ Fig. 2.21 Working of IGBT The collector-emitter is connected to Vcc such that the collector is kept at a positive voltage than the emitter. The junction j1 becomes forward biased and j2 becomes reverse biased. At this point, there is no voltage at the gate. Due to reverse j2, the IGBT remains switched off and no current will flow between collector and emitter. Applying a gate voltage VG positive than the emitter, negative charges will accumulate right beneath the SiO2 layer due to capacitance. Increasing the VG increases the number of charges which eventually form a layer when the VG exceeds the threshold voltage, in the upper P-region. This layer form N-channel that shorts N- drift region and N+ region. The electrons from the emitter flow from N+ region into N- drift region. While the holes from the collector are injected from the P + region into the N- drift region. Due to the excess of both electrons and holes in the drift region, its conductivity increase and starts the conduction of current. Hence the IGBT switches ON. 27.2 V-I Characteristics of IGBT Unlike BIT, IGBT is a voltage-controlled device that requires only a small voltage at its gate ‘0 control the collector current. However, the gate-emitter voltage VGE needs to be greater than the threshold voltage. Transfer characteristics of the IGBT show the relation of input voltage V,, to output collector current I. When the Vo, is Ov, there is no IC and the device remains switched off. When the V,,. is slightly increased but remains below threshold voltage V,._, the device118 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Temains switched off but there is a leakage current. When the Vig, exceeds the threshold limit the I. starts to increase and the device switches ON. Since it is a unidirectional device, 1h, current only flows in one direction. Locus of Pinch-Otf Voltage le Fig. 2.22 I-V Characteristics of IGBT The given graph shows the relation between the collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage V,,. at different levels of Veg. At Voge < Veer the Icy, is in cutoff mode and the I, = Oatany V.,. At Veg > Veer the Ioq 20€S into active mode, where the IC increases with an increase in VCE. Furthermore, for each V,,,, where Veg, < Ver < Vogs: the IC is different. The reverse voltage should not exceed the reverse breakdown limit. So does the forward voltage. If they exceed their respective breakdown limit, uncontrolled current starts passing through it. Applications of IGBT IGBTs have numerous applications used in AC as well as DC circuits. Here are some of the important applications of IGBT © It is used in SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) to supply power to sensitive medical equipment and computers. © It is used in UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) system. © It is used in AC and DC motor drives offering speed control. © It is used in chopper and inverters. e It is used in solar inverters. 2.8 TYPES OF POWER CONVERTERS 2.8.1 AC to DC Converters fixed de 1A-Diode Rectifiers: This rectifier circuit changes applied ac input voltage into a ial e mall voltage. Either a single-phase or three-phase ac signal is applied at the input. These are min used in electric traction and in electrochemical processes like electroplating along with # battery charging and power supply. These are also used in welding and UPS related services:Electronic Devices and Digital Systems 119 1g-Phase Controlled Rectifiers: Unlike diode rectifiers, Phase-controlled rectifiers are designed to convert a fixed value of ac signal voltage into a variable de voltage. Here line voltage operates the rectifier hence these are sometimes known as line commutated ac to de converters. Similar to diode rectifiers, here also the applied ac signal can be a single-phase or three-phase ac signal. Its major applications are in de drives, HVDC systems, compensators, metallurgical and chemical industries as well as in excitation systems for synchronous machines. 2.8.2 DC to DC Converters The converters that convert the de signal of fixed frequency present at the input into a variable dc signal at the output are also known as choppers, Here the achieved output de voltage may have different amplitude than the source voltage. Generally, power transistors, MOSFETs, and thyristors are the semiconductor devices used for their fabrication. The output is controlled by a low power signal that controls these semiconductor devices from a control unit. Fixed DC De Variable signal assem DC signal input Choppers ‘as output 2.8.3 DC to AC Converters The devices that are designed to convert the de signal into ac signal are known as inverters. The applied input is a fixed de voltage that can be obtained from batteries but the output obtained is variable ac voltage. The voltage and frequency of the signal obtained are of variable nature. Here the semiconductor device i.e., the thyristor is turned off by using either line, load, or forced commutation. Inverters mainly find applications in induction motor and synchronous motor drives along with UPS, aircraft, and space power supplies. In high voltage de transmission system, induction heating supplies as well as low power systems of mobile nature like flashlight discharge system in photography camera to very high power industrial system, 2.8.4 AC to AC Converters ‘An ac to ac converter is designed to change the ac signal of fixed frequency into a variable ac output voltage. AC AC signal signal as as input output Cycloconverters: A cycloconverter is a device used for changing ac supply of fixed voltage and single frequency into an ac output voltage of variable voltage as well as different frequency. However, here the obtained variable ac signal frequency is lower than the frequency of the applied ac input signal. It adopts single-stage conversion. Generally, line commutation is mostly used in cycloconverters however forced or load commutated cycloconverters are also Used in various applications. These mainly find applications in slow-speed large AC traction drives such as a rotary kiln, multi MW ac motor drives, etc.120 Electrical and Electronies Engineering IAC voltage regulators): The converters designe ae pala fet ie into a variable ac voltage signal ofthe same ies change gy of input. For the operation of these controllers, two thyristors in an antiparallel are, that are used. Line commutation is used for turning off both the devices. It offers the the output voltage by changing the firing angle delay. The major applications of ac voltage controllers are in lighting control, electron changers, speed control of large fans and pumps as well. ic en ontolng 7 2.9 COMMUTATION ‘Commutation is the process of turning off a conducting thyristor. There are two meth i ods commutation viz., natural commutation and forced commutation. for 2.9.1 Natural Commutation In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If hy SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle, the anode curren naturally becomes zero (due to the alternating nature of the AC Supply). As the current inthe circuit goes through the natural zero, a reverse voltage is applied immediately aross the Scg (due to the negative half cycle). These conditions turn OFF the SCR. This method of commutation is also called as Source Commutation or AC Line Commutation or Class F Commutation. This commutation is possible with line commutated inverters, controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC voltage regulators hecause the supply is the AC source in all these converters. 2.9.2, Forced Commutation In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such circuits, forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit (known as Commutating Circuit) to commutate the SCR. Hence the name, Forced Commutation. This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors and they are called Commutating Components, These commutating components cause to apply a reverse voltage across the SCR that immediately bring the current in the SCR to zero. Depending on the process for achieving zero current in the SCR and the arrangement of the commutating components, Forced Commutation is classified into different types. They a: Class A - Self Commutation by Resonating the Load Class B - Self Commutation by Resonating the Load Class C - Complementary Commutation Class D - Auxiliary Commutation Class E - Pulse Commutation This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.Electronic Devices and Digital Systems 121 2.10 VOLTAGE REGULATOR A fixed or linear voltage regulator is a device or Circuit which is responsible for providing a constant de output voltage for any changes in input Voltage or load conditions. It is the most essential part of electronic devices. There are mainly two types of voltage regulators. Linear voltage regulator Switching voltage regulator 2.10.1 Linear Voltage Regulator A linear voltage regulator is a regulator device that is used to maintain the specified output voltage that remains constant despite variations in input voltage and load condition. It uses an active pass device (such as BJT or MOSFET) which is controlled by a high gain amplifier. The performance of a linear voltage regulator is to act as a voltage divider to generate the regulated output voltage. Ina linear voltage regulator, a linear component (resistive load) is used to regulate the output voltage. The transistor stays in an active region or linear region of its operation during the voltage regulation. In order to maintain a Constant output voltage, the internal resistance can be varied. The variable resistance is provided by using a transistor which is controlled by the amplifier feedback loop. A linear Voltage regulator is also called a step-down converter where the output voltage is always less than the input voltage Types of Linear Voltage Regulator Based on the connection of load, there are mainly two types of Linear Voltage Regulators. They are: Series Voltage Regulator Shunt Voltage Regulator Series Voltage Regulator Ina series voltage regulator, a variable element or active pass element such as a transistor is connected in series with the connected load. The constant output Voltage across the load is achieved by varying the resistance of the series element with respect to the load. Series voltage Tegulator is the more common form of the voltage regulator. It is more efficient than a shunt voltage regulator. The circuit diagram for a typical series voltage regulator is shown in the figure. - . ew Unregulated S$ ; Power Supply122 Electrical and Electronics Engineering In this circuit, the output voltage is measured through the aes in between Ry and R2. This voltage is compared to the reference voltage Vref. The resulting error signal iy) such as the transistor. Therefore, the voltage across control the conduction of the pass element ree ieealiatmaiarain the transistor is varied and hence the output voltage across the led constant, 2.11 SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS) SMPS stands for switched mode power supply. It incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. It is mainly used for obtaining a controlled de power supply ax output. It is used to convert power (voltage) using switching devices that are turned on ang off alternatively at high frequencies. It uses storage components like inductors or capacitors to supply power when the switching device is in its non-conduction state (off-state). SMpg possesses high efficiency and is widely used in various electronic equipment such as computers, battery chargers, and other sensitive equipment requiring a stable and efficient power supply, The major components that constitute SMPS are as follows: Input rectifier and Filter (Diode rectifier and capacitor filter) High-frequency switch (Power transistor or MOSFET) Power transformer Output rectifier and Filter (Diode rectifier and capacitor filter) eer ae . Control circuit (comparator and pulse width modulator) ‘The figure given below represents the functional block diagram of SMPS: ac sl nectar and | >| Fregney E>] pecinerana [-->0C ea pency >| Rectifier and ae Filter ‘Switch x = Fitter ‘output avi v" ronan a [ane Pw ontrot signal Circuit Fig. 2.24 Block diagram of Switch Mode Power Supply Initially, the unregulated ac input signal from the source is provided to the input rectifier, and filter circuit. Here the ac input signal is rectified to generate a de signal and further smoothened to remove high-frequency noise component from it. The de output (still in unregulated form) is fed to the power transistor that acts as a high-frequency switch. Here the de signal undergoes chopping (switching). This circuit acts as an ideal switch i.¢., whe? the power transistor (chopper circuit) is in on state, current passes through it with negligible voltage drop, and de signal is obtained at the output terminal of the transistor. However, unde? the off state of the power transistor, no current passes through it and leading to cause maxim voltage drop within it. Thus, at the output side, no voltage will be present. Hence, according !° the switching action of the power transistor de voltage will be obtained at its output side. TH chopping frequency plays a crucial role in maintaining the desired dc voltage level. esElectronic Devices and Digital Systems 123 The obtained dc signal at the output of the chopper circuit is then fed to the primary winding of the high-frequency power transformer. Here the step-down transformer converts the high voltage signal into a low voltage level which is further provided as input to the output rectifier and filter unit. This simply filters out the unwanted residuals from the signal in order to provide a regulated de signal as the output. The control circuitry present here acts as the feedback circuit for the complete unit. This involves a comparator along with a pulse width modulator (PWM). The de output from the rectifier and filter is fed to the control circuit where the error amplifier which acts as a comparator, compares the obtained dc voltage with the reference value. If the de output is greater than the reference value then the chopping frequency is to be decreased. The decrease in chopping frequency will reduce the output power and so the de output voltage. However, if the de output is less than the reference value then the chopping frequency is increased. When chopping frequency is raised then the de output voltage will get increased. The pulse width modulator in the above circuit is responsible for generating a fixed frequency pulse width modulated waveform whose duty cycle controls the chopping frequency. Basically, the duty ratio is the ratio of on-time to the overall cycle time (i.e., on + off) time. Hence, by making necessary adjustments in the width of the pulses, the chopping frequency gets adjusted hence, regulated de output can be obtained. Advantages 1, It is highly efficient than linear power supplies. Typically, the efficiency of SMPS lies between 60% - 95%. 2. Due to the high-frequency operation of the device, the overall size is small and less bulky. Thus, is compact. 3. It is inexpensive because heat dissipation is less. 4. The obtained output voltage can be more or less than the supply input. Applications of SMPS The devices invented under the latest technologies require a highly efficient power supply which is offered by SMPS. Thus, it finds applications in various power amplifiers, personal computers, security and railway systems, television sets, motor drives, etc. 2.12 REALIZE THE LOGIC EXPRESSION USING BASIC LOGIC GATES 2.12.1 Logic Gates A logic gate is a device that act as a building block for digital circuits. They perform basic logical function that as fundamental to digital circuits.124 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Name Graphic symbol Algebraic function Truth table ~ OR x > >— Fexty [ ’ x|F ‘ Inverter x—_]>o>—_ F F=x ofa 1fo x|F Buffer —_>— F Fe=x Ol2 ra xy |r J 0 oft NAND ; _| }— F = (wy)! o aft 7 onl 1 1/0 x_y|F_ x 0 oft a y > >— z F= (ty)! o-1\0 1 ofo 1 1fo oo veces : 0 0j0 Exclusive-OR x roe F ay tx'y Sah (xoR) y a y 7 ot 1 1] 0Electronic Devices and Digital Systems 125 Exclusive-NOR Fe x =) >— Fay+ry equivalence = @® yy 2.13 COMBINATIONAL LOGIC DESIGN “ Examples for realization of logic expression using logic gates Example 1 F=ABC+ABC'+A'BC' This logical expression can be designed by the combination of NOT gate, NAD gate and OR gate. the combinational logic diagram is shown in Fig.2.25 ABC FEABC+ABC+A'BC’ Fig. 2.25 Example 2 F = (A+B +C)(A'+ B’+C) + (AtB'+C) This logical expression can be designed by the combinatiion of NOT gate, NAD gate and OR Bate, the combinational logic diagram is shown in Fig.2.26 |126 Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ateeey Fig. 2.26 2.14 SUM OF PRODUCT FORM (SOP) AND PRODUCT OF SUM (POS) FORM Logical functions (Boolean expression) are generally expressed in terms of logical variables (inputs) as following forms. (Each input variable can have the value, either 0 or 1 only) SUM OF PRODUCTS [SOP] , Ex: AB’+ BC+C’D PRODUCT OF SUMS [POS]. Ex: (A’+B’) (B’+C) (C’+D) 2.14.1. Minterm and Maxterm Minterm A product term containing all the inputs of the functions in either complemented or uncomplemented form is called MINTERMS. Let us consider 3 variable (input) function. It has 2? all possible combinations. [A ‘n’ variable (input) function has 2n all possible combinations]. Let the inputs are A, B, C ‘and output is Y. Example: INPUTS OUTPUT A |B | C | MINTERMS Y O}oljoloa ABC 0 1yojvot}n ABC 0 2)}o/ito ABC 1 3}oviti A'BC 1 p4tit oto ABC 1 Sfiftofi ABC 0 S{ilfifo ABC’ 1 Ti i}i ti ase 0Electronic Devices and Digital Systems 127 * In minterms, 0 are assigned with bar letter and 1 are assigned with unbar letter. * Within the row, all are multiplied (Product) © Choose only the output 1. Add the minterms which having 1 output. © In this example, we get Y= A’BC’ + A’BC+ AB’C’+ ABC’. This expression is called canonical SOP form, [Standard SOP form] ¢ Each input is assigned with it equivalent decimal value. In the truth table, only the output Y= 1 is chosen, it Corresponding input’s decimal values are stated as below. Y= Ym (2,3, 4, 6) Maxterms A sum term containing all the inputs of the functions in either complemented or uncomplemented form is called MAXTERMS. Let us consider the same truth table. Example: INPUTS [_ourput B MAXTERMS Y (A+B+O) (A+B+C) | (A+B +O) (A+B +C) (A°+B+C) (A'+BH+C) (A+B +0) [ (A’ +B’ +C) * In maxterms, | are assigned with bar letter and * are assigned with unbar letter. * Within the row, all are summed (Added) * Choose only the output 0, Product the maxterms which having 0 output. In this example, we get Y= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A’+B+C’) (A’ +B’+C’). This expression is called canonical POS form. [Standard POS form] HlHlHl-lelololo]> afafufalelrt—-lo HlHlolo]H]Hlolo rlo]-lol-lolHlola olHfolHlHl-lolo * Each input is assigned with it equivalent decimal value. In the truth table, only the output Y= 0 is chosen, it corresponding input's decimal values are stated as below. Y= JIM @, 1, 5,7) Note: Minterms and Maxterms are complement with each other.128 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Example 1. For the Boolean function given below, obtain the (i) canonical Sop form canonical POS form. Y(A,B,C)= AtB c Y(A\B,C) = A+B’C = AXX+ XB'C , = ABYC’+ AB’C+ ABC’+ ABC+A’B'C+ ABC [Remove the common term; Since A+A=A] Y= AB’C’+ AB’C+ ABC’+ ABC+A’B'C (canonical SOP form) 100 =«-101_— «110 in 001 (m, om Mm m, ™m) Y= Sm (1, 4,5, 6,7) Y= [IM (0,2, 3) (Minterms and Maxterms are complement with each other) M, M, M, 000 010 O11 Y= (A+B+C) (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) (Canonical POS form) 2.15 KARNAUGH MAP (K-MAP) REPRESENTATION OF LOGICAL FUNCTIONS. In many digital circuits and practical problems, we need to find expression with minimum variables, We can minimize Boolean expressions of 2, 3, or 4 variables very easily using the K map without using any Boolean algebra theorems. ‘The K-map can take two forms Sum of Product (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) according to the needs of the problem. Steps to solve expression using the K-map 1. Select K-map according to the number of variables. 2. Identify minterms or maxterms as given in the problem. 3. For SOP put 1's in blocks of K-map respective to the minterms (0's elsewhere). 4. For POS put 0's in blocks of K-map respective to the maxterms (1’s elsewhere). 5 . Make rectangular groups containing total terms in power of two like 2,4,8 (except 1) and try to cover as many elements as you can in one group. 6. From the groups made in step 5 find the product terms and sum them up for SOP fort. 2.15.1 Grouping Rules ‘The Karnaugh map uses the following rules for the simplification of expressions by groUPié together adjacent cells containing ones 1. No zeros allowed, 2. No diagonals, 3. Only power of 2 number of cells in each group.Electronic Devices and Digital Systems 129 Groups should be as large as possible. Everyone must be in at least one group, Overlapping allowed. Wrap around is allowed. SIA Get the fewest number of groups Possible. Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F(A,B) = Ym(0,2,3) BoB oo at ‘BT A 1 FAB) =B +4 Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F(A, B) = Ym (2, 0, 3) A 0 A 1 F=A Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F=AB+AB Solution: ‘Number of input variables are 2 Hence the number of squares = 2" = 2 = 4130 Electrical and Electronics Engineering ou B f 1 ey [| | ! +> OD Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F (A, B) = =m @, 3) Solution: Number of input variables are 2 Hence the number of squares = 2" = 2? = 4 em om F(A.B) =) m(0,3) = AB + AB Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F (A, B, C) = ABC + ABC + ABC Solution: Number of input variables are 3 Hence the number of squares = 2° = 2? = BC BC BC BC oo or 10 ; [| ° 1 a) A 1 FCA,B,C) = AC + ABElectronic Devices and Digital Systems 131 ‘Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F(A, B, C) = =m 0, 3, 7, 6) Solution: Number of input variables are 3 Hence the number of squares = 2° = 23 = g BC BC OBC Bt 00 01 1110 on F(A,B,C) = ABC + BC+AB Example 7 Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F(A, B, C, D) = ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD Solution: Number of input variables are 4 Hence the number of squares = 2° = cD CD cD OGD 00 o1 10 F(A,B,C,D) = BD +Ascn + aBtp132 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Simplify the Boolean expression by using K-Map F (A,B, C, D) = Em (0, 2,4, 6, 12, 14, 15, 8 10) Solution: Number of input variables are 4 Hence the number of squares = 2" = 2'= 16 t to cD oo F(A,B,C,D) =D + ABC Simply the following Boolean expression using K-Map and implement Y (A, B,C, D) = Em (0, 1, 2,4, 5,7, 8: 9: 10, 12,13) it using logic gates cD YyeouBD+ABD Implementation Using Logic Gates Y=C’ + BD’ + ABD A BCD