“SIMULATIONS AND DESIGNING OF

SILICON SOLAR CELL”

Project Report submitted to

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
CHRIST COLLEGE IRINJALAKUDA (AUTONOMOUS)

In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

Submitted by

AKHIL VARGHESE

CCAQSPH001

Under the supervision of

Dr. SUDHEER SEBASTIAN K

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

CHRIST COLLEGEIRINJALAKUDA (AUTONOMOUS)

APRIL 2019

1
 CHRIST COLLEGEIRINJALAKUDA (AUTONOMOUS)

CALICUT UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “SIMULATIONS

AND DESIGNING OF SILICON SOLAR CELL” is a bonafide record
of project done by AKHIL VARGHSE, Reg. No. CCAQSPH001, under my
guidance and supervision in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award
of the degree of BACHELOR OF PHYSICS and it has not previously formed
the basis for any Degree, Diploma and Associateship or Fellowship.

Prof. V. P ANTO Dr. SUDHEER SEBASTIAN K

Head of the Department Physics Project Guide

2
 DECLARATION

I, AKHIL VARGHESE, hereby declare that the project work entitled

“SIMULATIONS AND DESIGNING OF SILICON SOLAR CELL”
is a record of independent and bonafide project work carried out by me
under the supervision and guidance of Dr. SUDHEER SEBASTIAN K,
Department of Physics,Christ College Irinjalakuda.

The information and data given in the report is authentic to the best of my
knowledge. The report has not been previously submitted for the award of
any Degree, Diploma, Associateship or other similar title of any other
university or institute.

IRINJALAKUDA

APRIL 2019

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my sincere gratitude to Dr. SUDHEER SEBASTIAN. K, Associate

Professor of Physics Department, whose guidance and support throughout the
training period helped me to complete this work successfully.

I am thankful to Prof.V.P ANTO, Head of Department, for providing proper

help and encouragement in the preparation of this report.

I am thankful to my class teacher, Dr. XAVIER JOSEPH, Associate Professor

of Physics Department, for providing proper help and encouragement in the
preparation of this report.

I would like to express my sincere obligation to Principal, Dr. MATHEW

PAUL UKKEN for providing various facilities.

I would like to express my preferred gratitude to all the faculties of the

department for their interest and cooperation in this regard.

I extend my hearty gratitude to the librarian and other library staffs of my

college for their wholehearted cooperation.

I express my sincere thanks to my friends and family for their support in

completing this report successfully.

I would like to take the opportunity to express my preferred thanks and

gratitude to all people who have helped me with sound advice and able
guidance.

Last but not least I express my sincere gratitude to Lord Almighty for
enlightening us throughout our path.

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Photo Voltaics 7

1.2 Semiconductor and PN Junction 8

Chapter 2
SOLAR CELL STRUCTURE

2.1 How solar cell Works 15

2.2 Light Generated Current 17

2.3 Collection Probability 18

2.4 Quantum Efficiency 18

2.5 Photo Voltaic Effect 18

2.6 Solar Cell Parameters 19

2.7 Resistive Effect 22

2.8 Temperature Effect 22

2.9 Effect of Light Intensity 22

Chapter 3
SOLAR CELL DESIGN

3.1 Solar Cell Design Principle 23

3.2 Optical Losses 24

5
3.3 Anti-Reflection Coating 24

3.4 Surface Texture 25

3.5 Material Thickness 25

3.6 Light Trapping 26

3.7 Recombination Losses 27

3.8 Surface Recombination 29

Chapter 4
SIMULATION OF SILICON SOLAR CELLS

4.1 PC1D Simulation Window 31

4.2 Standard Input Parameters 32

o Simulation 1 :Influence of Surface area

o Simulation 2 :Influence of N region Thickness
o Simulation 3 :Influence of P region Thickness
o Simulation 4 :Influence of N region Doping
o Simulation 5 :Influence of P region Doping

4.3 Designingan Ideal Silicon Solar Cell 48

Chapter 5

CONCLUSION 50

REFERENCES 51

6
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Photovoltaics

Photovoltaics is the process of converting sunlight directly into

electricity using solar cells. Today it is a rapidly growing and
increasingly important renewable alternative to conventional fossil
fuel electricity generation, but compared to other electricity
generating technologies, it is a relative newcomer, with the first
practical photovoltaic devices demonstrated in the 1950s. Research
and development of photovoltaics received its first major boost from
the space industry in the 1960s which required a power supply
separate from "grid" power for satellite applications. These space
solar cells were several thousand times more expensive than they are
today.

It took the oil crisis in the 1970s to focus world attention on the
desirability of alternate energy sources for terrestrial use, which in
turn promoted the investigation of photovoltaics as a means of
generating terrestrial power. Small scale transportable applications
(such as calculators and watches) were utilised and remote power
applications began to benefit from photovoltaics.

In the 1980s research into silicon solar cells paid off and solar cells
began to increase their efficiency. In 1985 silicon solar cells achieved
the milestone of 20% efficiency. Over the next decade, the
photovoltaic industry experienced steady growth rates of between
15% and 20%, largely promoted by the remote power supply market.
The year 1997 saw a growth rate of 38% and today solar cells are
recognized not only as a means for providing power and increased
quality of life to those who do not have grid access, but they are also
a means of significantly diminishing the impact of environmental

7
 damage caused by conventional electricity generation in advanced
industrial countries.

1.2 Semi-conductors and PN Junction

The wide range of semiconductor applications comes from the ability

to easily change their conductivity. The addition of even very small
amounts of impurities, known as dopants, can change their material
conductivity over orders of magnitude even though the impurity
concentration might be very small with concentrations of the order of
parts per billion. The conductivity may also be changed by applying a
voltage or current in one part of the materials to cause a large change
in the conductivity in another part of the device. Solar cells are
usually based around PN junction devices and are just large diodes
that have been optimized to absorb light. As such solar cells belong to
the family of bipolar junction devices, which also includes diodes
and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).

Semiconductor materials that are generally used for construction of

solar cell are:

 Silicon
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
 Indium Phosphide (InP)
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenic Alloy

The most important parameters for a semiconductor materials for

solar cell operation are:

8
 The band gap
 The number free charge carriers (holes and electrons) available for
conduction
 The generation and recombination of free charge carriers in response
to light shining on the materials

1.2.1 Band Gap

In presence of a bounded electron, two energy states are formed

inside the semiconductor. They are:

 Low energy bound state

 High energy conduction state

The difference between these two states in energy is called Band gap
(EG). Band gap of a semiconducting material (used to make solar
cell) determines how much energy is needed from sun for conduction
to takes place. Both electrons and holes take part in conduction (both
move in opposite direction).

1.2.2 Carrier Concentration

In solar cell light energy from sun is used to excite electrons from
valence band to conduction band. Excitation of a carrier in valence
band to conduction band creates free carriers in both bands. The
concentration of these carriers is called Intrinsic Carrier
Concentration,denoted by ni.

Intrinsic concentration depends upon band gap (EG) and temperature.

 Intrinsic concentration is inversely proportional to Band gap (EG).

 Intrinsic concentration directly proportional to Temperature.

9
 A semiconductor without doping is called an Intrinsic Semiconductor.
For doped semiconductor, doping influences carrier concentration.

 Doping is directly proportional to carrier concentration.

Concentration of carriers (electrons-holes) in a semiconductor

without an external bias is called equilibrium carrier concenteration.

1.2.3 Generation and recombination of electron-hole

pair

All radiations falling on the solar cell from sun would not lead to
production of electron-hole pairs. If,

 E photon < EG - weakly interact with semiconductor and pass

through Semiconductor if it is transparent.
 E photon=EG – Electron-Hole pair formation just takes place.
 E photon>EG – are strongly absorbed by the Semiconductor.
However for Photovoltaic applications, the photon energy greater
than band gap is quickly wasted as electrons quickly thermalize back
down to the conduction band edges.

Optical losses like a transmission and refection of incoming

radiationsby solar cell reduces the generation rate.

Generation Rate:

Generation Rate is the measure of e-h pairs generated while photon

absorption.

Assume that there is no optical Losses, such that the decrease in the
intensity of light while passing through the solar cell is solely due to
the absorption, then Generation rate

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 𝐺 = 𝛼𝑁0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥

Where, x=cell depth

𝑁0 = Photon flux

4𝜋𝑘
𝛼 = Absorption coefficient =
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

It measures how far a light of particular wavelength can penetrate into

the material before being absorbed.

K is called the attenuation coefficient and it constant for a material.

1
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ =
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

That is absorption depth increases with wavelength.

From the equation 𝐺 = 𝛼𝑁0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 , it is also evident that the

generation rate exponentially with cell depth.

In short high energetic radiations are more absorbed at surface than

low energy radiations.

During study of solar cell standard solar spectrum AM 1.5 is

considered.

Recombination:

Recombination is opposite process of generation. That is electron-

hole recombine to give out energy (mainly in form of light). There are
three types of recombination:

 Radiative Recombination
 Shockley Read Hall (SRH) Recombination
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 Auger Recombination

Radiative recombination: It takes place mainly in direct band gap

semiconductors like that one used for making LED’s. An electron and
Hole recombine to form a Photon. It is very low in silicon cells.

SRHrecombination:This type of recombination occurs in impure

semiconductors (doped). In such semiconductor sometimes an
electron (or hole) gets entrapped in the forbidden region. If a hole (or
electron) moves up to the same energy state before electron is
thermally re-emitted into the conduction band, then it recombines. In
this type of recombination,recombination energy is transferred in to a
Phonon. It can be seen in lightly doped Silicon solar cells.

Auger recombination: This type of recombination mainly occurs in

heavily doped solar cells. An electron combines with hole, rather than
emitting a photon it would transfer energy to an electron in the
conduction band. This electron thermalizes back down to the
conduction band.

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 In Silicon based solar cell Auger recombination limits the life time of
carrier and the ultimate efficiency.

In short electron hole pairsare generated in a solar cell when it is

irradiated. And these excess carriers will have tendency recombine in
order to attain equilibrium carrier concentration.

If 𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆then no output

power can be generated.

For high efficiency of solar cell recombination rate must be low.

Recombination rate depends upon life time of carrier and the

diffusion length.

1.2.4 Life Time

It is the average time for which a carrier can spend in excited state
after electron-hole generation before it recombines.

∆𝑛
Life time, ∆𝜏 = where, ∆𝑛 = excess minority carriers
𝑅

R= Recombination Rate

Silicon solar cells have longer life time. Auger life time is a function of
carrier concentration.

1
𝜏𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒𝑟 =
𝐶𝑁𝐴2

Where C= 1.66 × 10−30 𝑐𝑚6 /𝑠 (for silicon)

13
1.2.5 Diffusion length

It is the average distance that a carrier can travel from point of

generation until recombination.

Diffusion length, 𝐿 = √𝐷𝜏

Where, D = Diffusivity, It measures how quickly a group of particle

fill a space. (Unit 𝑐𝑚2 )

Recombination can take place anywhere within the solar cell. Since
surface of solar cell have several disruption, it is site of high
recombination. This is termed as Surface Recombination.

The defects at the semiconductor surface causes dangling bonds at the

surface. The reduction in the number of dangling bond is achieved by
growing a layer on top of the semi conductor surface which ties up
some of these dangling bonds. This reduction of the number of
dangling bonds is called surface passivation. By surface passivation
some dangling bonds get tied up.

14
Chapter 2

SOLAR CELL STRUCTURE

In a solarcell the main part is the p-n junction.There are ARC to

prevent reflection losses.Also there are metal contacts on the front
and rear surfaces for the movement of electrons so as to produce
electricity. At the top we have metal grides so that we don’t suffer
from the decrease of light fall on the solar cell. Player is made
extremely thin so that photons can easily reach the junction.

2.1 How a Solar Cell Works

As we know, in a solarcell we have two layers of semiconductor, of

different doping concentrations, in contact. In the p layer we have
extra holes and in n layer we have free electrons. The word ‘free’
implies it is free to move about in the material. When we bring these
two layers together a p-n junction is formed. We know that the like

15
 charges repel and unlike charges attract.So here electrons are attracted
by holes in p region and it diffuses through junction and reach at the p
region, combine with hole thus neutralises. As a result a positive
charge develops near the n type region in the junction. Similarly due
to the diffusion of holes to n region , a negative charge develops near
p side in the junction. As a result an electric potential develops, and
this potential that exist at the junction prevents the further flow of
carriers.Also due to the neutralisation process a region develops
across junction known as depletion region,which is free of charge
carriers.

The basic steps in the operation of a solar cell are:

 The generation of light –generated carriers

 The collection of light generated carriers to generate a current
 The generation of a large voltage across the solar cell
 The dissipation of power in the load.

16
17
2.2 Light Generated Current
When a light incidents on the solarcell electron-hole pair is formed,
and the so formed electrons and holes are collected by the potential
that exist at the junction. It is the junction that spatially separate
electrons and holes, thus prevent them from recombination. As a
result electron move to n region and holes to- p region.So now there
is large number of free electrons in the n region and holes in p region
.So if we connect these two regions externally the current flow will
happen,it is known as light generated current.

But ifthe light generated carriers are prevented from leaving the solar
cell, then collection of carriers increase number of electrons in n type
and holes in p side of junction. This separation of charge creates an
electric field at junction which is in opposition to that already existing
at the junction, thereby reducing net electric field .So as a result
diffusion current increases. At last an equilibrium reaches at which
the net current is zero.

18
The current from the solar cell is the difference between light
generated current and the forward bias current.

2.3 Collection Probability

It describes the probability that a light generated carrier in a certain
region of device is collected by the junction and therefore contribute
to light generated current.This probability depends on the distance
that the carrier must travel compared to the diffusion length.It also
depends on the surface properties of the device.

2.4 Quantum Efficiency

It is the ratio of number of carriers collected by the solarcell to the
number of photons of a given energy incident on solar cell.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝐸𝑄𝐸 = × 100 %
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝐼𝑄𝐸 = × 100 %
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

2.5 Photovoltaic Effect

The photovoltaic effect is the creation of voltage and current in a
material upon which light incidents and is a physical and chemical
phenomenon.It is the direct conversion of light in to electricity .It is
similar to photoelectric effect. The main distinction is that the term
photoelectric effect is used when the electron is ejected out of the
material and photovoltaic effect used when the excited charge carrier
is still contained within the material.

19
 2.6 Solar Cell Parameters
 Short circuit current (Isc): The short circuit current is the maximum
current from solar cell and occurs when the voltage across the device
is zero.

𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝑞𝐺(𝐿𝑛 + 𝐿𝑝 )

Where G is the generation rate, and Ln and Lp are the electron and
hole diffusion lengths respectively.

 Open circuit voltage(Voc): It is the difference of electrical potential

between two terminals of a device when disconnected from any
circuit .It is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell , and this
occurs at zero current.
It is the voltage required to balance the light generated current and the
diffusion current.

𝑛𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = ( ) ln( + 1)
𝑞 𝐼0
𝐼𝑜=saturation current
𝐼𝐿 =Light generated current

 IV Curve:The IV curve of a solar cell is the super position of IV

curve of the solar cell in the dark with the light generated current.The
equation for the IV curve in the (first quadrant)is:

𝑞𝑣
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼0 [exp ( )]
𝑛𝑘𝑇

20
 Here, IL is the light generated current
I0 is the dark saturation current
n is the ideality factor

The ideality factor is a measure of how closely the

diode follows the ideal diode equation. The equation
considers all recombination occurs via band to band.
But recombination occur by other means, so n
deviates from ideal 1

Neither at short circuit condition nor at open circuit solar cell

generates any electric power, but there must be a point somewhere in
between were the solar cell generates maximum power .The point at
which the cell generates maximum electrical power is known as
maximum power point(MPP).

 Fill factor: The fill factor is defined as the ratio of maximum power
from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.

21
 𝑃𝑚𝑝
𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉𝑜𝑐 ∗ 𝐼𝑠𝑐

Graphically, the FF is a measure of the ‘squareness’ of solar cell and

is the area of largest rectangle which will fit in the IV curve.
We know that a solar cell can’t simultaneously deliver the Voc and
Isc .So the actual power delivered is less than Voc*Isc

𝐼𝑜𝑝 × 𝑉𝑜𝑝
𝐹𝐹 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 × 𝑉𝑜𝑐

Where Iop is the operating point current of solar cell, Vop is the
operating point voltage across solar cell.

 Solar cell efficiency: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy

output from the solar cell to input energy from the sun.

𝐹𝐹
𝜂 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ×
𝑃𝑖𝑛

The efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of incident

light and the temperature of the solar cell.Terrestrial solarcells are
measured under AM1.5 conditions and at a temperature of 25°C. So
the input power for calculation is1 Kw/m2.

22
2.7 Resistive Effect
Characteristic resistance: This is the output resistance of the solar cell
at its maximum power point.If the resistance of load is equal to the
characteristic resistance of the solar cell, then the maximum power is
transferred to the load and the solar cell operates at its maximum
power point.

Effect of parasitic Resistances: Resistive effects in solar cells reduce

the efficiency of solar cell by dissipating power in the solar cell.

2.8 Temperature Effect

Solar cells are sensitive to temperature. The increase in temperature
reduce the band gap of a semiconductor .So temperature change
affect almost all parameters in which the effect in open circuit voltage
is more significant. The open circuit voltage decreases with
temperature.

2.9 Effect of Light Intensity

Changing light intensity that falls on a solar cell changes all solar cell
parameters including Isc, Voc, FF etc. The light intensity on the solar
cell is called the number of suns, where 1 sun corresponds to standard
illumination at AM1.5 or 1kW/m2.A photo voltaic module designed
to operate under 1 sun conditions is called “a flat plate” module while
those using concentrated sunlight are called “concentrators”.

23
24
Chapter 3

Solar Cell Design

3.1 Solar Cell Design Principle

Solar cell design involves specifying the parameters of a solar cell
structure in order to maximize efficiency in a given set of constraints.
These constraints will be defined by the working environment in
which solar cells are produced.

The theoretical efficiency for photovoltaic conversion is in

excess of 86.8% . For silicon solar cells, a more realistic efficiency
under one sun operation is about 29% . The maximum efficiency
measured for a silicon solar cell is currently 24.7% under AM1.5G.
The difference between the high theoretical efficiencies and the
efficiencies measured from terrestrial solar cells is due mainly to two
factors.

The first is that the theoretical maximum efficiency predictions

assume that energy from each photon is optimally used, that there are
no unabsorbed photons and that each photon is absorbed in a material
which has a band gap equal to the photon energy. This is achieved in
theory by modeling an infinite stack of solar cells of different band
gap materials, each absorbing only the photons which correspond
exactly to its band gap.

The second factor is that the high theoretical efficiency predictions

assume a high concentration ratio.

25
3.2 Optical Losses
Optical losses consist of light which could have generated an
electron-hole pair, but does not, because the light is reflected from the
front surface, or because it is not absorbed in the solar cell. For the
most common semiconductor solar cells, the entire visible spectrum
(350 - 780 nm) has enough energy to create electron-hole pairs and
therefore all visible light would ideally be absorbed.66 of ways to
reduce the optical losses:

•Top contact coverage of the cell surface can be minimised (although

this may result in increased series resistance)

•Anti-reflection coatings can be used on the top surface of the cell.

•Reflection can be reduced by surface texturing.

•The solar cell can be made thicker to increase absorption (although

light that is absorbed more than a diPffusion length from the junction
has a low collection probability and will not contribute to the short
circuit current).

•The optical path length in the solar cell may be increased by a

combination of surface texturing and light trapping.

3.3 Anti-Reflection Coating

Bare silicon has a high surface reflection of over 30%. The reflection
is reduced by texturing and by applying anti-reflection coatings
(ARC) to the surface. They consist of a thin layer of dielectric
material, with a specially chosen thickness so that interference effects
in the coating cause the wave reflected from the anti-reflection
coating top surface to be out of phase with the wave reflected from

26
the semiconductor surfaces. These out-of-phase reflected waves
destructively interfere with one another, resulting in zero net reflected
energy.

The color of the film is affected by the thickness as well as the

refractive index so the film color is merely a rough guide to thickess.

3.4 Surface Texture

Surface texturing, either in combination with an anti-reflection
coating or by itself, can also be used to minimize reflection.A single
crystalline substrate can be textured by etching along the faces of the
crystal planes.

3.5 Material Thickness

While the reduction of reflection is an essential part of achieving a
high efficiency solar cell, it is also essential to absorb all the light in
the silicon solar cell. The amount of light absorbed depends on the
optical path length and the absorption coefficient. The device
simulated is a cell with no front surface reflection losses so that all
incident light enters the cell. In reality, thin cells are usually designed
with a reflector on the rear so that light makes multiple passes across
the cell and the absorption is increased.

27
28
3.6 Light Trapping
The optimum device thickness is not controlled solely by the need to
absorb all the light. A thinner solar cell which retains the absorption
of the thicker device may have a higher voltage. Consequently, an
optimum solar cell structure will typically have "light trapping" in
which the optical path length is several times the actual device
thickness, where the optical path length of a device refers to the
distance that an unabsorbed photon may travel within the device
before it escapes out of the device. This is usually defined in terms of
device thickness. For example, a solar cell with no light trapping
features may have an optical path length of one device thickness,
while a solar cell with good light trapping may have an optical path
length of 50, indicating that light bounces back and forth within the
cell many times.Light trapping is usually achieved by changing the
angle at which light travels in the solar cell by having it be incident
on an angled surface.

29
3.7 Recombination Losses
Recombination losses effect both the current collection (and therefore
the short-circuit current) as well as the forward bias injection current
(and therefore the open-circuit voltage). Recombination is frequently
classified according to the region of the cell in which it occurs.
Typically, recombination at the surface (surface recombination) or in
the bulk of the solar cell (bulk recombination) are the main areas of
recombination. The depletion region is another area in which
recombination can occur (depletion region recombination).

CURRENT LOSSES DUE TO RECOMBINATION;

In order for the p-n junction to be able to collect all of the light-
generated carriers, both surface and bulk recombination must be
minimised. In silicon solar cells, the two conditions commonly
required for such current collection are:

1. The carrier must be generated within a diffusion length of the

junction, so that it will be able to diffuse to the junction before
recombining

2. In the case of a localized high recombination site (such as at an

unpassivated surface or at a grain boundary in multicrystalline
devices), the carrier must be generated closer to the junction than
to the recombination site and be collected without recombining.

The presence of localized recombination sites at both the front and

the rear surfaces of a silicon solar cell means that photons of different
energy will have different collection probabilities. The quantum

30
efficiency of a solar cell quantifies the effect of recombination on the
light generation current.

VOLTAGE LOSSES DUE TO RECOMBINATION:

The open-circuit voltage is the voltage at which the forward bias

diffusion current is exactly equal to the short circuit current.
Increasing the recombination increases the forward bias current and
reduces the open-circuit voltage. The recombination is controlled by
the number of minority carriers at the junction edge, how fast they
move away from the junction and how quickly they recombine.
Consequently, the forward bias current, hence the open-circuit
voltage is affected by the following parameters:

1. The number of minority carriers at the junction edge. The number

of minority carriers injected is simply the number of minority carriers
in equilibrium multiplied by an exponential factor which depends on
the voltage and the temperature. Therefore, minimising the
equilibrium minority carrier concentration reduces recombination.
Minimizing the equilibrium carrier concentration is achieved by
increasing the doping;

2. The diffusion length in the material. A low diffusion length means

that minority carriers disappear from the junction edge quickly due to
recombination, thus allowing more carriers to cross and increasing the
forward bias current. Consequently, to minimise recombination and
achieve a high voltage, a high diffusion length is required

3. the presence of localised recombination sources within a diffusion

length of the junction. A high recombination source close to the
junction (usually a surface or a grain boundary) will allow carriers to
move to this recombination source very quickly and recombine, thus
31
dramatically increasing the recombination current. The impact of
surface recombination is reduced by passivating the surfaces.

3.8 Surface Recombination

Surface recombination can have a major impact both on the short-
circuit current and on the open-circuit voltage. High recombination
rates at the top surface have an impact on the short-circuit current
since top surface also corresponds to the highest generation region of
carriers in the solar cell. Lowering the high top surface recombination
is typically accomplished by reducing the number of dangling silicon
bonds at the top surface. The surface recombination can be minimised
by increasing the doping.

32
Chapter 4

Simulation of Silicon Solar Cell

Our project’s main intention is to study and design silicon solar cells
by simulation. We try to study the effect of variations of different
parameters of a silicon solar cell. We also aims at studying the
efficiency in each case to gain the insight of designing a better
efficient solar cell.

The simulation software that we used to design various silicon solar

cells is PC1D.(Developed by Paul A. Basore and Donald A.
Clugston.)

PC1D

PC1D is the most commonly used of the commercially available solar

cell modelling program developed since 1982. Its success is based on
its speed, user interface and continual updates to the latest cell models.
It is used to simulate new device performance and also for new users to
develop an understanding of device physics.The user can alter the cell
parameters and either use internal models or provide externally
measured data. User can input various parameters and can run the
simulation to obtain different outputs including voltage current etc.
Various graphs can also be generated during the run of the simulation
from which user can derive certain inferences.

33
4.1 PC1D Simulation Window

34
 4.2 Standard Input Parameters

DEVICE

Device area: 110cm2

N REGION

Thickness: 10µm

N-type background doping: 1e19 cm-3

P REGION

Thickness: 100µm

P-type background doping: 1e16 cm-3

EXCITATION

Excitation from one-sun.

Excitation mode:Transient

Temperature:25°C

These are the basic parameters. At a time we change either one of the
parameter and set other the standard values.

35
SIMULATION 1:

Influence of Surface Area

In this simulation we tried to understand the influence of surface area

on the I-V characteristics of Silicon solar cell.

We run the simulation with the standard inputs and vary the surface
area for the following values:

 120 cm^2
 170 cm^2
 200 cm^2
 220 cm^2
 270 cm^2

Using the data obtained from each computation we plotted the I-V
characteristic curve. It is seen that base current increases as the
surface area increases.

Using the data we also calculated the Fill Factor and efficiency in
each case and plotted the graph between surface area and efficiency.

36
 I-V CHARACTERISTICS
Influence Of Surface Area
4.5

3.5
Base Current(A)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Base Voltage(V)
120 cm^2 170 cm^2 200 cm^2 220 cm^2 270 cm^2

Results

Surface Isc Voc P(in) P(max) Fill Efficiency

Area Factor
(cm^2) (A) (V) (W) (W) (%)
120 1.893 0.6567 12 1.039 0.83579 8.6583

170 2.682 0.6567 17 1.473 0.8363 8.6644

200 3.155 0.6567 20 1.732 0.8359 8.6594

220 3.470 0.6567 22 1.906 0.8364 8.6634

270 4.259 0.6567 27 2.339 0.83628 8.6629

37
 Surface Area Vs Effieciency
8.665

8.664

8.663
Efficiency

8.662

8.661

8.66

8.659

8.658

8.657
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Surface Area

Inference

In this case the input power is increasing due to the increase in

surface area. As a result the output power is also found to be
increasing. But the same trend is not followed in the case of
efficiency. This is because P(in) and P(max) have different rate of
variation. We obtained an efficiency peak about 170 cm^2.

38
SIMULATION 2:

Influence of Thickness of N Region

In this simulation we tried to understand the influence of thickness of

N Region on the I-V characteristics of Silicon solar cell.

We run the simulation with the standard inputs and vary the
Thickness of N Region for the following values:

 10 um
 15 um
 20 um
 25 um

Using the data obtained from each computation we plotted the I-V
characteristic curve. It is seen that base current decreases as the
thickness increases.

Using the data we also calculated the Fill Factor and efficiency in
each case and plotted the graph between thickness and efficiency.

39
 I-V CHARACTERISTICS
Influence of Thickness of N Region
3.5

3
BASE CURRENT (A)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Base Voltage (V)

6 um 10 um 15 um 20 um 25

RESULTS

Thickness Isc Voc P(in) P(max) Fill Efficiency

(um) (A) (V) (W) (W) Factor (%)

6 2.867 0.6701 12 1.611 0. 8385 13.24

10 1.893 0.6567 12 1.039 0.8357 8.6583

15 1.215 0.6445 12 0.6567 0.8386 5.4723

20 0.8710 0.6355 12 0.4599 0.8308 3.8325

25 0.6782 0.6287 12 0.3455 0.8103 2.8654

40
 Thickness of N Region Vs Efficiency
14

12

10
Efiiciency

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Thickness

Inference

Input power is same in each simulation. The output power is found to

be decreasing by the increase in the thickness of N region. Efficiency
is also found to be decreasing as the thickness of N region increases.
The curve is exponentially decreasing. And ideally the maximum
efficiency is expected to be while thickness tending to 0.

41
SIMULATION 3:

Influence of Thickness of P Region

In this simulation we tried to understand the influence of thickness of

P Region on I-V Characteristics of Silicon solar cell.

We run the simulation with the standard inputs and vary the
Thickness of P Region for the following values:

 105 um
 110 um
 115 um
 120 um

Using the data obtained from each computation we plotted the I-V
characteristic curve. It is seen that base current increases as the
thickness increases. Though the variation is negligible.

Using the data we also calculated the Fill Factor and efficiency in
each case and plotted the graph between Thickness and efficiency

42
RESULTS

Thickness Isc Voc P(in) P(max) Fill Efficiency

Factor
(um) (A) (V) (W) (W) (%)
105 1.904 0.6567 12 1.045 0.8357 8.7076

110 1.914 0.6567 12 1.050 0.8353 8.7490

115 1.924 0.6568 12 1.055 0.8348 8.7910

120 1.934 0.6568 12 1.060 0.8344 8.8324

43
 Thickness of P Region Vs Efficiency
8.84

8.82

8.8
Efficiency

8.78

8.76

8.74

8.72

8.7
104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122

Thickness

Inference

The input power is same in each simulation. The output power is

increasing negligibly as the thickness of P Region increases. The
effect is too small. The efficiency curve shows a linear relation with P
region thickness.

44
SIMULATION 4:

Influence of N Region Doping

In this simulation we tried to understand the influence of N Region

Doping on I-V Characteristics of Silicon solar cell.

We run the simulation with the standard inputs and vary the doping of
N Region for the following values:

 1.e17 cm^-3
 1.e18 cm^-3
 1.e19 cm^-3
 1.e20 cm^-3

Using the data obtained from each computation we plotted the I-V
characteristic curve. It is seen that base current decreases as the
doping of N region increases.

Using the data we also calculated the Fill Factor and efficiency in
each case and plotted the graph between Doping and efficiency

45
 I-V Characteristics
Influence of Doping of N Region
4.5

3.5
Base Current(A)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Base Voltage(V)
1.e17 cm^-3 1.e18 cm^-3 1.e19 cm^-3 1.e20 cm^-3

RESULT

Doping Isc Voc P(in) P(max) Fill Efficiency

Factor
(cm^-3) (A) (V) (W) (W) (%)
1.e17 4.109 0.7485 12 2.581 0.8391 21.506

1.e18 4.046 0.7306 12 2.488 0.8416 20.7315

1.e19 1.893 0.6567 12 1.039 0.8358 8.658

1.e20 0.9339 0.6082 12 0.4754 0.8369 3.9613

46
 Doping of N Region Vs Efficiency
1.00E+20

1.00E+19
Doping

1.00E+18

1.00E+17

0 5 10 15 20 25
Efficiency

Inference

The input power is same in each simulation. As the doping of N

region increases the base current and output power is found to be
decreasing. The efficiency curve also indicates the decrease in
efficiency as the doping increases.

47
SIMULATION 5:

Influence of P Region Doping

In this simulation we tried to understand the influence of P Region

Doping on I-V Characteristics of Silicon solar cell.

We run the simulation with the standard inputs and vary the doping of
P Region for the following values:

 1.e12 cm^-3
 1.e15 cm^-3
 1.e18 cm^-3
 1.e19 cm^-3

Using the data obtained from each computation we plotted the I-V
characteristic curve. It is seen that base current decreases as the
doping of P region increases.

Using the data we also calculated the Fill Factor and efficiency in
each case and plotted the graph between Doping and efficiency

48
 I-V Characteristics
Influence of Doping of P Region
2

1.8

1.6
Base Current(A)

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Base Voltage(V)
(1.e12 cm^-3 (1.e15 cm^-3 (1.e18 cm^-3 (1.e19 cm^-3

RESULT

Doping Isc Voc P(in) P(max) Fill Efficiency

Factor
(cm^-3) (A) (V) (W) (W) (%)
1.e12 1.892 0.6546 12 1.008 0.8138 8.3991

1.e15 1.893 0.6547 12 1.017 0.8205 8.475

1.e18 1.721 0.6511 12 0.9403 0.8391 7.8354

1.e19 1.115 0.6306 12 0.5892 0.8379 4.90

49
 Doping of P Region Vs Efficiency

1.00E+19

1.00E+18
Doping

1.00E+15

1.00E+12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Efficiency

Inference

The input power is same in each simulation. As the doping increases

the base current is found to decrease. The efficiency decreases as the
doping increases. However the efficiency has a peak value at a doping
of 1.e15 cm^-3

50
 4.3 Desigining an Ideal Silicon Solar
Cell
The main factor that determines the efficiency of a silicon solar cell is
input power. The parameter that directly depend on input power is
Surface Area. In this section we tried to design an ideal silicon solar
cell with maximum efficiency. First of all we fixed the surface
area=170 cm^2 (Since maximum efficiency was obtained for this
point during the study.)

In each step we set one parameters each that gave maximum

efficiency in the previous step.

At the end we got all the parameters that provide maximum

efficiency.

N-REGION THICKNESS
SURFACE AREA = 170 cm^2

Thickness Isc Voc Pmax Fill Efficiency

um (A) (V) (W) Factor %
5 4.485 0.6745 2.540 0.8396 14.95
6 4.061 0.6701 2.820 1.0362 16.5
10 2.682 0.6567 1.473 0.836 8.60
15 1.722 0.6445 0.9303 0.838 5.47
20 1.234 0.6355 0.6515 0.8307 3.83

P-REGION THICKNESS
SURFACE AREA =170 cm^2 N REGION THICKNESS = 6um

Thickness Isc Voc Pmax Fill Efficiency

um (A) (V) (W) Factor %
105 4.0780 0.6701 2.292 0.8387 13.48
110 4.0794 0.6701 2.302 0.8421 13.54

51
 115 4.1100 0.6700 2.311 0.8392 13.59
120 4.1240 0.6707 2.322 0.8394 13.65

N-REGION DOPING
SURFACE AREA = 170 cm^2 P REGION THICKNESS = 120 um

N REGION THICKNESS = 6um

Doping Isc Voc Pmax Fill Efficiency

cm^-3 (A) (V) (W) Factor %

1e17 5.871 0.7450 3.657 0.8356 21.51

1e18 5.842 0.7343 3.594 0.8370 21.14
1e19 4.124 0.6700 2.320 0.8396 13.64
1e20 1.987 0.6184 1.018 0.8284 05.98

P-REGION DOPING
SURFACE AREA = 170 cm^2 N REGION THICKNESS = 6um

P REGION THICKNESS = 120um N REGION DOPING = 1e17 cm^-3

Doping Isc Voc Pmax Fill Efficiency

cm^-3 (A) (V) (W) Factor %
1e12 5.866 0.7422 3.8508 0.8050 22.6517
1e15 5.872 0.7425 3.8515 0.8833 22.6558
1e18 5.514 0.7125 3.3380 0.8623 19.9290
1e19 4.409 0.6787 2.5240 0.8434 14.8470

52
Chapter 5

Conclusion
The main objective of our project was to study the basics of
Silicon solar cell and its design with optimised parameters.
We also analysed the influence of various factors which
affect the efficiency of Silicon Solar cell. Using PC1D we
did different simulations and obtained some interesting
results.

In this modest work, we deduced the characteristics that are

necessary to have a basic silicon solar cell with maximum
efficiency.

Following are the parameters required for designing an ideal

silicon solar cell.

 Surface area :170 cm2

 Thickness of N region : 6 µm
 Thickness of P region : 120 µm
 Doping of N region : 1e18 cm-3
 Doping of P region : 1e15 cm-3

We could design an Ideal Silicon Solar Cell with a maximum

efficiency of 22.6558 %

53
54
References
 PvEduvation.org
 Applications of solar cells based on silicon-Department of Physics
University of Abou Bel Kaid Algeria
 Numerical Modelling of textured silicon solar cell using PC1D-P A
Basur
 High efficiency solar cells based on inversion layer Emitters-GM Torson
 Modelling free carrier absorption in Solar cells-D A Clugston and P A
Basur
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.Britanica.com
 High efficiency N Type silicon solar cell with front side boron emitter-
24th Europian photovoltaic Solar energy conference Germany.
 www.explainthatstuff.com
 www.sciencedirect.com
 Youtube
 http://www.solarcellcentral.com
 https://www.vikramsolar.com

55