UNIT 1 - CHEMISTRY OF SEMICONDUCTORS

1. Why amorphous silicon is used in second generation whereas crystalline in first

generation solar cells?
• Crystalline silicon wafers are used in first generation solar cell whereas amorphous silicon is
used as thin films in second generation solar cells.
• Amorphous silicon absorbs solar radiation 40 times more efficiently than crystalline silicon.
• The cost to efficiency ratio of amorphous silicon is more than crystalline silicon.
2. CdTe and CdSe materials are not frequently used for fabrication of solar cells-
Justify.

CdTe and CdSe are not frequently used for fabrication of solar cells because of the: 1.
Toxicity of Cd and Se 2. Scarcity of Te and Se

3. Differentiate between the process of alloying and doping

➢ ALLOYING is the process of mixing two or more metals at definite proportions.
Eg: Brass is an alloy of Copper and Zinc.
➢ DOPING is the process of adding impurities lesser than 5% to a pure element.
Eg: B doped Si
4. A semiconductor diode laser has a peak emission wavelength of
1.55 μm. Find its band gap in eV.

Given: Wavelength, λ = 1.55 μm = 1.55 × 16-6 m

To Find: Energy gap, Eg =?

Energy gap of semiconductor, Eg = hν but ν = c/ λ

Hence Eg = hc/ λ

Where, h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10-34 J-S,

c = velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s

Therefore, Eg = (6.63 × 10-34) *(3 × 108) / (1.55*10-6) J

= (6.63 × 10-34) *(3 × 108) / (1.55*10 -6 * 1.6 * 10-19) eV

= 0.8 eV
5. Calculate the wavelength of maximum absorption of GaAs which has a band gap of
1.44 eV.

Given: Eg = 1.44 eV

To find: wavelength, λ =?

Energy gap of semiconductor, Eg = hν but ν = c/ λ

Hence Eg = hc/ λ

Where, h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10-34 J-S,

c = velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s

Since, Eg = hc/λ; Wavelength, λ = hc/Eg

= (6.63 × 10-34) *(3 × 108) / 1.44*1.6*10–19

= (19.89*10–26)/ (2.32*10–19)

= 8.61* 10–7 m.

= 861 nm

6. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of second generation solar cells over the
first generation.

First generation solar cells are made by crystalline wafers but second generation solar
cells are made as thin films. Crystalline silicon is used in first generation solar cells whereas
in second generation solar cells, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, cadmium selenide
are used.

Advantages of second generation solar cell

1. Low production cost

2. Small amount of semiconductor materials required for large space (thin film)

3. Multiple junctions will increase the efficiency

4. Numerous chances for the development

Disadvantages of second generation solar cell

1. Energy conversion is lesser than first generation solar cells

 2. Important materials required are not user friendly.

3. Cadmium (Cd) is toxic

4. Tellurium (Te) is not easy abundant (scarcity)

7. Categorize the periodic trends of atomic radius, ionization energy,

electronegativity, electron affinity and Metallic character

Atomic Radius - Distance between center of nucleus and valence orbit of atom.

i. It decreases from left to right within a period due to increase in the nuclear
charge.

ii. It increases from top to bottom within a group due to poor shieldingeffect.

Ionization Energy - Energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom.

i. Ionization energy of the element within a period increases from left to right due to
valenceshell stability.

ii. The ionization energy of the element within the group decreases from top to
bottom due to poor electron shielding.

Electronegativity - Atom‘s ability to attract and bind with electrons.

i. From left to right across the period of elements electronegativity increases due to
increase inthe nuclear charge.

ii. From top to bottom in the group, electronegativity decreases due to poor electron shielding.

Electron affinity - Energy change when an electron is added to a neutral atom.

i. It increases from left to right within the period due to decrease in atomic radius.

ii. It decreases from top to bottom within a group due to increase in atomic radius.

Metallic Character – Ability of an atom to lose an electron.

i. It decreases from left to right across a period due to decrease in atomic radius.

ii. It increases down a group due to electron shielding.

8. Enumerate the principle, working and applications of silicon photovoltaic cell

Principle

A solar cell is a device that generates voltage whe exposed to light.

Photovoltaic energy conversion consists of two essential steps. First, absorption of

light generates an electron-hole pair. The electron and hole are then separated
and then connected to the negative and positive terminal respectively - thus

generating electrical power. Construction

i. Solar cell (crystalline Silicon) consists of n-type semiconductor (emitter) layer

and p-typesemiconductor layer (base).

ii. The two layers are sandwiched and hence there is formation of p-n junction.

iii. The surface is coated with anti-reflection coating to avoid the loss of incident light energy
dueto reflection.

iv. During the incident of light energy, in p-type material, electrons can gain energy and
move into the n-type region (collection).

v. The collections of electrons can be extracted from the device to give a current.

Working

i. At first a solar panel exposed to sunlight, the sunlight is absorbed by a solar cell.

ii. The light energies are absorbed by semiconductor materials and causes
electrons in thematerial to increase in energy.
 iii. Due to this absorbed energy, the electrons are liberated and produce the external DC
current.

iv. The DC current is converted into 240-volt AC current using an inverter for
differentapplications.

v. The electrons that leave the solar cell as current give up their energy to the solar cell, and
then re-enter the solar cell.

9. What are the steps involved in the Czochralski process to prepare single crystalline
silicon and highlight the advantages of single crystalline silicon over that of
polycrystalline silicon.

i. The Czochralski process is a method of crystal growth used to obtain single crystals
ofsemiconductors (e.g) metals and many oxide crystals.

ii. High-purity, semiconductor-grade silicon is melted down in a crucible, which is made of

Quartz.

iii. Dopant impurity atoms such as boron or phosphorus can be added to the molten intrinsic
silicon in precise amounts in order to dope the silicon, thus changing it into n-type or p-type
extrinsic silicon.

iv. A seed crystal mounted on a rod is dipped into the molten silicon. The seed crystal's rod is
pulled upwards and rotated at the same time.

v. By precisely controlling the temperature gradients, rate of pulling and speed of rotation,
it is possible to extract a large, single-crystal, cylindrical ingot from the melt.
 vi. This process is normally performed in an inert atmosphere, such as argon, and in an inert
chamber, such as quartz.

Advantages of Single Crystalline Silicon over Polycrystalline Silicon

i. Single crystalline silicon possess almost perfect lattice in atomic level whereas
polycrystalline silicon does not possess perfect lattice.

ii. Single crystalline silicon allows the electrons to pass through with little or no
interferencebut polycrystalline silicon restricts the movement of electron.

iii. Single crystalline silicon exhibits high efficiency with long life, on the other
handpolycrystalline silicon shows less efficiency with short life.

iv. Analyze the steps involved Explain the concept, construction and working
principle of dyesensitized solar cells.

10. The dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) technology separates the two requirements of
semiconductor as the charge generation is done at the semiconductor-dye interface and
the charge transport is done by the semiconductor and the electrolyte.

Dye sensitized solar cell is a third generation solar cell with improved performance than first
and second generation solar cells. In DSSC, organic dye material containing conjugated π-
bond is used as a sensitizer due to high electron density. Hence light energy absorption is done
by dye sensitizer and energized electron transport is carried out by semiconductor.

Key components to construct DSSC:

Semiconductor: TiO2 (Anode) Sensitizer

(dye): N719 dye

Redox mediator: I3- / I-

Counter electrode: Platinum (Cathode) Mechanical

support: FTO glass coated with TiO2

Mechanism

STEP 1: The dye molecule and dye molecule are initially in its ground state (S). Dye
molecules get excited from ground state to a higher energy state (S*) when light falls on the
cell.

STEP 2: The excited dye molecule (S*) is oxidized and an electron is injected into the
conduction band of the semiconductor. Electrons can now move freely as the semiconductor
is conductive at this energy level. Electrons are then transported to the current collector of
the anode via diffusion processes.

STEP 3: The oxidized dye molecule (S+) is again regenerated by electron donation from
the iodide in the electrolyte.

STEP 4: In return, iodide is regenerated by reduction of triiodide on the cathode.

Advantages

Fabrication and manufacturing is comparatively easy. Cost

efficiency is lesser than the first generation solar cell.

 Disadvantages

Power conversion is low when compared to the silicon based solar cell. Leakage of

electrolyte is possible, which affects the function of the DSSC.

11. Describe in detail about bandgap and its significance in colours of

semiconductor.

Bandgap is defined as the energy difference between valence band and conduction band.
The color of absorbed and emitted light both depend on the band gap of the semiconductor.
The bandgap of semiconductor (Egap = 0 to 3 eV) lies between conductors (Egap = 0 eV) and
Insulators (Egap > 6 eV)
1. The color of absorbed light includes the band gap energy because electrons can be excited
from the valence band to a range of energies in the conduction band.
2. Colors of any material is purely depends on the absorption and emission from electromagnetic
radiation at a specified wavelength.
3. IR region covers the range > 700 nm or < 1.8 eV. Semiconductors with band gaps in the
infrared (e.g., Si, 1.1 eV and GaAs, 1.4 eV) appear black because they absorb all colors of
visible light.
4. UV region covers the range < 400 nm or > 3 eV. Wide band gap semiconductors such as TiO2
(3.0 eV) are white because they do not absorb any colors of visible light.
5. Visible light covers the range of approximately 390-700 nm or 1.8-3.1 eV. Fe2O3 has a band
gap of 2.2 eV and thus absorbs light with λ < 560 nm. It thus appears reddish-orange (the
colors of light reflected from Fe2O3) because it absorbs yellow, green, blue, and violet light.
6. Similarly, CdS (Egap = 2.6 eV) is yellow because it absorbs blue and violet light.
7. The colors of semiconductor materials find applications in LED, OLED, traffic signals, etc.

UNIT 2: ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND BATTERY TECHNOLOGY

1. Mention the important requirements of a battery.

1. It should be light and compact for easy transport.

 2. It should have long life both when it is being used and when it is not in use.

3. The voltage of the battery should not vary appreciably during its use.

2. Mention the significance of EMF series (or) electrochemical series?

EMF is defined as the potential difference between anode and cathode. In EMF series metals
are arranged in the order of their standard reduction potentials.

1. It is used for the calculation of standard EMF of a cell.

2. It helps to find out hydrogen displacement behaviour.

3. It is used for the determination of equilibrium constant

3. Mention the applications of Nernst equation

Nernst Equation is used

1. For calculation of the potential of a cell under non-standard conditions.

2. To find pH of a solution.

3. For the determination of unknown concentration.

4. To find the valency of an ion.

4. Calculate the EMF of Daniel Cell with EoZn/Zn2+ = -0.76V and EoCu/Cu2+= +0.34V

Ecell = ECathode – EAnode

Ecell = ECu2+/Cu - EZn/Zn2+

Ecell = 0.34-(-0.76) = 0.34 + 0.76

Ecell = 1.1V

5. How will you reproduce the electrolyte in lead acid battery when it is drained off?

If lead storage battery is drained off, then the SO42- ions present in the electrolyte will be
precipitated as PbSO4 completely (Sulphating effect). In order to reproduce SO42- ions, the
precipitate should be dissolved with warm de-ionized water.
6. Mention the significance of electrolyte used in Leclanche cell?

Leclanche cell is known as dry cell as all the constituents are solids. In dry cell, mixture
NH4Cl and ZnCl2 paste is used as an electrolyte. In order to maintain the dryness of
electrolyte, the electrolyte avoids the formation of NH4OH and forms a solid complex according
to the following reaction.

2NH3 + Zn2+ + 2Cl- [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2

Diammine Zinc(II) Chloride

7. Li battery is considered as cell of future. Why?

Li battery is called as cell of future because,

➢ EMF of the cell is high (3V).

➢ Light in weight and can be made in a desired size and shape.

➢ Only 7g of lithium is required to produce 1 mole of electrons.

➢ All the components are solids there is no risk of leakage.

8. Why Li-S battery is considered as successor of Li ion battery?

Lithium–sulphur batteries succeed lithium-ion cells due to high energy density and low cost
of sulphur. Li–S batteries offer 500 Wh/kg energy which is significantly higher than most of the
lithium-ion batteries (150–260 Wh/kg).

9. Write short notes on classification of batteries?

Batteries are the storehouses of electrical energy. Batteries are classified into three types as
primary, secondary and flow battery.

1. Primary battery – Non-rechargeable

2. Secondary battery – Rechargeable

3. Flow battery – Fuel produces electricity without combustion

10. Indicate the difference between primary and secondary reference electrode.

Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is considered as a primary reference electrode whose

electrode potential is arbitrarily fixed as zero. Calomel electrode is functioning as a secondary
reference electrode whose electrode potential is already known (+0.2422V in saturated KCl).
11. Derive Nernst equation for reduction potential and mention its significant applications

Single electrode potential: It is a measure of the tendency of the metal electrode to lose
orgain electrons, when it is in contact with its own salt solution.

Standard electrode potential: It is a measure of the tendency of the metal electrode to lose
orgain electrons, when it is in contact with its own salt solution of 1M concentration at 25°C

Nernst equation for electrode potential:

Let us consider the reduction reaction

Mn+ + ne- M --------------------- (1)

The free energy change of this equilibrium □G is related to the equilibrium constant
K by theVan’t Hoff isotherm.

ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln [Product] / [Reactant] --------------------- (2)

We know, ΔG = - nFE and ΔG° = -nFE° ---------------------- (3)

Substituting equations (1) & (3) in equation (2)

-nFE = -nFE° + RT ln [M]/ [Mn+] ---------------------- (4)

Dividing by –nF and using the fact that activity of solid metal [M] = 1, we have

E = E° - RT/nF ln 1/ [Mn+] ------------------------- (5)

At 25° C, R = 8.314J/K/mol and F = 96500 coulombs. So equation (5) becomes,

E = E° + 0.0591/n log [Mn+] --------------------------- (6)

This is Nernst equation for a single electrode reduction potential. Similarly for oxidation
reaction M Mn+ + ne ---------------------- (7)

E = E° - 0.0591/n log [Mn+] -------------------------- (8)

Applications of Nernst Equation:

i) To calculate electrode potential of unknown metal.

ii) To predict corrosion of metals.

iii) To set up electrochemical series.

12. Explain the construction and working of Standard Hydrogen Electrode.

Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is a primary reference electrode whose electrode

potential is arbitrarily taken as zero.

The electrode is represented,

Pt | H2(g) (1 atm) | H+ (1M)

The electrode reaction is

2H+ + 2e- H2 (reduction at cathode)

H2 2H+ + 2e- (oxidation at anode)

The standard reduction potential of the SHE is 0V.

Limitations (or) drawbacks of SHE:

1) It is difficult to get pure H2.

2) It is difficult to set up and transport.

3) A large volume of test solution is required.

4) It cannot be used in solutions of redox systems.

13. Explain the construction and working of Calomel Electrode.

Calomel electrode is a secondary reference electrode whose electrode potential is already

known.

The electrode is represented,

Hg | Hg2Cl2 (s) | KCl (l)

The electrode reaction is

2Hg + 2Cl- Hg2Cl2 + 2e- (oxidation at anode)

Hg2Cl2 + 2e- 2Hg + 2Cl- (reduction at cathode)

The standard reduction potential of the calomel electrode is +0.242 (sat. KCl), +0.280 (1M KCl)
and +0.334 (0.1M KCl).

Applications and drawbacks of SCE:

1. It is used in measurement of pH and unknown electrode potential, cyclic voltammetry.

2. The calomel electrode contains mercury which poses health hazards.

14. Explain the construction and working of Glass electrode and silent features of glass
electrode. Analyze the applications of glass electrode.

Glass electrode contains a thin-walled glass bulb. The glass has low melting point and
high electrical conductivity. 0.1M HCl is filled in the bulb. A platinum wire is inserted in the
acid. When the glass membrane separates two solutions differing in pH, exchange of H+ ions
takes place between the solutions. As a result a potential is developed across the membrane. The
potential EG is given by,

EG = EGo + 0.0591pH

Measurement of pH:

The glass electrode is dipped in the given solution. This system is connected to saturated
calomel electrode as in the figure. The EMF of the resulting cell is measured using a potentiometer.

From the EMF, the pH of the solution is calculated as below:

Ecell = Eright – Eleft

Ecell = Ecal – Eglass

Ecell = 0.242 – (EGo + 0.0591 pH)

Ecell = 0.242 - EGo - 0.0591 pH

pH = (0.242 - EGo - Ecell) / 0.0591

Advantages of Glass Electrode:

i) Electrode is not easily poisoned and results are accurate

ii) It can be used in strong oxidizing solutions, colored solutions and in metal ions

iii) It is used in chemical, industrial, biological and agricultural laboratories.

Disadvantages or Limitations:

i) It cannot be used in highly alkaline solutions, pure ethanol or acetic acid.

ii) If the solution pH is more than 12, glass membrane is affected by cations.

15. Construct an electrochemical cell using zinc anode and copper cathode and Write the
redox reaction taking place in it.

Daniel cell is a reversible cell. During discharging process, it acts as an electrochemical cell to
convert chemical energy into electrical energy. It also acts as an electrolytic cell to convert electrical
energy into chemical energy during recharging process.

Anode: Zinc
 Cathode: Copper

Electrolyte: ZnSO4 and CuSO4

Cell representation: Zn / ZnSO4 // CuSO4 / Cu

Discharging

When oxidation occurs at anode and reduction at cathode, the cell produces current.

Zn Zn2+ + 2e- (oxidation at anode)

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu (reduction at cathode)

Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu (Net cell redox reaction)

The Standard EMF of the cell is 1.1 volt.

Recharging

The net cell reaction can be reversed by applying external voltage greater than 1.1V in
the opposite reaction.

Zn2+ + Cu Zn + Cu2+ (Reversible reaction)

Applications

It is used to generate electricity or to store electric energy.

It is used in battery development and electrical telegraphy.

16. Explain the construction, working and applications of Lithium- Sulphur battery.

The lithium–sulphur battery (Li–S battery) is a secondary energy storage device and it is
rechargeable. During discharging process, it acts as an electrochemical cell to convert chemical
energy into electrical energy. It also acts as an electrolytic cell to convert electrical energy into
chemical energy during recharging process.
Key Components

Anode – Li

Cathode –Graphite

Electrolyte – β-alumina

Electron acceptor – Sulphur

Cell representation: Li / Li+ // β-Al2O3 / C immersed in S

Discharging

The battery is operated at high temperature as Lithium and Sulphur should be in molten states.
During discharging process - the cell produces current, oxidation occurs at anode and reductionat
cathode.

2Li 2Li+ + 2e- (oxidation at anode)

S + 2e- S2- (reduction at cathode)

2Li+ + S2- Li2S (Net redox cell reaction)

The Standard EMF of the cell is 2.23 volt.

Recharging

The Li-S battery is rechargeable; the cell reaction can be reversed by applying external current.

Li2S + Electricity 2Li+ + S2- 2Li + S

Applications

Li-S batteries are used in laptops, mobile phones and electric vehicles.
17. Explain the construction, working and applications of Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell
withdiagrams.

In a fuel cell, electric energy is obtained without combustion from oxygen and a gas that
can be oxidized. Hence, a fuel cell converts the chemical energy of the fuels directly to

electricity. The process in a fuel cell is:

Fuel + Oxygen Oxidation Products + Electricity

Key Components

Fuel – Hydrogen

Oxidizer – Oxygen

Electrodes - Porous carbon impregnated with Pt or Pd and Ag or Ni.

Electrolyte – 25% KOH

Working:

1. Hydrogen and oxygen gases are bubbled through the anode and cathode compartment
respectively.

2. H2 get oxidized in presence of Pt (electro catalyst) to form H+ at the anode compartment.

2H2 + 4OH- 4H2O + 4e-

3. The electrons from anode are absorbed by O2 at cathode which reacts with water
fromelectrolyte to form OH– ions.

O2 + 2H2 O + 4e- 4OH-

4. The two ions (H+ and OH–) combine in the electrolyte medium to form H2O.

2H2 + O2 2H2O

The standard EMF of the cell is 1.23 V. In actual practice,the EMF of cell is 0.8 to 1.0V.

Advantages

1. It has high efficiency.

2. Water produced from hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells can be used for drinking purpose.

3. No noise and thermal pollution.

Disadvantages

1. The corrosiveness of the electrolytes used.

2. It is difficult to predict the life time of fuel cells accurately.

3. High cost of pure hydrogen and the catalyst needed for the electrode reactions.

Applications

1. Fuel cells are used in smart phones, laptops and tablets.

2. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are uses as auxiliary energy source in space vehicles,
submarines or other military-vehicles.

3. The product water proved to be a valuable source of fresh water by the astronauts.

Leclanche Cell (Dry Cell)

 Lead Acid Battery

Lithium Battery

Methanol-Oxygen Fuel Cell

 Lithium Sulphur Hydrogen – Oxygen Methanol – Oxygen
Content Dry Cell Lead Acid Battery Lithium Battery
Battery Fuel Cell Fuel Cell
Battery Type Primary Battery Secondary Battery Secondary Battery Secondary Battery Flow Battery Flow Battery
Carbon coated with Nickel Coated with
Anode Zinc (Zn) Lead (Pb) Lithium (Li) Lithium (Li)
Pd/Pt Pd/Pt
Graphite coated with Titanium Sulphide Carbon coated with Nickel Coated with
Cathode Lead Dioxide (PbO2) Graphite (C)
MnO2 (TiS2) Ag Ag
Organic polymer
Electrolyte ZnCl2 + NH4Cl H2SO4 β - Alumina KOH KOH
with Li salt

Electron Acceptor – Fuel – Hydrogen Fuel – Methanol

Other Agents - - -
Sulphur (S) Oxidiser - Oxygen Oxidiser – Oxygen

Cell Zn / Zn2+ , NH4+ / Pb / PbSO4 // H2SO4 Li / Li+ // Organic Li / Li+ // β-Al2O3 /

- -
Representation MnO2 / C / PbO2 / Pb Polymer / TiS2 C immersed in S

Oxidation at Pb + SO42- 2H2 + 4OH- CH3OH + H2O

Zn Zn2+ + 2e- Li Li+ + e- 2Li 2Li+ + 2e-
Anode PbSO4 + 2e- 4H2O + 4e- CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-

Reduction at 2MnO2 +H2O + 2e- PbO2 +4H+ +SO 42- O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 3/2 O2 + 6H+ + 6e-
TiS2 + e- TiS2- S + 2e- S2-
Cathode Mn2O3 +2OH- PbSO4 + 2H2O 4OH- 3H2O
Zn + 2MnO2 +H2O Pb+PbO2+2H2SO4
Overall Reaction Li + TiS2 Li+ + 2Li + S 2Li+ + CH3OH + 3/2 O2
Zn2++Mn2O3+ 2PbSO4 + - 2H2 + O2 2H2O
(Discharging) TiS2 LiTiS2 S2- Li2S CO2 + 2H2O
2OH- 2H2O
Cell Potential 1.5V 2V 3V 2.23V 1.23V 0.3V

Recharging 2PbSO4+2H2O LiTiS2 Li+ + Li2S 2Li+ + S2-

- - -
Reaction Pb+PbO2+2H2SO4 TiS2- Li+ TiS2 2Li + S
Automobiles,
Flash-Lights, Laptop, Cellular Space Vehicles, Space Craft, Fuel
Telephone Mobile, Laptop,
Applications Transistor Radios, Phone, Electric Submarines, Cell Vehicles,
Exchange, Hospitals, Cordless Appliances
Calculators Vehicles Military-Vehicles Digital Camera
UPS
 UNIT 3 – DEVICE CORROSION

1. Define miniaturization?
The process of reducing the size of the device by reducing the distance between the
components is known as miniaturization. Due to miniaturization, the spacing between the
components has reduced to 200 nm in IC and 5 μm in PCB.

2. Define IC and PCB?

Integrated circuit (IC) is a semiconductor (Generally Si) on which thousands of tiny
resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors are fabricated. It can function as an amplifier,
computer memory, microprocessor, etc.

Printed circuit board (PCB) consists of ICs, battery, LED etc which are laminated by
sandwich structure of conductive and insulating layers. Further signals and power are routed
between the components via electrical connection made by solder metal.
3. Define fretting wear?

Fretting wear is surface damage that occurs between two contacting surfaces experiencing
cyclic motion of small amplitude. It can be divided into two types such as abrasive and
adhesive.
4. List out any four gas contaminants forms device corrosion.
i. H2S (Hydrogen sulphide)
ii. O3 (Ozone)
iii. NH3 (Ammonia)
iv. SO2 ( Sulphur dioxide)
5. Mention the causes of corrosion in IC and PCB.
i. Demand for miniaturization
ii. Multiplicity of materials used
iii. Process related residues
6. Mention the airborne contaminants causing corrosion in PCB.

Air borne contaminants include fine and coarse particles.

Fine particles: Their particle size range from 0.1 to 2.5 microns. They are formed from the
combustion of fossil fuels and other volcanic and geological activities.
Coarse Particles: They range from 2.5 to 15 microns. They are formed as a result of human
activities. They commonly originate from soil.
7. How can soldering increase device corrosion?
Soldering is the process of joining two different components together. The soldering
process could leave some residues (eg: flux, remains of solder) during servicing. These residues,
along with some other elements could form a micro- galvanic cell which may cause corrosion in
the future.
8. List any two fretting corrosion control measures.
i. Noble metal coating
ii. Passivation
iii. Using lubricants
9. What are called dendrites?

Dendrites are the crystalline by-products of corrosion. It appears as projections growing

from the cathodic compartment of a micro-galvanic cell towards the anode. They eventually
spread throughout the entire PCB. They are formed mainly during electrolytic metal migration.
It affects the conductivity of the conductive path and may also lead to short circuit of the entire
PCB.

Ex:- Silver sulphide formation due to electrolytic metal migration on a PCB between silver
coatings.
10. What is known as passivation?

It is the process of modifying the surface of a bulk material. It can be done by two ways: -
(i) Stable oxide layer formation of its own molecules.

(ii) Addition of a Self Assembling Monolayer (SEM)

1. Enumerate in detail about device corrosion, causes and its control measures.
Corrosion is defined as the degradation of any materials by chemical or electrochemical
attack of its environment. The corrosion occurs in a device via IC and
PCB is known as device corrosion. Corrosion occurs in devices via chemical and electrochemical
reactions of the components majorly due to four significant factors which are

1. Demand for Miniaturization

2. Multiplicity of Materials used

3. Process related residues

4. Environmental factors
1. The demand for miniaturization

The process of reducing the size and distance between the components in IC and PCB is
called as miniaturization. The technology development has made significant changes in the
devices including size reduction. It is essential to reduce the size of the device for making
compact devices, easy handling and transportation. The trend toward miniaturization has led to
the development of small personal electronic devices cellular phones, and personal computers.
The size of the ICs has been decreased that the spacing between the IC components is ~ 200 nm.
For components on a PCB, the spacing is around 5 microns.

2. Multiplicity of materials
It is necessary to utilize multiple materials in devices to improve the speed and
performance. Multiplicity of materials used is highly conducive for electronic corrosion. When
multiple materials are in contact with each other, it creates an electrochemical environment in
the device which leads to corrosion. As the materials used are many and designs are complicated,
the following components undergo significant corrosion problems. • Integrated Circuits
(ICs) • Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
• Switches • Magnetic Recording Media (Hard disc) • Packaging and shielding parts •
Connectors
3. Process Residues

Process residues are the contamination on the surface due to the remains of the chemicals
used for the manufacturing process. The residues are the fluxing agents, etching medium, plating
bath residues, or additives from the polymeric materials. In practice, tiny fractions of these
chemicals are enough to accelerate the corrosion process. For example, use of SL65 and LP-
11AC for hybrid circuit applications resulted in Ag dendrites due to electrolytic migration.
4. Environmental factors

Among the environmental issues, a significant problem is the residues found on the IC and
PCB due to gas contaminants that are service related residues and airborne contaminants.
Service Residues by Gas Contaminants

The service residues are the residues introduced during exposure to service environments.
The presence of aggressive ions like chlorides, SO2(g), NO2(g), etc triggers corrosion to a large
extent under humid conditions. Corrosion is possible even at relatively low humidity such as 50-
70%. Water layer or a tiny water drop-let sitting on the surface of a PCB can generate micro
galvanic cell by electrically connecting the two metallic parts. Within the micro-galvanic cell,
cathodic reaction takes place on the noble electrode while the anodic reaction occurs on the active
electrode by metal dissolution.

Airborne Contaminants

One of the most common reasons for electronic failure is environmental contaminants and
conditions. The list of contaminants includes fine and coarse particles of such species as
chlorides, sulfates, sodium, ammonium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. The single most
important environmental condition affecting the impact of particulate matter and gases (such as
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) is relative humidity.

Coarse particles (2.5 to 15 microns) are typically formed as a result of human activity or
originate from soil. Fine particles (0.1 to 2.5 microns) come from the combustion of fossil fuels,
volcanic and geological activity. In electronic devices, coarse particles may cause malfunctions
by interrupting electrical contact between mating pairs of contacts on connectors or relays.
Control Measures

1. Noble metals as final coating materials.

2. Design which reduces the formation of micro galvanic environment.
2. Explain in detail about the fretting corrosion, influencing factors and control
measures.

Fretting corrosion is the degradation of surface material when two surfaces are in motion
contact with each other. Fretting corrosion occurs when there is a relative
movement between electrical contacts with surfaces of ignoble metal. The small wear particles
oxidize and areas of oxides become larger and thicker on the contact surface. There are two
types mechanisms basically involved in fretting corrosion based on the metal surface. If it is a
noble metal surface, corrosion occurs via wear debris in two steps. If it is an ignoble metal
surface, corrosion occur directly on the surface.

The wear debris forms on the metal surface are divided into two types which are adhesive
wear (mutual exchange surface melt with each other due to frictional heat) and abrasive wear
(coarse particles may present in between the contact surfaces which creates asperities on the
surface).

Factors influencing fretting corrosion

i. Displacement amplitude is a measurement of distance of the movement of a particle from its
equilibrium position in a medium as it transmits a second wave.
ii. Displacement frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.
Causes and Development of fretting corrosion:

Fretting corrosion occurs mainly due to oxidation of the zone of contact of electrical
contacts. The causes of fretting corrosion are wear debris and oxides, which form a thick
insulating layer in the zone of contact of the mating surfaces. It is presumed that fretting is
concerned with slip amplitudes not greater than 125 μm. Since this movement is of limited
amplitude, it is ineffective in flushing away the wear debris and accumulating oxides in the zone
of contact of the mating surfaces. Metals should be regarded as the main cause for the rapid
increase of contact resistance because of their high specific electrical resistance.

Control Measures
➢ Noble metals as final coating materials

➢ Design which reduces the wipe caused by external forces and thermal expansion
➢ Lubricants that prevent the zone of contact from exposure to the atmosphere and therefore
from the fretting oxidation, are widely used measures to enhance the resistance to fretting
corrosion.

1. Gold Plating Materials: Gold is the plating material with the best corrosion resistance and
therefore one of the most commonly used noble plating materials. The basic function of gold
plating in electrical contacts is the protection against fretting
corrosion. The amount of gold used for electrically conductive surface is determined by the area
and the thickness of gold plating. For corrosion protection, gold plating must be free of
imperfections (porosity). Improving the performance of gold plating: Different ways to minimize
the consumption of gold for electrically conductive surface and to improve the performance of
gold plating are:

1. Increasing the hardness by means of optimized proportion of alloy elements and hard
nanoparticles.
2. Improved wear resistance and wear pattern of coatings

3. Improved surface perfection with thin coatings by employing SAM (self assembled
monolayer). The high degree of hardness of hard gold is achieved by alloying elements such as
cobalt, iron or nickel.
2. PTFE: PTFE acts as a lubricant which reduces the friction between contacts. This can provide
an additional lifetime improvement. However PTFE is basically an isolator therefore only
nanoparticles of PTFE can be used for electrical contacts, in order to alleviate increase of contact
resistance.
3. Passivation:

Passivation is the process of modifying metal surface, which creates the resistance to
environmental media.

1) Metal surfaces can be passivated either by their own gastight oxide layer or through the
assembly of a non-reactive layer such as self organization of nanoparticles, monolayers, SAM
(self assembled monolayer).

2) Self assembled molecules are bi-functional or multi-functional molecules that offer two- or
more-termination groups with different functionality; typically one end is attached to a specific
surface while the other end provides a specific functionality. These molecules can be attached to
metals. In this manner it is possible to enhance the intended performance of a surface

3) Besides the resistance to corrosion there are two very important requirements for electrically
conductive surfaces:

a. The passivation layer should not increase or destabilize the electrical resistance.
b. The passivation layer must resist the operating temperature which is the sum of resistive
heating and ambient temperature.
3. Enumerate in detail about the various forms of corrosion.
 Electronic systems could experience various types of corrosion following electrochemical
corrosion mechanism. The most prominent corrosion problems found for electronic systems are
(i) Anodic corrosion (ii) Cathodic corrosion (iii) Electrolytic metal migration (iv) Galvanic
corrosion (v) Atmospheric corrosion (vi) Pore & Creep corrosion (vii) Corrosion in Production
and Service (viii) Fretting corrosion

(i) Anodic Corrosion

The corrosion damage occurs due to the oxidation reaction at the anode is called anodic
corrosion. When two different metals are in contact with each other, the more active metal with
less electrode potential undergoes corrosion damage. For example destruction of Zn takes place
when it is in contact with Cu.
(ii) Electrolytic Metal Migration (ECM)

In an electronic system, electrolytic metal migration occurs due to the presence of a

potential gradient between two conductors connected by a thin layer of solution. When two solder
points on a PCB connected by a thin layer of liquid water, the metal ions dissolve from the
positive electrode (anode) and migrate towards the oppositely charged negative electrode
(cathode) and deposit there. The dendrite formation between silver coatings on a PCB and
corrosion of copper connecting lines on an IC chip are good examples for electrolytic metal
migration.

(iii) Cathodic Corrosion

The dissolution of cathode metal in alkaline medium due to diffusion of oxygen is called
cathodic corrosion. Some metals used for electronic systems are soluble in acidic and alkaline
environments. For example, the Pourbaix diagram for Al and Zn shows solubility in acidic and
alkaline environments above the equilibrium dissolution potential, which itself is a function of
pH in the alkaline range. In a micro-galvanic cell, at the cathode oxygen reduction takes place
which produce OH- ions. Production of OH- ions at the cathode surface shifts the pH to alkaline
values causing the metals like aluminium to dissolve.

(iv) Galvanic Corrosion

The corrosion damage occurs due to direct contact between two dissimilar metals is called
galvanic corrosion. In electronic systems, galvanic corrosion manifest in many ways and
considered as dreadful for connectors and switches. Usually the connectors are made of multi-
layer metallic coatings (ENIG). The large difference in
electrochemical potential between Ni and Au cause corrosion of Ni, while the Au layer acts as
powerful cathode.
(v) Atmospheric Corrosion

The degradation of metal by atmospheric pollutants in the presence of moisture is known

as atmospheric corrosion. Atmospheric corrosion occurs above a critical relative humidity in the
presence of traces of gaseous pollutants. A heterogeneous film grows rapidly on many metals at
these conditions. Nickel, lead, and tin are quickly get corroded in polluted atmospheres above
70% relative humidity with sulfates, oxysulphates, and oxides. If water can condense on the
contact surface at least part of the time, wet atmospheric corrosion may occur.

(vi) Pore & Creep Corrosion

The corrosion occurs due to the minute pores present in the noble coating and the corrosion
products creep out from pores is called pore and creep corrosion. To prevent tarnishing of
connectors and contacts, a noble metal (e.g., gold) is plated on the contact surface. Since the
coverage is never complete, the substrate material can corrode at the imperfections. If the
substrate is copper or silver, and it is exposed to a sulfur- or chloride containing environment,
corrosion products can creep out from the pores and over the gold plating, forming a layer with
high contact resistance.

(vii) Corrosion in Production and Service

Process related residues are the contamination on the surface due to the remains of the
chemicals used for the manufacturing process. This could be the left over of original chemicals
or decomposed fractions of a compound formed during the production cycle. These are the
fluxing agents, etching medium, plating bath residues, or additives from the polymeric materials.
In practice, tiny fractions of these chemicals are enough to accelerate the corrosion process.

Service related residues are the residues introduced during exposure to service
environments. They can be aggressive ions like chlorides, SO2(g), NO2(g), or other types of
chemically aggressive ions. Presence of such substances triggers corrosion to a large extent
under humid conditions. The dust particle is another issue, which can act as a moisture trapping
agent. Formation of water layer is easy on a dusted surface compared to the clean one. Therefore,
corrosion is possible even at relatively low humidity such as 50-70%.

(viii) Fretting Corrosion

 Fretting corrosion is the degradation of surface material when two surfaces are in motion
contact with each other. Fretting corrosion in electronic components is manifested as the
continuous formation and flaking of tin oxide from a mated surface on tin-containing contacts.
As the components start to utilize more and more tin (rather than gold, to cut the costs), the
problem becomes more frequent.

4. Discuss in detail about the electrical contact degradation

Gold and other precious metals are widely used for electric contacts because of their low
chemical reactivity. Electrical contacts in electromechanical devices must maintain low contact
loop resistance to avoid power losses at the interfaces. Contamination and corrosion of exposed
contact surfaces can occur throughout gassing of volatile species from surrounding materials.

Sulphur rich environments are common at industrial facilities such as petroleum and
chemical plants, refineries, paper and pulp recycling plants, sewer and wastewater plants. Such
atmosphere produced by various chemical technologies causes a serious corrosion problem for
many metals used in electrical apparatus. The components which are more to prone corrosion
are electrical connectors and electrical contacts:

Electrical Connectors: A connector is a device which bridges two or more points in an electric
circuit without itself having significant resistance. It usually insulates as well, isolating one part
of a circuit from another.
Electrical Contacts: A contact is the current-carrying part of a connector having an interface,
usually solid-solid between metals. Contacts may be primarily static or dynamic, depending on
their function while carrying current.
Mechanisms of Degradation of Electric Contacts
 The corrosion damage may occur in electrical contacts by either contact physics or
chemical contact mechanisms.
Contact Physics: When two metallic surfaces are placed in contact at a light normal load, they
touch at only a few small spots, or asperities. As load is increased, more and more asperities
come into contact, and the surfaces move together. If metallic surfaces are entirely covered by a
non-conductive layer, such as an oxide or a sulphide tarnish film, the area of metallic contact
will be zero, provided the film is unbroken. If the film is not continuous, or is punctured on
making closure, load is borne by both film and metal.

Contact Chemistry: Easily oxidized hard metals, like chromium plate and molybdenum, are not
satisfactory for pressure contacts in low energy circuits at reasonable loads. In polluted
environments, contact surface films are always thicker and more detrimental than films formed
in clean atmospheres. Not only do oxides themselves grow more rapidly, but films form in
polluted atmospheres on certain metals.

5. How will you protect computer hardware from corrosion using PFPE?

PFPE (perfluoropolyether) is a long chain polymer which consists of carbon, oxygen and
fluorine atoms. The molecular structure can be branched, linear, or a combination there of
depending on the desired physical properties. The fluorine and oxygen atoms are high
electronegative atoms and very strongly bonded to the carbon atoms, and as a result they reject
electron interactions with surrounding atoms. As no part of the molecule is available for a
reaction to take place, it is extremely inert. This inertness provides excellent high temperature
performance and makes PFPE extremely useful in the presence of highly reactive chemicals such
as corrosives, acids and liquid oxygen.
Lubrication property of PFPE

The outer layer of non-reactive fluorine atoms means that adjacent molecules will easily
slip by each other, allowing PFPE to form film layers across surfaces. This can be very useful in
reducing friction and minimizing wear. The PFPE backbone mainly interacts with surfaces
through Vander Waals forces. The Vander Waals interaction energy of PFPE is sufficiently high
so that molecules lie flat on the surface when the lubricant film thickness is comparable to the
polymer chain diameter of 0.7 nm.

6. Describe in detail about the Corrosion Costs

The cost of corrosion is very difficult to determine. Capital-intensive industries with

significant investments in durable equipment with a considerable number of electronic
components (e.g., defense, airline, etc.) tend to keep the equipment for longer periods of time
(tens of years), such that corrosion is likely to become an issue.
Elements in corrosion costs

✓ Cost of additional or more expensive material used to prevent corrosion damage.

✓ Cost of labor attributed to corrosion management activities.
✓ Cost of the equipment required because of corrosion-related activities.
✓ Loss of revenue due to disruption in supply of product.
✓ Cost of loss of reliability.
✓ Cost of lost capital due to corrosion deterioration
Estimation of corrosion cost The annual direct cost of corrosion is estimated by adding the cost
of corrosion control methods and services. The corrosion control methods that are considered
include protective coatings, corrosion-resistant alloys, corrosion inhibitors, polymers, anodes,
cathodic protection, and corrosion control and monitoring equipment.
Strategy to minimize the impact of corrosion

➢ Determination of the cost of corrosion based on corrosion control methods and

services
➢ Determination of the cost of corrosion for specific industry sectors
➢ Extrapolation of individual sector costs to a national total corrosion cost
➢ Assessment of barriers to progress and effective implementation of optimized
corrosion control practices
➢ Development of implementation strategies and recommendations for the
realization of cost-savings
 Nano Structures
1. Define Nanomaterials and mention its classification and applications.

A material possesses 1-100 nm size in anyone of the dimensions is known as

nanomaterials. It is used for memory device, sensor and biomedical applications.
Nanomaterials are classified into four types based on size of the dimensions as

➢ Zero dimensional (0D) - (e.g.) Fullerene

➢ One dimensional (1D) - (e.g.) CNTs
➢ Two dimensional (2D) - (e.g.) Graphene
➢ Three dimensional (3D) - (e.g.) Graphite
2. List out any three property changes of nanomaterials when compared to bulk
materials?
i. Electrical Conductivity – Decreases due to increased surface scattering
ii. Optical Properties – Spectral changes due to increased Bandgap

iii. Mechanical Strength– Increases due to reduced defects

3. What are the fundamental approaches used to synthesize nanomaterials?

The two main approaches used to synthesize nano-materials are top-down and bottom-
up methods.

Top-down method: Bulk material Fragments Nanoparticles

Bottom-up method: Atoms Clusters Nanoparticles
Physical techniques like consolidation, sputtering, ion beam, ball milling and chemical
techniques such as sol-gel, combustion, electrochemical deposition, micro emulsion helps to
achieve nanomaterials.

4. What are the steps involved in the mechanical scotch tape method of graphene
synthesis?
1. Adhesive tape is pressed onto the highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG)

2. The tape is peeled off from HOPG surface

3. The tape is pressed onto the target substrate
4. The tape is removed from the surface
5. Mechanical exfoliation process of graphene is safe and simple-point out.

Mechanical exfoliation involves simple steps which are easy to carry out. Also, there is
no use of harmful chemicals like stabilizers which are used in other methods like
electrochemical exfoliation.

6. Why Hydrogen peroxide is used as an electrolyte in electrochemical

exfoliation method?
 In the absence of H2O2, the OH¯ ions do not effectively intercalate with graphite even at
critical conditions (5V) which results in poor yield of graphene. But in the presence of H2O2,
an efficient exfoliation of graphite into graphene is observed even under mild conditions (1V).

7. Why are Cu/Ni glass substrate and H2/Ar used in CVD process of graphene
synthesis?
➢ Ni and Cu glass substrates are used in CVD synthesis due to cost efficiency, low
solubility of carbon and formation of single layer graphene films.

➢ Hydrogen gas and inert gases such as argon act as a carriers. They enhance the surface
reactions occurring on the substrate and also enhance the reaction rate.

8. Mention any two properties and applications of Graphene?

Properties: Graphene has (i) High electron mobility (ii) High electrical
conductivity (iii) High surface area (iv) Optically transparent
Applications: Graphene is used as (i) Lubricants (ii) Super capacitors (iii) Optical
sensors (iv) Flame Retardants
9. How will you classify the CNT and its geometrical arrangement?
Types of CNT: 1. Single-Walled CNT 2. Multi-Walled CNT

Multi-walled CNT is further divided into two types as Russian model Parchment model

Geometrical Arrangement: 1.Armchair 2.Zig-Zag 3.Chiral

10. List out the synthesis methods for the following a) Graphene b) CNT

(a) Graphene Synthesis: 1. Chemical vapour deposition 2. Mechanical and

Electrochemical exfoliation

(b) CNT Synthesis: 1. Arc discharge method 2. Chemical vapour deposition

3. Laser ablation method
11. Mention any four forms and applications of Fullerenes.
Fullerenes exist in various physical forms such as (i) Fullerene rings (ii) Nano’ onions
(iii) Bucky ball clusters (iv) Ball and chain dimers
Fullerenes are used as (i) Catalyst (ii) Semiconductor Organic photovoltaic cells
(iii) Lubricant (iv) Drug delivery and Photo dynamic therapy
12. Define nanocomposites and How will you classify it?

Nanocomposite is a multiphase material in which one of the phases has nano size in
anyone dimension. Nanocomposites are broadly classified into 1. Polymer based
Nanocomposites 2. Non-Polymer based Nanocomposites.

13. Why polymer nanocomposites are unique?

 Polymer Nanocomposites are unique because:

• They are lighter than conventional composites

• They possess high degree of stiffness and strength
• Mechanical and thermal properties are potentially higher
14. List out the various methods for the synthesis of polymer
nanocomposites.
1. Solution blending 2. In-situ Polymerization 3. Melt mixing
15. Mention any four graphene polymer nanocomposites and the
corresponding property modification?
i. Graphene/Polyaniline - Increased capacitance
ii. Graphene/Epoxy polymer - Increased thermal conductivity
iii. Graphene Polystyrene - Increased electrical conductivity

iv. Graphene/Polyurethane - Increased strength

16. List out the uses of graphene/polymer nanocomposites?
i. It is used in electronic field such as DSSC

ii. Bio-medical applications including drug delivery, cancer therapy and soft tissue
engineering

iii. As bio sensors, pH sensors and temperature sensors

iv. As energy storage devices such as ultra capacitors and lithium ion batteries

1. Classification, synthesis approach, properties and applications of Nano

materials
Nanomaterials can be defined as any material possesses 1-100 nm size in anyone of
the dimensions.
Classification of Nanomaterials:
(i) Zero Dimensional (0-D): All the dimensions are measured within the nanoscale (no
dimensions are away from 1-100 nm). It is represented by nano particles. Eg:
Fullerenes
(ii) One Dimensional (1-D): One dimension is away from the nanoscale (1-100 nm). It
includes nanotubes, nano rods and nano wires. Eg: CNT
(iii) Two Dimensional (2-D): Two dimensions are away from the nanoscale (1-100 nm). It
includes nano-films /nano layers and nano coatings. Eg: Graphene
(iv) Three Dimensional (3-D): All the dimensions are away from nanoscale (1-100 nm).
These are bulk materials that are not confined to nanoscale but nanoparticles are scattered
throughout the surface. Eg: Graphite
Synthesis of Nanomaterials:
The two main approaches used to synthesize nano-materials are top-down and bottom-up
methods.

Top-down method: Bulk material Fragments Nanoparticles The

demerit associated with this approach is the imperfection of surface structure.
Bottom-up method: Atoms Clusters Nanoparticles
The limitation associated with this approach is that many of the bottom-up approach techniques
are still under development.
Physical techniques like consolidation, sputtering, ion beam, ball milling and chemical
techniques such as sol-gel, combustion, electrochemical deposition, micro emulsion helps to
achieve nanomaterials.
Properties of Nanomaterials:
The properties of nanomaterials are highly influenced by high surface volume of the
material when compared to bulk.
i. Melting Point: Melting point or phase transition temperature is lowered due to
increased surface energy.
ii. Ultra Hardness: Enhancement in mechanical strength due to reduced
probability of defects
iii. Optical properties: Changes in spectra due to surface plasmon resonance and blue shift
in adsorption and emission due to an increased band gap.
iv. Electrical conductivity: Decreases with a reduced dimension due to increased surface
scattering.
v. Magnetic properties: Ferromagnetism disappears and transfers to super
paramagnetism due to the huge surface energy.
vi. Increased perfection: It is due to diffusion of impurities/defects/dislocations which
enhances chemical stability.
Applications of Nanomaterials:
i. Optical Engineering
 ii. Cosmetics
iii. Nano fabrics
iv. Defence & Security
v. Medicine & Drugs
2. Give brief notes on the characteristic properties and applications of
graphene.
Graphene is a material which is composed of carbon atoms positioned hexagonally. It
can also be described as a one atom thick layer of graphite. It is the strongest and thinnest
material known to exist.
CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES:
i. It has high elasticity and flexibility
ii. High electron mobility, 100 times faster than Si
iii. High Electrical conductivity, 13 time better that Cu
iv. It is a transparent material hence absorb only 2.3% of light
v. It doesn’t allow helium pass through it due to high hardness and density
vi. High surface area 2630 square feet i.e. 3 gm could cover entire foot ball ground
vii. It is approximately 200 times stronger than steel, similar to diamond resistance, but
much lighter.
APPLICATIONS:
1. In the field of electronics, graphene is used in the manufacture of microchips,
transistors, development of conductive inks that allow the circuits printing.
2. Graphene is used in solar panels to increase its efficiency and produce more energy.
3. Graphene is used in medical sensors since it has the ability to detect minimal amounts
of substances.
3. Enumerate in detail about the synthesis of graphene by CVD and
Exfoliation methods.
1. Chemical Vapour Deposition
CVD involves the dissociation and chemical reactions of gaseous reactants in an
activated (heat, light, plasma) environment, followed by the formation of a stable solid product.
The CVD process of graphene synthesis is achieved by the following steps.
Step 1: Transport of reactant (Graphene Oxide) by H2/Ar to the deposition region Step 2:
Transfer of reactant (Graphene Oxide) to the substrate by diffusion
Step 3: Adsorption of reactant on the surface of the substrate
Step 4: Chemical decomposition on the surface of the substrate by heating at 720 °C Step 5:
Desorption of the graphene by diffusion
Step 6: Removal of graphene from the deposition region

Advantages
1. High quality graphene can be prepared in large scale
2. Growth rate and reproducibility are found to be good
Disadvantages
1. Difficult to control the thickness
2. Production of corrosive and toxic gases
2. Exfoliation method:
Exfoliation process involves the separation of material into layers with improved
electronic properties. In case of graphene synthesis, it is achieved by two methods including
mechanical and electrochemical processes.
Mechanical exfoliation
This process is otherwise called as scotch tape method. It is the simple and safe method
to synthesize graphene as it doesn’t require any harmful chemicals during the process.
Graphene can be prepared via the following steps.

Step 1: Adhesive tape is pressed onto the highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) Step 2:

The tape is peeled off from HOPG surface

Step 3: The tape is pressed onto the target substrate Step 4:

The tape is removed from the surface

Advantages and disadvantages
1. Pure graphene can be obtained
2. Difficult to achieve high yield
Electrochemical Exfoliation
✓ In this method, electrochemical set up has been arranged in which graphite coated
with Pt acts as anode and pure graphite acts as cathode.
✓ Both the electrodes are immersed in Hydrogen peroxide electrolyte.
✓ When two electrodes are connected, oxidation takes place at anode and reduction
takes place at cathode.
✓ During the redox reactions, H2O2 (Hydrogen Peroxide) goes for intercalation reaction
and gets penetrated through the graphite layers
✓ The graphite layers get separated from which we can obtain graphene.

Advantages and disadvantages

1. Industrial scale quantity of activated graphene can be achieved to industrial scale
2. Difficult to achieve pure graphene material
4. Describe in detail about the classification, properties and uses of CNT.
Carbon nanotubes are a one dimensional tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having a
diameter measuring on the nanometre scale (2-55 nm). It is also called as bucky tubes and is
achieved by folding graphene sheets cylindrically.
CLASSIFICATION
CNT can be broadly classified into two types as single-walled and multi-walled carbon
nanotubes. It is found to be 1/50000th ratio of thickness in human hair.
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)
➢ Graphene sheets are rolled up to form SWCNT with walls of one atom thick
➢ It possess band gap of 0 – 2 eV
➢ It is having three geometrical arrangements - Zig-Zag, Armchair and Chiral
Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)
 ➢ MWCNTs are elongated cylindrical nano objects with multilayer cylindrical
graphene sheets
➢ Diameter is about 3–30 nm and length is in centimeters; hence aspect ratio can vary
between 10 and ten million.
➢ The interlayer distance between the walls is 3.4 Å
➢ It is having two geometrical arrangements - Russian doll model and Parchment model
Properties of CNT

❖ CNTs exhibit semiconducting behaviours due to stacking microstructure of

graphene layers.

❖ CNTs are the strongest, flexible and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile
strength and elastic modulus respectively.

❖ The hardness (152 GPa) and bulk modulus (462–546 GPa) of CNTs are greater than
diamond.

❖ CNT has a very high current carrying capacity due to the symmetry.

❖ CNTs are very good thermal conductors along the tube.

❖ Excellent electron emission behaviour

Applications of CNT

1. Space elevator
2. Acoustics
3. Cancer treatment
4. Faster flywheels
5. Transistors and super capacitors
6. Bone healing
5. Write short notes on various synthesis techniques of carbon nanotubes?
Various synthesis techniques have been developed to produce nanotubes in sizeable
quantities, which are:
1. Arc discharge
2. Laser ablation method
3. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
Arc Discharge Method:
 ➢ Arc discharge between graphite electrodes was the first method to produce CNTs.
➢ This technique involves establishing a direct current (DC) between a pair of graphite
electrodes under an inert gas (helium or argon) at about 500 torr.
➢ In arc-discharge method, carbon atoms are evaporated by energetic plasma of helium gas
that is ignited by passing high currents through opposing carbon anode and cathode
electrodes.
➢ MWCNTs are produced by arc discharge without any metal catalyst, while mixed metals
catalysts (Fe, Co, and Ni) are required for the production of SWNCTs.
➢ Usually, CNTs synthesized by arc discharge show a high degree of structural perfection.
➢ Its cost is very high and gives yield up to 30 – 90 %
Laser Ablation Method:

✓ Laser ablation is the process of removing material from a solid surface by

irradiating it with a laser beam.
 ✓ In the laser ablation technique, a high power pulsed laser was used to vaporize carbon from
a graphite target at high temperature of about 1200°C under argon or helium gas
atmosphere.
✓ The nanotubes will self-assemble from carbon vapors and condense on the walls of the
water-cooled surface.
✓ The laser ablation method yields around 70% and produces primarily single- walled carbon
nanotubes with a controllable diameter varies about 1.0 - 1.6 nm.
✓ It is more expensive than either arc discharge or chemical vapour deposition.
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD):

❖ CNTs are synthesized by thermal CVD method by using hydrocarbon gas as carbon source.
❖ In this method, a quartz tube is placed inside a furnace maintained at high temperature (600
and 1000 °C) heated by RF heater.
❖ The synthesis of CNTs (single- or multiple-walled) by CVD involves the catalytic
decomposition of a carbon precursor (e.g., CO, hydrocarbons, or alcohol) on
nanostructured transition metal catalyst like Co, Ni, or Fe.
❖ The diameters of the nanotubes that are to be grown are related to the size of the metal
particles.
❖ Most economical method due to cheapest source of material i.e. Fossil hydrocarbon and
gives yield upto 20-100%
6. Give brief notes on fullerenes.
Fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow
sphere or ellipsoid. Fullerenes are closed hollow cages of carbon with C20 to C84.
Carbon atoms are connected in pentagonal or hexagonal rings.
Synthesis
 Minute quantities of the fullerenes, in the form of C60, C70, C76, and C84
molecules, are produced in nature, formed by lightning discharges in the
atmosphere.
Types of fullerenes
1. Bucky ball Clusters 2. Megatubes 3. Nano"Onions" 4. Linked "Ball-
and-Chain" Dimers
Properties:

• It is non-aromatic compound

• It is insoluble in polar solvents but soluble in aromatic solvents

• It has high electron affinity, hence chemical reactivity is more

• Decomposes in the presence of light and trace amount of ozone in air

• In pure oxygen atmosphere, Fullerene sublimes at 350 °C and ignites at 365 °C

• In the presence of air, it oxidizes into CO and CO2

Applications:
1. MRI Scanning 2. X-ray imaging 3. Drug delivery
4. Lubricant 5. Organic photovoltaic 6. Photo sensitizers
7. Discuss in detail about the various synthesis techniques implemented to synthesise
graphene/polymer nanocomposites.
Nanocomposites with graphene and its derivatives as fillers have shown a great potential
for various important applications, such as electronics, green energy, aerospace and automotive
industries.
SYNTHESIS OF GRAPHENE-POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES
In general for synthesis of graphene/polymer nanocomposite, three methods are being
followed. They are (i) Solution blending (ii) Melt mixing (iii) In-situ polymerization

SOLUTION BLENDING
➢ In solution blending, the polymer is readily soluble in common aqueous and organic
solvents, such as water, acetone, chloroform, and toluene.
➢ This technique includes the solubilization of the polymer in suitable solvents, and mixing
with the solution of the dispersed suspension of graphene or graphene oxide (GO) platelets.
➢ Then heating the mixture to evaporate the solvent and to achieve
 graphene/polymer nanocomposite

MELT MIXING
✓ Melt mixing technique utilizes a high temperature and shear forces to disperse the fillers
in the polymer matrix. This process prevents the use of toxic solvents.
✓ For graphene- polymer nanocomposites, the high temperature liquefies the polymer
phase and allows easy dispersion or intercalation of GO platelets.
✓ The process can be applicable to both polar and non-polar polymers.

IN-SITU POLYMERIZATION
❖ This fabrication technique starts with mixing of filler in monomer, followed by
polymerization in the presence of the dispersed filler.
❖ In situ polymerization methods have produced composites with covalent cross linked
between the matrix and filler.
❖ In addition, in situ polymerization has also produced non-covalent composites of a
variety of polymers, such as poly (ethylene), PMMA and poly (pyrole).
8. What are called nanocomposites and how will you classify it? Mention the
applications of nanocomposites.
Nanocomposite is a composite material of two or more components with significant
proportions in which one of the components should have size in the range of 1-100 nm in any
one of the dimensions. Generally it helps to achieve the product with desired properties.

Applications
i. Electro-catalyst in batteries for energy saving
ii. Abrasion and wear applications
iii. Marine application
iv. Food packaging
v. Environmental protection
vi. Erosion and corrosion applications
PLASTICS: Plastics are high molecular weight organic materials that can be moulded into any desired shape
by the application of heat and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. The intermolecular force between
polymeric chains is intermediate between elastomers and fibers, so they are partially crystalline

Advantages of plastics over other materials

• Plastics are having high strength/weight ratio.

• They possess low melting point.
• They can be easily moulded and have excellent finishing
• They possess very good strength and toughness.
• They possess good shock absorption capacity.
• They are corrosion resistant and chemical inert
• They have low co-efficient of thermal expansion and possess good thermal and electrical insulating
property.
• They are very good water-resistant and possess good adhesiveness.

Disadvantages of plastics

• Softness
• Embrittlement at low temperature
• Deformation under load.
• Low heat-resistant and poor ductility.
• Combustibility
• Plastics tend to degrade upon exposure to heat and uv radiation.
• Plastics are non-biodegradable.

Generally plastics can be classified in to two types on the basis of thermal response as

1. Thermoplastics

2. Thermoset plastics
Brand names depending on the manufacturer and specific products.

Brand Names: Dacron, Terylene, PET, Polartec.

used in clothing, home furnishings, and industrial textiles, including fleece and performance
fabrics.

Polyamide

Brand Names: Nylon, Kevlar, Nomex, Caprolon, Tactel, Cordura, Perlon

used in textiles such as clothing, sportswear, and lingerie due to its durability and elasticity. used
for engineering components, automotive parts, and protective gear owing to its strength and wear
resistance.

Polycarbonates

Brand Names: Lexan, Makrolon, Calibre, Panlite, Tarflon

Lexan by SABIC and Makrolon by Covestro are prominent in automotive, aerospace, electrical, and
medical applications;
Calibre, Panlite, and Tarflon are utilized in automotive, electronics, optical lenses, and electronic
components.

Polyimides
Polyimides are high-performance polymers known for their excellent thermal stability, chemical
resistance, and mechanical strength.

Kapton, Vespel, Upilex, Apical, Pyralin

Used in Flexible printed circuits, aerospace applications, electrical insulation, Automotive, and
industrial applications. Semiconductor manufacturing, and electronics industries.

Polyurethane

Adiprene, Elastollan, Estane, Bayflex, PolyTHF, Bionate

Polyurethane offers durability and flexibility, used in diverse applications including coatings,
adhesives, foams, and elastomers in industries such as automotive, construction, and furniture.

Polyether (epoxy resin)

Excellent adhesive properties, durability, and resistance to chemicals and moisture.

Loctite Epoxy, EpoxyShield, System Three, Devcon,

• Adhesives and sealants in construction and manufacturing.

• Composite materials for aerospace, automotive, marine, and sports equipment.
• Coatings and paints for protection against corrosion and wear.
• Electrical and electronic applications for insulation and encapsulation.
• Casting and molding in art, jewelry making, and industrial manufacturing.