SOLA 3540 & 9001

Applied Photovoltaics

Santosh Shrestha

(contributions from Dr Matt Boreland and A. Prof Alistair Sproul)

Antireflection Coating Surface Texturing
Optical Losses

Efficiency & Cost

APPLIED PV
Cell Properties
and
Design Recombination

Lab vs Industry

Top Contact Design

Surface Passivation Light trapping Back Reflector

2
 Learning Objectives

• Explain “Optical”, “Electrical” and “Recombination” losses in

solar cells.
• Describe techniques to minimise solar cell losses.
• Describe the terms “Surface Texturing”, “Anti-Reflection
coating”, “Back Surface Field”, “Light Trapping”, “Back
Reflector”, “Surface Passivation”.

3
 Pout Voc I sc FF
 
Pin AM 1.5
The energy conversion efficiency, , of a solar cell is defined as: the
ratio of maximum power output of a cell PM [W] and the radiative
input from the sun Pin [W]. (typical intensity = 1 kW/m2) .

4
 4.1 Efficiency and cost (1)

• Single c-Si world record is ~ 26% (UNSW PV lab).

• Laboratory solar cell efficiencies are typically much higher than
those achieved in industry due to use of more expensive
materials and processes.
• Industry cell efficiencies are typically lower and in the range of
14-17%. Many laboratory techniques are not suited to industrial
production (too expensive, too slow...). Typically lower efficiency
indicates lower production costs.
• However, more efficient cells are attractive to industry because
the cost of the solar generated electricity is lower provided the
manufacturing costs are not too high.

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 Losses 4.1 Efficiency & cost (3)
A simplified method allows us to calculate the cost of electricity generated by a
photovoltaic system.

CPV i
COE 
S 1  (1  i) 
n

COE = cost of electricity in $/kWh

CPV = PV system capital cost per unit area ($/m2)
i = annual interest rate
n = lifetime of system (i.e. number of years)
S = annual incident energy (kW-h/m2/year)
 = system efficiency - modules, batteries, inverters including
losses due to heating, wiring and mismatch

Simplified analysis: total COE includes replacement costs (eg batteries, inverters.)
as well as maintenance costs. Typically, however, the capital costs of the PV
system dominate. 6
 60

50 10%
Cost of electricity as a function
Cost of Electricity (c/kWh)

15%
40 20% of PV system cost ($/m2) and PV
system efficiency.
30
Other parameters:
i = 5%,
20
n = 25 years, and
S = 5 kWh/m2/day x 365.
10

0
0 500 1000 1500
PV System Cost ($/m2)

• Depending on the scale of the PV system the COE ranges from ~50 c/kW-h to ~230
c/kW-h. Typical domestic electricity prices are ~10 – 40 c/kW-h.
• To become more competitive PV systems need to be cheaper AND more efficient.

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Losses in Solar Cells- Effect of Light: Non-ideal Effects
  Rs

MAIN LOSSES
 
1. Reflection
n-type Si
2. Incomplete absorption
3. Shading Rsh
4. Parasitic resistance p-type Si
a. series resistance
b. shunt resistance
5. Non radiative recombination
6. Thermalisation -
E
Ec Ec
-

 
Ev Ev
+- + 8
 4.2 Optical Losses (1): Contact Shading

• contact fingers cause reflection

losses… AKA shading loss
(loss of current)
• Narrow fingers reduce shading
n-type loss
p-type
• BUT… Narrow fingers increase Rs
• Optimisation required…
Shading loss vs Rs loss

Reduced cross sectional L

area increases the
resistance of the finger
R
A
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 4.2 Optical Losses (2): Anti-reflection coatings
destructive interference
E.g. SiO2, TiO2, SiN reduces R
λ0
n0 air or glass
n1 anti-reflection
coating
d1
Si wafer n2 semiconductor

• Planar Silicon is highly reflectivity (~30%)

70
n0 = 1, n1 = 2, n2 = 3.94 • Reflection = no photo-generation
60
d1 = 75 nm l0 = 0.6 mm. = loss of current
50 • Anti-reflection coating (ARC) reduces R.
reflection (%)

40
planar Si - no ARC • ARC uses intermediate refractive index layer
30 ( n0<n1<n2 )
20 Min. R  n1  n0 n2 • If d1=λ0/4n1 (quarter wavelength ARC)
10 with ARC • reflected rays (red) 180° out of phase
0 • Interference reduces R
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
wavelength ( m m)
• R minimum if refractive index of the ARC is
n1=(n0n2)1/2 10
 n0, n1, n2- refractive index of
anti-reflection coating n1 air/glass, anti-reflection
coating and silicon.
Silicon

Fraction of energy reflected

R  0 when n1  n0 n2

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4.2 Optical Losses (3): Anti-reflection coatings
• To reduce surface reflection dielectric coatings called “antireflection coatings”
can be used. A “quarter wavelength” ARC is ideally a transparent dielectric film
with a thickness d1 and refractive index n1 such that: d1 = l0/4n1.

• Typically the ARC is designed for a wavelength l0 = 0.6 mm (ie close to the peak of
the solar spectrum).

• Destructive interference between the first reflected beam and all other
reflections reduces the overall reflection. (ie the optical path difference between
these beams due to the ARC introduces a 180 phase difference for l = l0).

• This effect will reduce the reflection particularly for wavelengths close to the
design wavelength l0.

• Further if the refractive index of the ARC satisfies the following relation:

n1  n0 n2 then the reflection at l0 will be zero!

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 refrative index
MgF2 1.3-1.4
n(air) = 1
SiO2 1.4-1.5
n (glass) = 1.5
n(Si)= 3.8 Al2O3 1.8-1.9
SiO 1.8-1.9
Si3N4 ~1.9
TiO2 ~2.3
ZnS ~2.3-2.4

Green et al, Applied PV

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 4.2 Optical losses (4): Surface texturing
Anisotropic Etching
(directional etching
along crystal planes)
Typically NaOH Scanning electron
reduced reflection
microscope image of a How does (R x R)
textured silicon surface
this help!!
2nd chance absorption

oblique
coupling light
cross-section view trapping

p-type • Planar Silicon is highly reflective

• Random texturing with chemical etches
small pyramids
• Processing  solar cell with pyramids
• Reduced reflection (RxR)
• 2nd chance for absorption
NOTE: • Oblique coupling…
• Etching only works on c-Si… needs a • increases effective thickness
uniform crystals structure • absorption closer to the junction
• Mechanical methods can be used on • possibility of light trapping
mc-Si (eg laser and diamond saws)
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 4.2 Optical losses (5): Surface texturing
• Surface texturing of the silicon can also be used to minimise reflection. If the
roughened surface has features which are at a “steep” enough angle, then the
light can be reflected from the silicon surface 2 (or more) times reducing the
overall reflection.
• The surface of crystalline silicon (of particular crystallographic orientation (100)),
can be textured chemically. The resulting structure is a surface made up of
randomly distributed, upright, square based pyramids.
• For multicrystalline silicon “mechanical” or laser texturing can be used to
roughen the surface.

• An additional benefit of surface texturing is that light

is obliquely coupled into the silicon (better chance of 1
absorption for weakly absorbed light). This occurs in
accordance with Snell’s law: n1sin 1= n2sin 2

2
n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the materials on
either side of the interface (eg air/silicon or glass/silicon).
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 4.2 Optical loses (6): Back Reflectors
The best option for a rear reflector is one that
randomises the direction of the scattered
light. This not only increases the pathlength
of some beams, but will cause some of the
R light to be totally internally reflected at the
top surface  light trapping.

HIGH BACK REFLECTION

• High reflection at the back surface Total
reduces absorption in the back contact . internal
• This reflected light then has the chance reflection
of being absorbed in the cell.
Light trapping is particularity important as
silicon wafer thicknesses are decreasing
(from ~ 300 mm to ~ 200 mm) and for thin
film solar cells (thicknesses ~ 1- 10 mm). RANDMONISED BACK REFLECTION
• Obliquely reflects to randomise ray paths
Both improve “red” spectral response. • Enhances potential for “light trapping”
(longer wavelengths absorbed near back of the • Path-length enhancement
cell due to lower absorption coefficient) 16
 4.2 Optical Losses (7): Back Surface Field (BSF)
Front contact

ARC

n-type n (n>p)
p+ layer p (p>n)
(BSF) p-type p+ (p>>n)
Al Rear
contact
•Anneal of the back aluminium contact (thermal soaking)
• Diffuses Al into the Si
• Al is a p-type dopant
 creates a p+ doping gradient at the back contact
• known as a Back Surface Field (BSF)
• BSF lowers minority carrier concentration at the back contact
 lowers effective back surface recombination velocity
 lowers back contact recombination
 Reduced back surface recombination improves red response
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 4.3 Recombination Losses (1)
• Blue light absorbed close to the surface
• Front surface recombination dominates

n e-h

e-h • Red light absorbed deep in the cell

p • Intermediate λ absorbed in collection zone
• Bulk recombination dominates • Back surface recombination dominates
e-h

Possible sites for recombination of minority carriers

within a solar cell.

The efficiency of a solar cell is reduced by the recombination of minority carriers

before they can be usefully collected by the p-n junction.

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 4.3 Recombination Losses (2)
Recombination mechanisms

2 particle 2 particle 3 particle 2 particle

+ trap + level + trap

Ec
- Ec
- Ec
- - Ec
-

surface states
Ev Ev Ev Ev

Radiative Non-radiative Auger Surface

(front & back)

NOT significant Recombination levels “Passivation” layers of

in Si proportional to SiO or SiN reduce front
material quality surface recombination.

WHERE DOES IT HAPPEN?

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 4.2 Recombination Losses (3)
• Radiative recombination: the inverse of absorption. An electron in the
conduction band (CB) recombines with a hole in the valence band (VB) and
the excess energy is released as a photon (Eph  Eg). This is a weak process in
silicon solar cells. Utilised in semiconductor lasers and LEDs.
• Recombination through traps: Defects in the semiconductor material can be
introduced by unwanted impurities (eg metals) or crystallographic defects (eg
grain boundaries, surfaces, point defects.. ). These defects introduce energy
levels into the otherwise “empty” energy gap between the CB and the VB.
Electrons in the CB recombine by first being “trapped” at a defect level and
then recombining with a hole in the VB. This process can occur in the “bulk”
regions of a cell or at the surface. The energy is usually given up as heat.
• Auger recombination: An electron in the CB recombines with a hole in the
VB but the excess energy is given to another electron in the CB (the two
electrons collide).
This highly excited electron releases this energy eventually as heat. Auger
recombination is particularly effective in relatively highly doped material
(dominant mechanism for Si material doped > 1017 cm-3). 20
 4.3 Recombination Losses (4)

Reflection and recombination at surface

EQE (electrons/photon)

reflection and

Responsivity (A/W)
recombination in
bulk and back of cell

Wavelength lG

Typical EQE and SR curves for solar

cells, illustrating the impact of optical
and recombination losses. l
The task of the cell designer is to minimise these losses
while keeping production costs down.
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 Recombination Losses (4)
Surface passivation: High surface
recombination can have a major
impact both on the ISC and VOC. Top
surface recombination is typically
reduced by growing a "passivating"
layer (typically SiO2). This reduces
the number of dangling silicon
bonds at the top surface.
(Passivation (with SiO2 or other
dielectrics) cannot be applied under the
metal contact. Instead, highly doped n++ www.pveducation.org
layer is used).

Back Surface Field (BSF):

The interface between lightly and highly doped regions behaves like a p-n junction.
The electric field at the interface introduces a barrier to minority carrier flow to the
rear surface. The minority carrier concentration is thus maintained at higher levels in
the undoped region and the BSF has a net effect of passivating the rear surface.
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