SCIENCE 8 – Quarter 4, Week 3

Mendel and Heredity

Mendel and His Garden Pea
Many of your traits, including the color and shape of your eyes, the texture of your hair, and even your height and
weight resemble those of your parents. The passing of traits from parents to offspring is called heredity. Before DNA and
Chromosomes were discovered, heredity was one of the greatest mysteries of Science.
These passing of traits from parents to offspring generally follows a pattern. This pattern is studied in Genetics or the
Science that deals with the study of heredity.
The Scientific study of Heredity began more than a century ago with the work of an Austrian monk named Gregor
Johann Mendel. He carried out experiments in which he bred different varieties of the Garden Pea (Pisum sativum) where he
removed the stamens from one flower and transferred pollen from a different plant to the Pistil of the original flower.
The Garden Pea is a good subject for studying heredity because (a) it has many traits that have two clearly different
forms that are easy to tell apart, (b) their mating can be easily controlled because the male and female reproductive parts are
enclosed within the same flower, (c) it is small, grows easily, matures quickly, and produces many offspring.

He observed on the Seed Shape (Round-YY and Wrinkled-yy), Seed Color (Yellow-YY and Green-yy), Pod Shape (Inflated-
II and Constricted-ii), Pod Color (Green-GG and Yellow-gg), Flower Color (Purple-PP and White-pp), Flower Location (Axial-AA and
Terminal-aa), and Plant Size (Tall-TT and Short-tt).
Mendel’s Experiments
Mendel’s initial experiments were monohybrid crosses. A monohybrid cross is a cross that involves one pair of
contrasting traits. For example, crossing a plant with purple flowers and a plant with white flowers is a monohybrid cross.
STEP 1: Mendel allowed each variety of garden pea to self-pollinate for several generations. This method ensured that each
variety was true-breeding for a particular trait; that is, all the offspring would display only one form of a particular trait. For
example, a true-breeding purple-flowering plant should produce only plants with purple flowers in subsequent generations. These
true-breeding plants served as the parental generation or P generation, are the first two individuals that are crossed in a
breeding experiment.
STEP 2: Mendel then cross-pollinated two P generation plants that had contrasting trait, such as purple flowers and white flowers.
Mendel called the offspring of the P generation the First Filial Generation or F1 generation. He then examined each F1 plant
and recorded the number of F1 plants expressing each trait.
STEP 3: Finally, Mendel allowed the F1 generation to self-pollinate. He called the offspring of the F1 generation plants the Second
Filial Generation or F2 generation. Again, each F2 plant was characterized and counted.

Mendel’s Work Became a Theory of Heredity

Before Mendel’s experiments, many people thought offspring were just blend of the characteristics of their parents. For
example, if a tall plant were crossed with a short plant, the offspring would be medium in height.
Mendel’s result DID NOT support the blending hypothesis. Mendel correctly concluded that each pea hastwo separate
“Heritable factors” for each trait—one from each parent. As shown in the figure 4, when gametes (Sperm and Egg Cell) form, only
one of the two factors for each trait is given to a gamete. When two gametes fuse during fertilization, the resulting offspring has
two factors for each trait. Today, these factors are called Genes. His worksbecome the basis genetics we know today.
Mendel’s Findings in Modern Terms
 Geneticists have developed specific terms and ways of representing an individual’s genetic makeup. For example,
letters are often used to represent alleles. Dominant Alleles are indicated by writing the first letter of the trait as a Capital
Letter. For instance, in Pea Plants, purple flower color is a dominant trait and is written as “P”. Recessive alleles are also
indicated by writing the letter of the trait in Lowercase letters. For example, white flower color is recessive and is written as “p”.
Example: Purple Flower (PP), White Flower (pp), Purple Flower (Pp)
Homozygous and Heterozygous
If the two alleles of a particular gene present in an organism are the same such as PP (Purple), pp (White), RR (Round), rr
(Wrinkled), TT (Tall), tt (Short), and others, the organism is said to be Homozygous. If the two alleles of a particular gene
present in an organism are different such as Pp (Purple), Rr (Round), Tt (Tall), and others, the organism is said to be
Heterozygous. In heterozygous individuals, only the dominant allele is expressed; the recessive allele is present but
unexpressed.

Genotype and Phenotype

A phenotype is an individual's observable traits, such as height, eye color, and blood type. The genetic contribution to
the phenotype is called the genotype (The set of alleles that an individual has). Some traits are largely determined by the
genotype, while other traits are largely determined by environmental factors. For example, if Pp is the genotype of a pea plant,
its Phenotype is Purple Flower. If pp is the Genotype of a Pea Plant, its Phenotype is White Flower. When considering seed color, if
Yy is the Genotype of the pea Plant, its Phenotype is Yellow Seed. If yy is the Genotype of a Pea Plant, its Phenotype is Green
Seeds. Note that by convention, the Dominant Trait is written first followed by the lowercase letter for the recessive trait.
Genotypic Ratio and Phenotypic Ratio
We can represent Genotypes and phenotypes via Ratio. A Ratio is a comparison of two numbers that have the same
unit. In writing Genotypic Ratio, count how many times a certain genotype appeared. In terms of Seed Color for example, the
Genotypes of the offspring appeared to be – YY, Yy, Yy, yy – “YY” appeared Once (1), “Yy” appeared twice (2), and “yy” appeared
once (1). Therefore, the Genotypic Ratio for our example is 1 (YY) : 2 (Yy): 1 (yy) or 25 % (YY): 50% (Yy): 25% (yy). In the same
example, we can identify their Phenotypic Ratio by looking into their Genotypes as we determine who’s Dominant and
Recessive. In the example, YY and Yy appeared Yellow and yy appeared Green. Therefore, The phenotypic Ratio for – YY, Yy, Yy,
yy – is 3 (Yellow): 1 (Green) or 75% yellow: 25% Green.

Mendel’s Ideas Gave Rise to the Laws of Heredity

Mendel’s hypothesis brilliantly predicted the results of his crosses and also accounted for the ratios he observed. Similar
patterns of heredity have since been observed in countless other organisms. Because of their importance, Mendel’s ideas are
often referred to as the Laws of Heredity.
The Law of Segregation
The first law of heredity describes the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis, when homologous chromosomes and
then chromatids are separated. There are alternative versions of genes. For example, the gene for Plant size can exist in “Tall”
version represented by the two unit factors (TT) or “Short” version represented by the two unit factors (tt). These versions of
gene are called alleles. The first law, the Law of Segregation, states that the two alleles for a trait segregate (separate) when
gametes are formed.

Genotypic Ratio= 100% Tt Phenotypic Ratio= 100% Tall

The Law of Dominance
When two different alleles occur together, one of them may be completely expressed trait or observable trait, while the
other may have no observable effect on the organism’s appearance. Mendel described the expressed trait as Dominant Trait.
On the other hand, the trait that was not expressed is called Recessive Trait.
Genotypic ratio= 25% (TT): 50% (Tt) : 25% (tt)
Phenotypic Ratio= 75% (Tall): 25% (Short)
Law of Independent Assortment
Mendel went on to study whether the inheritance of one trait (such as plant height) influenced the inheritance of a
different trait (such as flower color). To study how different pairs of genes are inherited, Mendel conducted dihybrid crosses. A
dihybrid cross is a cross that considers two pairs of contrasting traits. For example, a cross that considers both plant height and
flower color is a dihybrid cross.
Mendel found that for the pairs of traits he studied, the inheritance of one trait did not influence the inheritance of any
other trait. This observation eventually became known as the Law of Independent Assortment. The Law of Independent
Assortment states that the alleles of different genes separate independently of one another during gamete formation. When
gametes are formed, the alleles for each gene in an individual separate independently of one another. Thus gametes carry only
one allele for each inherited trait.
Studying Heredity
A Punnett Square is a diagram that predicts the expected outcome of a genetic cross by considering all possible
combinations of gametes in the cross. Named after its inventor, Reginald Punnett, the simplest Punnett Square consists of four
boxes inside a square. As shown in the figure>>>>> the possible gametes that the other parent can produce are written along
the top and left-side of the square. Each box inside the square is filled with two letters obtained by combining the allele along the
top of the box with the Tt Tt T t T t TT Tt Tt tt X F1 generation F2 generation allele along the side of the box. The letters in the
boxes indicate the possible genotypes of the offspring.

Example 1 (Monohybrid Cross): Example 2 (Monohybrid Cross): A Example 3 (Monohybrid Cross) A

Across between a pea plant that heterozygous Yellow seeded Homozygous purple-flowered
is homozygous for Yellow Seeds plant is crossed with a pea plant (PP) is crossed with a
(YY) and a pea plant that is heterozygous Yellow seeded heterozygous purple-flowered
homozygous for Green Seeds plant. What will be the (Pp) pea plant. What will be the
(yy) Genotypic Ratio and Phenotypic Genotypic Ratio and Phenotypic
Ratio of their offspring? Ratio of their offspring?

Example 4 (Dihybrid Cross): Predict the results of a cross between two pea plants that are Heterozygous Purple (Pp) for flower
color and Heterozygous Round (Rr) for seed shape.
STEP 1: Determine the genotypes of the parents and create possible combinations
STEP 2: Set up the Punnett Square with the alleles of parents on each side
STEP 3: Fill out the Punnett Square
STEP 4: Analyze the number of Offspring of Each Type
STEP 5: Describe the genotypes, Phenotypes, and the Phenotypic and Genotypic
Ratio
Genotypic Ratio= 1 (PPRR): 2 (PPRr): 2 (PpRR): 4 (PpRr): 1 (PPrr): 1 (ppRR): 1 (ppRr): 2 (Pprr): 1 (ppRr): 1 (pprr) Phenotypic
Ratio= 9 (Purple Flower with Round Seed): 3 (Purple Flower with Wrinkled Seed): 3 (White Flower with Round Seed): 1 (White
flower with Wrinkled Seed)

Activity 1: Determine the following allelic Activity 2: Write the Phenotype of the following Genotypes
combination or Genotypes whether
Homozygous or Heterozygous 1. Green (G), Yellow (g) 3. Black (B), Brown (b)
a. Gg a. Bb
1. RR b. gg b. BB
2. Yy c. GG c. bb
3. pp
2. Tall (T), Short (t)
4. Tt
a. tt
5. rr b. TT
c. Tt

Activity 3: Determine the Genotypic Ratio and Phenotypic Ratio of the following.