SOLA3540 & SOLA9001 Applied Photovoltaics

Tutorial 2a

Question 1
(a) A silicon solar cell with a flat (i.e., non-textured) surface is encapsulated under glass of
refractive index of 1.5. Given that the refractive index of Si at 0.6 µm wavelength is 3.9 and
that the light falls perpendicularly onto the Si surface, calculate the refractive index and
thickness of the antireflection coating material required to reduce reflection from the cell to zero
at this wavelength.
(b) A multi-layer dielectric system can further decrease the reflection at the surface due to the
interference of the reflected light from each interface (see the figure below). For double layer
antireflection (DLAR) coatings at the normal incidence condition, minimum reflectance is
achieved by having quarter-wavelength-thick films with:
(i) a thickness of dj = λ0/(4 nj) where j = 1,2 for DLAR
(ii) refractive indices that meet the following expression:
n1n3 = non2
(iii) n2 = 3.2

Assuming that the cell is encapsulated under glass of refractive index of n0 = 1.5, find suitable
values for n1, n2, d1 and d2 to minimize the cell reflection to zero at 600 nm. (Note: the refractive
index (n3) for Si is given in part a)

Question 2
(a) Derive an expression for the fractional power loss due to lateral current flow in the diffused top
layer of a silicon solar cell.
(b) A commercial cell has a top layer sheet resistivity of 35 Ω/square and gives its maximum power
output at a voltage of 420 mV and a current density of 28 mA/cm2. If the finger spacing is
3 mm, calculate the fractional power loss due to lateral current flows in the diffused top layer.
(c) If the bulk substrate resistivity is 1 Ωcm and the substrate is 350 µm thick, estimate the
fractional power loss due to current flow in the substrate.

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Question 3
A schematic diagram of a silicon solar cell, including front and back contacts is shown in the figure
below.

(a) Sketch the direction of electron flow throughout the device when connected to a load under
sunlight.
(b) For a silicon solar cell, which of the following is a typical value for bulk resistivity (ρb)?
50Ωcm, 5kΩcm, 500mΩcm
(c) The thickness if the bottom p-doped layer of the solar cell is e = 1mm. Calculate the bulk
resistivity of the p-layer given Rb = 100mΩ, c = 0.5cm and g = 1cm.
The sheet resistivity of the top n-layer can be calculated using the following formula:
ρs = ρ/t
(d) In the diagram, which letter represents t? The above formula is only valid if the n layer is
uniformly doped. How the sheet resistivity can be calculated when the doping profile is not
uniform?
(e) Given f = 0.5mm, assuming ρp-layer = ρn-layer, for Jmp = 30mA/cm2 and Vmp = 450mV, calculate
the value of d that allows a fractional power loss less than 5% due to resistance in the substrate
and top layer.

Question 4
One solar cell has an open-circuit voltage of 0.55 V and a short-circuit current of 1.3 A. A second cell
has values of 0.60 V and 1.0 A for these parameters. Assuming that both cells have an ideality factor
of unity, calculate the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current of the combination when the cells
are connected: (a) in parallel; (b) in series.

Question 5
An ideal solar cell (no resistive losses) has an open circuit voltage of 620mV, short circuit current of
2.5 Amps, ideality factor of 1 and T = 300K (nkT/q = 26mV).
(a) Write an equation for VMP in terms of IMP, I0 and IL. Given that IMP = 2.38A, calculate PMP.
(b) 36 identical cells to that in (a) are connected in series to form a module. Sketch the output
current-voltage curve, labelling Voc and Isc.
(c) What size load in ohms is best matched to this PV module?

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(d) The above solar cells have a total area of 100 cm2 and are illuminated by light of wavelength
1.0 microns. Assuming a quantum efficiency of 0.80 (80%), calculate the light intensity falling
on the cells in mW/cm2.
(e) What is the efficiency of the solar cell under the conditions in part (d)?

Question 6
Two identical modules each with Isc = 3A, Voc = 18V and thermal voltage (nkT/q) = 26 mV are
connected as shown.

(a) Are they connected in series or parallel?

(b) Sketch the resultant IV curve, indicating the combined ISC and VOC.
(c) Sketch the IV curve of the shaded module, indicating VOC and ISC, if one cell only was shaded
such that the direct component of light was reduced by 50%, while the diffuse component,
which makes up 20% of the light is not affected (IL(shaded) is 60% of IL(unshaded)).
(d) Sketch the IV curve of the shaded module if a whole row is shaded as for the cell in (c).
(e) Use a sketch to show how you would calculate the power dissipated in the shaded cell (Pshaded)
if the modules were short circuited (zero voltage across pair) while the cell is still shaded as in
(c). Calculate Pshaded. You may assume that the IV curves have a constant current at voltages
below the knee in the curve.
(f) Sketch the IV curve from (d) if the temperature of the shaded cells falls by 25°C and the new I0
= 2.66 × 10-9 A, while the other cells remain unaffected.

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Question 7
Three strings, each containing 5 solar cells are connected in series with a bypass diode in parallel with
each string. The cells and diode have the following characteristics:
Good cell: (VOC = 0.6V, ISC = 4 A)
Bypass diode: (knee voltage ~ -0.6V)
One of the cells is partially shaded and has characteristics as follows:
Shaded cell: (VOC = 0.58V, ISC = 3 A)
(i) 5 good cells in series
(ii) 5 good cells in series, in parallel with a bypass diode (A-B in the
diagram)
(iii) A-C in the diagram
(iv) 4 good cells in series with the shaded cell (Draw the curves for the
4 good cells, the shaded cell and the combined IV curve). Label
on each individual curve the approximate operating points when
this combination has –0.6 volts across it [assume that the IV curve
has a constant current for voltages below the knee in the curve].
(v) 4 good cells in series with the shaded cell, in parallel with a bypass
diode (C-D in the diagram).
(vi) A – D in the diagram. (Hint: Draw the curves for the components
A-C, and C-D and their combined IV curve).
(vii) For the curves in part (vi), label on the curves the approximate
operating points when the whole string (A-D) is short-circuited

When the whole string (A - D) is short-circuited, show that:

(viii) The 4 good cells in series with the shaded cell pass a current Ish = 3A and produce
approximately: +2.4 V × 3 A = 7.2W.
(ix) The bypass diode passes a current Ib = 1A and dissipates approximately -0.6V × 1A = -0.6W
(x) The shaded cell passes current Ish = 3A and dissipates approximately:
(-0.6 – 2.4)V × 3A = -9W
(xi) The remaining 10 good cells pass a current of I = 4A and generate approximately:
0.6V x 4A = 2.4W.

Question 8
A hypothetical solar module consists of 40 identical solar cells in series, each giving an open circuit
voltage of 0.60 V and a short-circuit current of 3A under bright sunshine. The module is short-
circuited under bright sunshine and one cell partially shaded. Assuming that the cells have an ideality
factor of unity and neglecting temperature effects,
(a) Find an expression for the power dissipated in the shaded cell as a function of the fractional
shading of the cell.
(b) If nkT/q = 26 mV and fraction shaded, f = 30%, [this is the total reduction in incident radiation
on the solar cell, both direct and diffuse components], calculate the power dissipated in the
shaded cell.

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Short Answer Questions:

Question S1
(a) Explain why the theoretical limit for the efficiency of a silicon solar cell is so far below 100%.
(b) Explain why commercial silicon cell efficiencies are significantly lower than those produced in
the leading laboratories.

Question S2
(a) Define the term “Nominal Operating Cell Temperature” (NOCT). What factors of module
design affect the NOCT?
(b) Explain how localized “hot spots” can occur in a partially shaded cell connected into a large
photovoltaic array.
(c) Explain how damage from hot spot heating can be prevented.

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