Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

The National Engineering University
ARASOF-Nasugbu Campus
R. Martinez St., Brgy. Bucana, Nasugbu, Batangas, Philippines 4231
Tel Nos.: +63 43 416 0350 local 239
[email protected] l Website: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

College of Criminal Justice Education

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY

FORENSIC 101 – FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

This course covers the historical development, principles and processes of
photography in relation to law enforcement and criminal justice. This includes the
evolution of camera, photographic processes and personalities behind the
development of modern photography, use of forensic light sources and techniques
and related laws and jurisprudence in photography

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY

Forensic
• The word is derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a marketplace” where
people gathered for public discussion. When used in conjunction with other science, it
connotes a relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes used
interchangeably with the word legal.

Photography
● derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light”. “Grapho” means
“writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to draw”
● Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry
Fox Talbot
● It is the art and science of reproducing an image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, lens and its accessories, and the chemical
process required in order to produce a photograph. (Redsicker, 2001)

Forensic Photography
It is the branch of forensic science that deals with
● The study of the fundamental and practical concepts and principles of photography;
● Application of photography in law enforcement; and
● Preparation of photographic evidence needed by the prosecution and the courts.

Photograph - the mechanical and chemical result of photography. Picture and photograph are
not the same for a picture is a generic term that refers to all kinds of a formed image while a
photograph is an image that can only be a product of photography.

Picture - derived from the Latin word “pictura” or “pictus” which means “to paint”. It is a design or
representation made by various means such as painting, drawing, or photography.

Police Photography
• Refers to the use of a camera and video for law enforcement purposes such as
documenting physical evidence and crime scenes, or recording interrogations, traffic stops,
surveillance, public thoroughfares, traffic accidents and still images of arrested individuals
(Miller,2007).
• The art or science that deals with the study of photography and its application to police
work.

Significance of Photography in Police Work and Law Enforcement

1. As a means of identification
2. As a method of discovering, recording, and preserving evidence
3. As a way to present in the court room an impression of the pertinent elements of a crime
4. As a training and public relations medium for police programs

PNP Forensic Photography Division

The PNP’s crime scene photographers follow the following standard operating procedures:
1. A crime scene photographer must be on duty at Forensic Photography Division on call
whenever photographic assistance is needed.
2. The crime scene photographer must be knowledgeable of the crime committed/reported to
enable him to determine the equipment and materials to bring along to the crime scene.
3. The crime scene photographer should record in the photography division’s record book all
the details of the incident/crime responded before and after Scene of the Crime Operation
(SOCO) and Field Laboratory Work (FLW) responses, including the type of camera and film
used.
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 4. The responding crime scene photographer should check and ensure the serviceability of his
equipment and strictly observed the steps and procedures applicable for every scene
including measurements and identification.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

ANTECEDENTS

Camera Obscura

Latin name which means “darkroom”. It is the ancestor of the

modern photographic camera. The earliest version of the
camera obscura, dating to antiquity, consisted of small
darkened rooms with light admitted through a single tiny
hole. The result of the process was an inverted image of the
outside scene that was cast on the opposite wall which was
usually whitened.

For many centuries the technique was used for viewing

eclipses of the sun without endangering the viewer’s eyes,
and by the 16th century, as an aid for artists in drawing; the
subject or scene was posed outside and the image
reflected on a piece of drawing paper for the artist to trace.

The first historical mentions of camera obscura in pinhole

photography are by ancient philosophers Mozi, Aristotle, and
Al-Hazen (400 B.C – 1400 A.D). Leonardo da Vinci, in 1490,
recorded detailed descriptions of camera obscura and used it
to trace his drawings. By the 1700s, camera obscura
devices were common.

EARLY EXPERIMENTS

In 1707, Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered that silver salts,

specifically a piece of chalk dipped in silver nitrate turned black from
white when exposed to sunlight. The unexposed side remained white. He
experimented with creating crude photographic impressions, but
eventually, it all turned black due to exposure.

His discovery, in combination with the camera obscura, provided the

basic technology necessary for photography. However, it was not until the
early 19th century that photography came into being.

In 1826, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce successfully captured the world’s first permanent
photographic image that took long hours of exposure by using a procedure which he called
Heliography.

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 View from the Window at Le Gras (1826)
World’s First Photograph

French artist and scenic painter Louis Jacques Mande

Daguerre invented the process and perfected the method of
producing direct positive images on a silver-coated copper plate in
1837 which he called the “daguerreotype process”. It was the
first practical method of obtaining permanent images with a
camera

To make the image, a daguerreotypist would polish a sheet of

silver-plated copper to a mirror finish, treat it with fumes that made its
surface light-sensitive, expose it in a camera for as long as was
judged to be necessary, which could be as little as a few seconds
for brightly sunlit subjects or much longer with less intense
lighting; make the resulting latent image on it visible by fuming it with
mercury vapor; remove its sensitivity to light by liquid chemical
treatment, rinse and dry it, then seal the easily marred result
behind glass in a protective enclosure.

William Henry Fox Talbot invented in 1839 the Calotype - or “Talbotype photographic technique is a
process wherein a sheet of paper coated with silver chloride was exposed to light in a
camera obscura and those areas hit by light became dark in tone, yielding a negative image. The
revolutionary aspect of the process lay in Talbot’s discovery of a chemical (gallic acid) that could
be used to “develop” the image on the paper—i.e., accelerate the silver chloride’s chemical
reaction to the light it had been exposed to. The developing process permitted much shorter
exposure times in the camera, down from one hour to one minute.

The developed image on the paper or “negatives'' was fixed with sodium hyposulfite and could
yield numerous amounts of positive images by simple contact printing upon another piece of
sensitized paper. Talbot’s process was superior in this respect to the daguerreotype which
yielded a single positive image on metal that could not be duplicated.

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 Latticed Window at Locock Abbey (Aug.1835)
World’s First Negative

1851 – Frederick Scott Archer invented the “Collodion Process” by which images only take two
to three seconds of exposure to light.

1861 - J.C. Maxwell produced the first color photograph

1871 – Richard Leach Maddox invented the gelatin dry plate silver bromide process in which
negatives no longer have to be developed immediately.

1880 – Sir William Abney of England discovered the use of Hydroquinone as a developing agent.

1888 – George Eastman patents Kodak roll-film camera.

1898 – Hannibal Goodwin patents the celluloid photographic film.

1909 – Dr. Rudolphe Archibald Reiss, an expert in photography and forensic science, founded
the academic forensic science program and the "Institut de police Scientifique" (Institute of
forensic science) at the University of Lausanne.

Dr. Reiss published two major books on forensic science "Photographie judiciaire" (Forensic
photography) in Mendel, Paris (1903) and the first part of his major contribution "Manuel de
police Scientifique. I Vols et homicides" (Handbook of Forensic Science I: Thefts and Homicides)
in Payot, Lausanne, and Acan, Paris (1911)

1913/14 – The first 35mm camera was developed.

1935 – Eastman Kodak marketed the Kodachrome film and later on introduced the Kodacolor
negative film.

1948 – The Polaroid camera was invented by Edwin Herbert Land.

1965 – Fully automatic electronic flash unit was first introduced to take strobe flash photographs
from a distance of 2 to 20 feet without changing the shutter speed or aperture opening.

1967 – Introduction of the use of videotapes as legal evidence.

1973 – Polaroid introduced one-step instant photography with the SX-70 camera.

CHAPTER 2: ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

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 Light - radiant electromagnetic energy capable of traveling in wave motions at approximately
186,000 miles per second (m/s).

Electromagnetic Spectrum - a whole range of radiant energy that includes radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light radiation, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays (Roentgen rays),
and gamma radiation.

COMPOSITION OF LIGHT

A. Wavelength – the distance between two crests in a light wave

B. Amplitude – a measurement of how much energy the light wave carries and tells the
intensity or brightness of the light
C. Frequency – number of complete waves per unit of time; used for the measurement of
the speed of light
D. Crest – the highest point in a light wave
E. Trough – the lowest point in a light wave
F. Nanometer (nm) – unit of length in the metric system, synonymous with millimicron and is
equal to one billionth of a meter. (1 nanometer = 1 millimicrons)
G. Millimicron (mµ) – a unit of length equal to one-thousandth of a micron

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

A. Reflected – when light strikes a smooth surface and it rebounds

● Diffused – the action of light when it strikes a rough object and it scattered

B. Transmitted – light passes through an object

● Transparent – objects on the other side are clearly visible, light is transmitted through at
90%
● Translucent - objects on the other side are visible but not seen clearly, light is transmitted
through at 50%

C. Absorbed – when light strikes an opaque object, it is neither reflected nor transmitted
● Opaque – objects that do not allow light to pass through. It absorbs most of the light with a
low percentage of reflection

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 D. Diffraction – the bending of light around an object. It occurs when waves of light separate as
they pass the edge of an opaque material.

F. Refraction – The bending of light from one transparent medium to another where the density is
different. Light is refracted when it passes from a fast medium to a slow medium and bends
the light ray toward the normal to the boundary between the two media.

TYPES OF LIGHT

I. Visible Light - A type of light that is visible to most human eyes having a wavelength of 400 –
700 millimicrons. It is used for ordinary photographing purposes.

Sources of visible light include:

A. Natural Light – light emitted by the sun, for outdoor photographic purposes
Sunlight Classification According to Intensity:
1. Bright – sunlight is not obstructed; it is direct and reflected
2. Hazy – sunlight is partially obstructed by clouds, light is decreased; shadows
appear more bluish than in bright sunlight
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 3. Dull – direct sunlight is completely obstructed by clouds

B. Artificial Light – also called man-made light, for indoor and night-time photographic
purposes;
divided into continuous and short-duration radiation

B-1. Continuous Radiation

● Carbon Arc – pair of carbon rods connected in a series with resistance across a
direct current
● Incandescent – consists of a wire filament enclosed by a bulb made of glass and
heated by an electric current until it emits light. Filaments can be made of
carbon or tungsten
● Fluorescent lamp – light is illuminated from an arc (electrically) discharged
mercury-vapor type of lamp
● Mercury-vapour lamp – a gas discharge lamp enclosed in an inner and outer
bulb that uses arc (electric) discharge through vaporized mercury in order to
produce light
● Photoflood lamp – can be placed in an elevated structure to emit light over an
object or area and produce shadows underneath surfaces

B-2. Short Duration Radiation

● Chemical Flash lamp – the rapid burning action of a metal wire, foil or primer
powders inside the bulb when charged with O2 (dioxygen), produces short-
duration light
● Electronic Flash lamp – also called flash tube. When its inner component, a
transparent glass tube, that consists of Xenon or other noble gasses and
electrodes are discharged with high voltage electrical current causing the gas to
ionize and creates a brief burst of light

II. Invisible Light - lights having a too short or too long wavelength which is difficult to be seen by
the naked eye

Types of Invisible Light

A. X-ray – discovered by Conrad Wilhelm

Roentgen in 1895; this light has a short
wavelength of 0.01 – 30 millimicrons and it is
produced by passing an electric current through a
special type of vacuum tube. It is mainly used for
the purposes of
1. Internal photography
2. Examination of fracture (associated with
bone continuity)
3. Dislocation (problems with joints)
4. Detection of internal hemorrhage
5. Detection of foreign objects inside the body

B. Ultraviolet – radiation having a short wavelength of 30 – 400 millimicrons. It is used to take

photographs of fingerprints with varying background colors, altered documents, detection of
overwritten, erased, or hidden writings in a document, and detection of fluorescent powder.

Photographs made with ultraviolet radiation can reveal bruises or scars not visible on the surface
of the skin, in some cases long after visible healing has been completed. These can serve as
evidence of an assault. [State v. Thorp (171 A. 663, 86 N.H. 501, 1934)]

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 C. Infrared – a type of radiation that has a long wavelength of 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is used in
charred, overwritten, and obliterated writings in questioned document cases, biological fluids
such as urine, blood, and sperm, and internal injuries.

COLORS OF LIGHT IN THE VISIBLE SPECTRUM

A. Primary Colors (Additive colors)

1. Red - 700 nm. Wavelength
2. Blue - 450 nm. Wavelength
3. Green - 550 nm. Wavelength
The combination of all three colors produces white, the absence of which is black.

B. Complementary Colors (Subtractive colors)

1. Magenta - 400 nm. Wavelength (white minus green = magenta)
2. Cyan - 500 nm. Wavelength (white minus red = cyan)
3. Yellow - 590 nm. Wavelength (white minus blue = yellow)

C. Neutral colors
Gray, White, and Black

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 CHAPTER 3: CAMERA

CAMERA
• a light tight box with a light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material

EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

1. Pinhole camera – consists of a box with a small aperture (opening)

functioning as a lens at one end; an image is being projected on the film on
the other end

2. Box camera – the pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable light to be

recorded

3. Camera obscura - Latin name for “darkroom”. It is the

ancestor of the modern photographic camera; consists of
small darkened rooms with light admitted through a single tiny
hole. The result of the process was an inverted image of the
outside scene that was cast on the opposite wall, which was
usually whitened; used as an aid for artists in drawing; the
subject or scene was posed outside and the image reflected
on a piece of drawing paper for the artist to trace.

TYPES OF CAMERAS

1. Viewfinder Type – smallest and simplest type of camera

2. Single Lens Reflex Camera (SLR) – camera with interchangeable lens; best used for
police work

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 3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera - one lens for focusing; another for forming the image

4. View or Press Type – the biggest and most expensive type of camera; for movie making

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA

1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the
film. It draws light to the camera and focuses it on the film plane.

3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film. The shutter is
opened or released by the shutter release button. The amount of time the shutter stays open is
controlled by the shutter speed setting.

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 4. Holder of sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold
firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of multiple blurred images
5. View Finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the specific lens. It is the opening at the back of the camera where the
photographer looks through.

OTHER PARTS AND CONTROLS OF A CAMERA

1. Film Transport Mechanism – moves the new unexposed film into position for the next picture
2. Film Advancer – designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to take-up spool
and the unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens for another exposure

3. Film Advance Lever – used to advance or move over each small piece of the film after
the picture is taken. The film comes out of the film canister and moves across to the film take-up
reel
4. Focus – the means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form sharp or
clear images
5. Focusing – the mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of sharpness of an
object to be photographed. It is obtained by estimating the distance from the camera and that
of the object that will make a sharp or clear image.
• Focus ring – the outer ring of the lens which is rotated or adjusted to obtain clear
and sharp images and enables the photographer to adjust the focal range

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 • Distance scale – the focus index or range of sharp focus; it is a set of numbers
which determines the appropriate depth of field

6. Diaphragm – the “window” or eyes of the camera; a mechanical device that adjusts and
controls the aperture and enables how much light reaches the film
7. Aperture – the diameter (size) of the camera lens opening; manifested by the f-stop set in
the diaphragm

LENS
• a medium that converges or diverges light rays passing through it to form an image. It can
either be a glass or transparent material which permits light to pass through and
change the direction of light. Daniel Barbaro was credited as the first person to introduce
the use of a lens in a camera (camera obscura)

CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES

According to the type of image to be produced:

A. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging lens) – thicker at the center and thinner at the
side which can bend the light together and forms the image inversely
B. Negative or Concave Lens (Diverging lens) – thinner at the center and thicker at the
side and forms the virtual image on the same side of the lens

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According to the degree of corrections:
A. Meniscus lens – lens without correction
B. Rapid Rectilinear lens – lens corrected of distortion
C. Anastigmat Lens – lens that completely corrects astigmatism, spherical aberration, and
coma
D. Achromatic Lens – lens correcting chromatic and spherical aberration; corrected to
bring two wavelengths into focus in the same plane –red and blue
E. Apochromatic Lens – lens correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration;
designed to bring three colors into focus in the same plane –red, green, and blue

INHERENT LENS DEFECTS (OPTICAL ABERRATIONS)

Lens (Optical) Aberration

• the inability of the lens to produce the real or true image of an object in a photograph

1. Spherical Aberration – when light passing through near the central part of a converging lens
are bent more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, the rays coming from the edges are
focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part

2. Coma (lateral aberration) – the inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral,
thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens is the one transmitted sharply; may
produce a sharp image in the center of the field, but become increasingly blurred toward the
edges

3. Curvature of field – a lens defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus
on a curved surface than a flat surface

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 4. Distortion – defect in shape rather than sharpness
A. Pincushion distortion – inward curve
B. Barrel distortion – outward curve
C. Mustache distortion – combines both elements of the pincushion and barrel distortion

5. Chromatic Aberration – the inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelengths

6. Astigmatism – the inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines

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 LENS CHARACTERISTICS

1. Focal Length – the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to focus at an
infinite position. Optical distance from the point where light rays converge to form a sharp image of
an object to the digital sensor or focal plane. Measured in millimeters (mm)

A. Wide-angle or Short Focus – focal length not longer than the diagonal half of the
negative. For taking photographs at a short distance with a wide coverage of area
B. Normal or Medium Focus – focal length equal but not longer than twice the diagonal
half of the negative
C. Long or Telephoto Lens – focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the
negative; for long-distance photography with narrow coverage of the area
D. Zoom Lens – a lens with variable focal length and can be adjusted continuously

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 2. Relative Aperture – the light-gathering power of the lens expressed in f-numbers

3. Focusing – a setting of the proper distance to form a sharp image; controls the degree of
sharpness
4. Depth of Field – the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus

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 5. Hyperfocal Distance – the nearest distance which a lens is focused with a given
diaphragm opening will give the maximum depth of field

CHAPTER 4: SENSITIZED MATERIALS

SENSITIZED MATERIALS
• refers to the film and photographic paper that is composed of emulsion containing
silver halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective
support.

PARTS OF A SENSITIZED MATERIAL

1. Emulsion – part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver
grains which are sensitive to light. In a colored film, the emulsion surface can
be composed of three layers mainly Blue, Green, and Red with intervening
filters.

2. Anti-Halation Backing –
designed to hold back the light
and prevent halation.

Halation – is the spreading of light

beyond its proper boundaries in a
developed photograph.

3. Base – provides support for the emulsion.

FILM
• a sensitized material often referred to as a cellulose tape or plate wherein silver

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 salts are suspended for it to be able to record light.

TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO USE

1. Black and White Film – is generally used in black and white photography and is usually
represented by a prefix or suffix “Pan” or “Ortho”.

2. Colored Film – is classified into two: Negative type and Reversal type.
2.a. Negative type – is a type of film that is used for ordinary photographing purposes and
it uses the suffix “Color” e.g. Kodak Color, Fuji Color, Agfa Color.

2.b. Reversal (Transparency) – is a type of film used for projection viewing and it uses the
suffix “Chrome” e.g. Agfa Chrome, Fuji Chrome, Koda Chrome.

3. X-Ray Film – is a type of film that is sensitive to the X-ray region of the spectrum. It is
commonly used for medical examinations; e.g. radiographs.

TYPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY

Spectral Sensitivity is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelengths
of light.
1. Blue-Sensitive film – is sensitive to the ultraviolet and blue light only.
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 2. Orthochromatic film – is sensitive to the ultraviolet up to the green light only.
3. Panchromatic film – is sensitive to the ultraviolet up to the red.
4. Infra-Red film – is the film with the longest spectral sensitivity; it is sensitive
to all colors and to the infrared light.

FILM SPEED (Emulsion speed) – is the degree of sensitivity of film to light; the higher the
rating of the film, the more sensitive it would be and the grainier the photograph will appear.

TYPES OF FILM SPEED RATING

a. ASA (American Standards Association) – expressed in an arithmetic

system. (ASA 12, 25, 50, 100. 200, 400, 800, 1600)
b. DIN (Deutche Industre Normen) – expressed in a logarithmic system. (DIN
12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36 etc…)
c. ISO (International Organization for Standardization) – expressed in
arithmetic and logarithmic value (100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, 6400 etc…)

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FILM GRAIN (photographic noise) – are random physical textures made by small
particles of silver halides that are randomly distributed throughout a photographic (film)
image. The higher the ASA/DIN/ISO rating, the grainier the photograph would appear.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
• a sensitized material that records the visible image in the final development of the
photographic process.

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER ACCORDING TO EMULSION USED

1. Silver Chloride paper – is with slow emulsion speed (low sensitivity to light); it is
used for contact printing; it gives a blue-black tone when properly developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper – is with fast emulsion speed; it is used for projection printing
(enlarging); it gives a black tone when properly developed; this is ideal for police
photography use.
3. Silver ChloroBromide paper – is with multi-speed emulsion; it is used for both
projection and contact printing; it gives a black to reddish-brown tone depending on
the length of exposure, type, dilution and duration of the developer.

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Weight
o Light weight – is designed for high flexibility which involves folding
o Single weight – is for ordinary photographic purposes
o Double weight – is for large prints
2. Surface Texture
o Glossy – is designed for fine details and brilliant image formation
o Semi- Matte – has an obscure fine detail
o Rough – is for large prints; not concerned with detail
3. Color
o White - preferred for police photography
o Cream – preferred when warm effect is desired; for pictorial effect

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER ACCORDING TO CONTRAST (GRADE)

1. Velox # 0 – is used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed

film.
2. Velox # 1 – is used for high contrast negative (over exposed).
3. Velox # 2 – is used for normal exposed film.
4. Velox # 3 – is used for negative with weak contrast (underexposed).

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 5. Velox # 4 – is used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak
negatives; useful when high contrast is desired.

Velox - is the first commercially-successful

photographic paper invented in 1893 by Leo
Baekeland. It is the first photographic paper to
require a chemical solution to develop prints
from photographic negatives.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN PHOTOGRAPHY

The CHEMICAL PROCESS in PHOTOGRAPHY is how a latent image in the

exposed film is converted to a visible and permanent image.

The first part of photographic chemistry is the photographic emulsion. Film is made
up of a support and an emulsion. The emulsion has two major ingredients: silver halide
crystals and gelatin.
The silver halide crystals capture the photographic image, while the gelatin holds the
silver halide crystals in place. The silver halide crystals are more important than the gelatin
in an emulsion because they are light sensitive.
The photographic image formed when light strikes the silver halide crystals is
invisible or latent. Photographic processing chemicals make the latent image formed by the
light sensitive halide crystals visible and permanent.

STAGES OF FILM DEVELOPMENT

1. Developing – is the process of converting the exposed image on the film into actual
image. This process enables the invisible image to form by soaking the film into a
developing solution. The developer is used to make the latent image visible. The
developer must contain certain kinds of chemical compounds, although the amounts and
actual compounds used may vary from developer to developer. Developer is a solution;
therefore, a solvent (water) is used to dissolve the chemicals before they can work.

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 a latent image

The most important compound in a developer is the developing agent; an organic

compound which actually makes the latent image visible. (Most developing agents
are chemically related to Benzene, which contains Carbon and Hydrogen; because
the developing agent contains carbon, it must be an organic substance.)

Hydroquinone, an organic compound, is a popular developing agent often found in

developing solutions. However, developing agents are imperfect and other compounds
must be added to help them do their jobs.

D-76 Film Developer

2. Stop bath – The longer the emulsion is kept in a developer, the darker the resulting
image will be. When the development is “just right,” the development must be stopped
quickly. To do this, a stop bath must be used. A stop bath must be acidic because
developers are basic. Most stop baths contain a lot of solvent (water) and a little acid,
usually acetic acid. Acetic acid is a strong chemical and must be used carefully. Always
add the acid to the water and not the water to the acid because the latter will cause
considerable heat to be generated, resulting in splashes which can burn the skin.

3. Fixing – is the process in which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed
from the emulsion surface and makes the image permanent in white light. Sodium
Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver halides.

During development, exposed silver-halide crystals in the emulsion are turned into black
metallic silver, but unexposed crystals are not changed. These light-sensitive crystals, when
exposed to light, will start to turn into black metallic silver, thereby darkening the clear areas
of the film until the film finally turns completely black. Fixer dissolves the unexposed silver
halide crystals, thereby making the image permanent.

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4. Washing – is the final part of the processing cycle that removes the residual chemicals
and soluble silver compounds from the emulsion then reveals the image. This solution
normally consists of only a solvent - water.

Acids, Bases and Salts are all used in photographic processing solutions. The oxides are
used to make acids, bases, and salts, but are never used directly in photographic
processing. Acids are used in stop bath and fixing solutions. Therefore, they have pH
values of less than 7. Bases are used in the developer. Thus, developers have pH values
greater than 7. Salts, which can be acid, neutral or base are used in developers and in
fixing baths.

Darkroom Enlarger - also called projection

printer, it is a device for producing a
photographic print or negative larger than the
original negative or transparency. It consists of a
light source, normally an incandescent light bulb
shining through a condenser or translucent
screen to provide even illumination, a holder for
the negative or transparency, and a specialized
lens for projection. The light passes through a
film holder, which holds the exposed and
developed photographic negative or
transparency.

THE DARK ROOM PROCESS

A darkroom is a special room that can be made completely dark to allow the
developing and processing of the light-sensitive photographic materials, including film and
photographic paper.
Step 1. Choose a film negative.

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 Step 2. Place negatives on a negative carrier.

Step 3. Focus the image. Turn the lights off and use red or amber lighting.

Step 4. Prepare essential chemicals.

Step 5. Wash and dry.

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 Approximately 1 minute 10 seconds 30 seconds

CHAPTER 5: FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

MACRO PHOTOGRAPHY is a close-up photography of small objects/subjects to make it

look larger in the photograph. It is important that the photographer should know how large
or small the subject appears on the camera. Comparing this number versus the
object/subject’s size in the real world gives value known as the magnification.

A typical macro lens has a 1:1 magnification. The size of the object being photographed
gets translated onto the camera sensor at its own size. If a 1inch object is being
photographed, the object will take up a 1inch square worth of area on the camera sensor.

1:1 magnification ratio – Life size

1:2 magnification ratio – Half size

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Working distance – is the distance between the front of the lens and the nearest
object/subject. The working distance of a lens is smallest at 1:1 magnification. Lenses with
a longer focal length have more working distance than lenses with a more moderate focal
length.

MICROPHOTOGRAPHY is photographing objects with a magnification greater than a

standard macro lens but less than a microscope. The magnification in microphotography
can be as great as 20:1 magnification ratio or more. Anything beyond that is typically
considered microscopic photography and employs a microscope to view very small things.

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PHOTOMICROGRAPHY is the process of capturing images in a microscope to magnify the
image. In photomicrography, regular camera lenses are not used because the microscope
optical train, from the light source to the photo eyepiece, constitutes the image-forming lens
assembly and illumination system.

Capturing images observed in the microscope onto the emulsion of photographic film or into
the pixel array of a charge-coupled device (CCD) allows scientists to produce a "hard copy"
for research records and publication.

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

DIGITAL IMAGE is an image composed of picture elements (pixels). The first digital image
was made through a computer by Russel Kirsch in 1957. In digital imaging, pixels are small
dots or squares that make up the images on computer displays such as LCD monitors.
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Each pixel can only be one color at a time but they often blend together to form various
shades and blends of colors. Pixels are combined to form a complete image, video, text or
any other visible image on a computer screen display.

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
• replicates the process of conventional film photography but instead of using film
and the chemical process to produce a photograph, it uses an electronic sensor
and the digital photographs are stored on a memory card.

Invention of Digital Photography

In 1973, Steve Sasson, a 24-year-old engineer working for

Eastman Kodak, invented the digital camera using several
leftover camera kits and parts around the Kodak factory and
changed the landscape of photography as we know today.

Sasson invented the process that allows people to make photos

with their phones, send images around the world in seconds and
share them with millions of people. The same process completely
disrupted the industry that was dominated by his employer
(Eastman Kodak) and set off a decade of complaints by
professional photographers fretting over the transition within their
profession.

To store the image, Sasson decided to use what was at that time
a relatively new process — digitalization — turning the
electronic pulses into numbers. But that solution led to another challenge — storing it on
RAM memory and getting it onto digital magnetic tape.

The final result was a Rube Goldberg device with a lens scavenged from a used Super-8
movie camera; a portable digital cassette recorder; 16 nickel cadmium batteries; an
analog/digital converter; and several dozen circuits — all wired together on half a dozen
circuit boards.

Modern Digital Photography

By 1988, the first true digital camera
that recorded images as a
computerized file was made by
Fujifilm, the Fuji DS-1P, which
recorded to a 16 MB internal memory
card that used a battery to keep the
data in memory.

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 In 1992, the first commercially available
digital camera was marketed as the
Kodak DCS-100 which used a 1.3-
megapixel sensor and is based on a
Nikon F3 body. It was priced at $13,000
at the time.

In 1995, the first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) at the back was the
Casio QV-10 while the first camera to use a compact flash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996.

The first digital SLR was marketed as

the Nikon D1, a 2.74-megapixel camera
priced under US $6,000. This camera
also used Nikon F-mount lenses which
meant that film-based photographers
could use the same lenses they already
own.

CHAPTER 6: APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

These are some applications of photography in law enforcement work:

1. For record purposes - Considered to be the utmost use of photography in
police work.

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Rogue’s Gallery - is a police collection/record of mug shots or other images of criminal
suspects kept for identification purposes.

2. For personal identification - considered to be the first application of

photography in police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who
utilized photography in police work as a supplementary identification in his
Anthropometry system – He invented mug-shot photography.

Mugshot examples

3. For discovering and proving – Photography can extend human vision in

discovering and proving things.

Macrophotograph of a signature specimen Macrophotograph of a fingerprint specimen

4. For communication - Photographs are considered to be one of the most

universal methods of communication, considering that no other language can
be known universally than a photograph.

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 A surveillance photographer taking photos of suspects that will serve as a reference
for law enforcers in the field

5. For preservation - Crime scene and other physical evidence requires

photographs for preservation purposes. Crime scenes cannot be retained as
is for a long period of time but through photographs, the initial condition of the
scene of the crime can be preserved properly.

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Crime Scene - refers to a venue or place from which most physical evidence associated
with crime will be obtained.

Documentation of the crime scene is the most critical element of scene processing. Without
good documentation, it is often difficult to explain to the court any observation made by the
technician. Documenting the condition of the scene is a core element of proving what did or
did not happen at the scene. Without proper documentation, it may be impossible for even
the investigator to arrive at a conclusion regarding what did or did not occur.

Documentation has four (4) elements:

1. Notes
2. Photographs/Video

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 3. Sketches
4. Reports

Each element plays an important role. Each serves to memorialize what the scene
condition was, what the investigator observed, and what the investigator did. No single
element could stand alone. Together, these four key elements support one another and
provide everyone with a clear picture of the exact nature of the scene.

THE GOLDEN RULE IN CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION:

“Don’t touch, alter, move, or transfer any object at the crime scene unless it is
properly marked, measured, sketched and/or photographed.”

In Crime Scene Photography, the order or sequence of taking pictures must be strictly
followed. The photographer must take pictures systematically while he is examining and
observing the conditions of the crime scene.

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN TAKING CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS

a) General view (Long-shot) – captures the overall aspects of the crime scene
to show exactly where the location of the scene was and to show all
boundaries at the scene.
b) Medium view (Mid-range) – shows the precise position and relationship of
each item of evidence found at the scene.
c) Close up view (Close-range) – provides a detailed view of the individual
items of evidence. It must show all sides of the evidence and clearly show
any markings, defects, or other identifying features. Each close-up
photograph must be taken twice: once with a scale, and another without a
scale.

The photographer should take note of the following before taking any photographs at
a crime scene:
1. Evaluate or assess the crime scene and formulate a plan how to
systematically take photographs
2. Photograph the general environment of the crime scene
3. Take as many photographs as you can
4. Observe the correct settings of the four (4) controls of the camera, including
proper technique of focusing, exposure, film development and printing
5. Make sure that the victim is dead before taking photographs in a death related
case
6. Take a minimum 4 photographs at all angles concerning the exterior and
interior of the scene showing the position of the victim(s) and physical
evidences
7. Take photographs of the subject(s) at various angles in a clockwise or
counter-clockwise direction
8. Sequence of pictures taken should be consistent to help the investigators to
reconstruct the crime scene
9. Unnecessary or unauthorized touching, moving and transferring of properties,
weapons, and bodies of victims found at the scene may cause misleading
investigation
10. Unusual conditions or circumstances that transpires at the crime scene and
around the environment should be noted

The Photographer must always consider the following:

a. Type of Crime (Rape, murder, burglary, theft, etc.)
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 b. Nature of Crime (Homicide, suicide, or accident)
c. Size of the crime scene
d. Location of the crime scene (indoor, outdoor, combination of indoor or
outdoor, or any remote area like underwater, desert, etc.)
e. Complexity of the crime scene

CRIME SCENE WALK THROUGH

At the scene of the crime, the lead investigator and photographer should:

i. Conduct entry documentation. Avoid contaminating the scene;

ii. Identify and protect fragile and/or perishable evidence. Ensure that all
evidence that may be compromised is immediately photographed;
iii. Document the collection of evidence;
iv. During the debriefing, discuss the preliminary scene finding with the team
leader and members;
v. During final survey, each are identified as part of the crime scene is visually
inspected;
vi. Exit documentation;
vii. Establish chain of custody of photographic evidence;

The investigator or the forensic expert has to be sure to document each evidence
encountered at a particular scene. The evidence should only be removed after proper
documentation (photography/videography/sketching/notes), and then should be properly
collected in appropriate containers.

SYSTEMATIC SEARCH PATTERNS FOR PHYSICAL EVIDENCES

1. Spiral Search Method

Outward spiral Inward spiral

2. Strip/Parallel Search Method

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 3. Grid Search Method

4. Zone Search Method

5. Wheel Search Method

OUTSIDE THE CRIME SCENE

1. Take overall photographs of the area surrounding the scene.
2. Encompass the entire large scene, be overlapping and/or aerial/overhead
view.
3. Represent a 360-degree perspective and include a landmark.
4. Include identifying marks, such as name of the building, house number or
license plate of the vehicle. Exterior of the building where the crime occurred
and, in some cases, the whole locale
5. Aerial photographs of the scene and the surrounding area can be useful in
some types of cases.
6. Original series of photographs (overlapping shots) should also show all doors,
windows and other means of entrance or exit.

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INSIDE THE CRIME SCENE
1. Begin with a view of the entrance
2. Photograph the scene as it appears when you first step into the room
3. Move around the room to get photographs of all the walls (overlapping shots)
4. These photographs should also show the positions of any potential items of
evidence.
5. Include photographs of other rooms connected with the actual crime scene.

Take midrange photographs before & after placing a case identifier or ruler.

• It is important to take photographs that establish the relationships of objects or

reference points in the scene.

Medium view photograph at a crime scene

Take close-up photographs immediately after taking the midrange photograph, when
appropriate.

Take photographs of transient evidence from a position that:

● Shows the spatter relative to other objects in the area; and
● Is perpendicular to the blood spatter

Close up photograph Close up photograph with scale

without scale

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PHOTOGRAPHING THE DECEASED
1. Take photographs from all possible angles.
2. Take photographs while moving around the body and from an overhead
perspective.
a. As though looking at the body from a standing position.
b. From the same level as the body is lying, such as at ground level when
the body is lying on the ground.
c. Photograph identifying marks on the body (e.g. scars, tattoos, etc.)

PHOTOGRAPHING HOMICIDE CASES

1. Exterior of the building
2. Evidence outside the building
3. Entrance into the scene
4. Room in which the body was found
5. Adjoining rooms, hallways, stairwells
6. Body from different angles
7. Close-up of the face and body wounds
8. Weapons
9. Trace evidence
10. Signs of activity prior to the homicide
11. Evidence of a struggle
12. View from positions witnesses had at time of the crime
13. Autopsy

PHOTOGRAPHING SUICIDE OR OTHER DEAD BODY CALLS

1. Photograph the original position of the body to help determine the manner of
death.
2. Overall view of the body and rope should be taken at torso and foot level.
3. Show the height of the body above ground.
4. Photographs should be made to show the relative position of any object.

SUBJECTS FOR CLOSE-UP SHOTS IN ALLEGED SUICIDE CASES ARE:

a. the knot, its size, type and location on the neck;
b. depth and location of the grooves in the neck;
c. black-and-white marks around the edge of the groove;
d. signs of violence around the neck, suggesting prior strangulation;
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 e. Protrusions of the tongue, binding of hands and feet, etc.
DROWNING INCIDENTS
• Photograph the whole body, both from the position of standing observer and from
the ground level.

Close-ups shots should include:

1. any foam about the mouth;
2. wounds, peculiar markings, bruises, or unusual discoloration;
3. articles, such as seaweed, grasped in the hand; and
4. any rope or wire bindings.

PHOTOGRAPHING ROBBERY CASES/BURGLARIES

1. Exterior of building
2. Point of entry
3. Entrance into scene
4. Interior views
5. Area from which valuable articles were removed
6. Damage to locks, safe, doors, toolmarks
7. Articles or tools left at the scene by the suspect
8. Trace evidence
9. Other physical evidence

PHOTOGRAPHING ASSAULT/PHYSICAL INJURIES

• In photographing injuries, use case identifiers:
i. Face of victim in the photographs
ii. Bruises
iii. Bite marks
iv. Orientation shot
v. Close-up at 90-degree angle to avoid distortion
vi. Ruler in same plane as bite mark
vii. Focus carefully
viii. Bracket exposures

PHOTOGRAPHING SEXUAL ASSAULT CASES

1. Record information on signs of any struggle at the

scene where the attack occurred, or indications of
the victim's effort to resist attack; such as bruises,
black and blue marks, torn clothing, etc.
2. Scratches should be photographed using oblique
lighting, with and without measuring devices at the crime scene and also at the
morgue.
3. Location of foreign hairs & fibers, biological fluids & stains should be depicted.
• If alive, permission from the victim to photograph her body should be obtained
• if the victim was a minor, written permission from the parent or guardian.
• It is recommended that the victim's physician be present when such photographs
are made.
4. Blood spatter on walls should be photographed with the lens parallel to the stain so
that directionally (the direction the blood flowed) can be determined.
5. In sexual exploitation of children cases, every room in a suspect's residence should
be photographed even if no physical evidence (e.g. photographs or video tapes) is
found during a crime scene search.

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ALWAYS CONSIDER SIGNS OF ACTIVITY
a. TV and room lights turned on
b. A glass holding a cold beverage (ice melting or still frozen) and a plate with
fresh food on it
c. Scattered clothing, magazines, or other objects
d. A landline phone that was in use and is making a loud notification sound
e. Misplaced furniture, as with a tipped stool beside a body
f. Cigarettes, lit or remains piled in ashtray
g. Tool marks in unusual location or near entry/exit
h. Shoeprints and/or fingerprints
i. Drug paraphernalia

FINAL NOTE
1. Note the time when photographing activity began and concluded.
2. Remove the film or download the digital images and store the memory card in
a secure location according to departmental regulations

FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCE AND LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Different wavelength light sources and digital imaging techniques can be used to
successfully locate and document physical evidence found at the crime scene, during
autopsies, or in the laboratory. Visible light sources are commonly used during most crime
scene investigations. Although some forensic investigators would occasionally use
ultraviolet (black light) to examine evidence found at the crime scene, white light (visible
light) was the most prevalently used.

A forensic light source is a tool used by crime scene investigators and lab technicians to
enhance observation, photography and collection of evidence that includes latent
fingerprints, body fluids, hair and fibers, bruises, bite marks, wound patterns, toolmarks,
shoe and foot imprints, gunshot residues, drug traces, questioned documents etc. It
provides more sensitivity than traditional methods using visible light and it increases the
amount of evidence uncovered and the quality of the evidence documented, photographed,
collected.

A forensic light source is made up of a powerful lamp containing the ultra-violet, visible and
infrared components of light rays. It then filters down the light into individual color bands or
wavelengths that enhance the visualization of evidence by light interaction techniques
including fluorescence, absorption and oblique lighting.

DETECTION OF LATENT PRINTS

The primary application of a forensic light source is

for enhancing the detection of latent fingerprints.

Forensic light source techniques have been

successfully utilized for revealing latent prints on
many types of textured surfaces, backgrounds
which hide ridge details, fragile surfaces, and
contaminated surfaces. Different wavelengths are
required for processing different types of surfaces
making a forensic light source with tunable or
multiple color wavelengths. Using traditional
methods, fingerprint evidence on surfaces like thin
plastic bags, rigid duct tape, thin aluminum foil, heavily grained wood, concrete wall, brick,
printed glossy magazine pages, paper products, etc. may go undetected or even dismissed
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because they could not be detected with enough detail.

HAIR AND FIBERS

Oblique or parallel lighting of a surface such as
a floor or carpet with a strong white light will reveal
small particles like hair and fibers for collection, while
some hair and fibers will also glow under UV or visible
light and will stand out strongly for collection. For the
best chance of collecting the maximum number of hair
and fibers found at the crime scene, a powerful light
source that offers strong white light illumination as well
as strong UV and visible must be utilized.

BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Semen, saliva, and vaginal fluids are
naturally fluorescent and by using a forensic
light source there is a bigger chance for
locating and collecting these types of
evidence. A crime scene investigator can
narrow down the specific locations of stains
for collection instead of testing entire, large
pieces of evidence such as a mattress, a
carpet, a sheet, an article of clothing, etc.
The dried body fluids will actually glow under
a light source illumination. Although the body
fluids will fluoresce under an ordinary UV
black light, many articles on which the crime
scene investigator would find them including
clothing and sheets will also glow and deter their detection. It is therefore necessary to tune
to visible wavelengths to eliminate the background interference.

BRUISES, BITEMARKS, SHOE PRINTS AND TOOLMARKS

A forensic light source reveals bruise and patterned wound details that are invisible
under normal white light. Details of a bruise on a victim such as a bite mark or a shoe mark,
can link a suspect to the victim. Multiple wavelengths are necessary because different
colors penetrate to different depths within the skin and therefore depending on the depth of
the bruise or wound. Deep wounds may require infrared
illumination to get enough skin penetration.

Meanwhile, a toolmark is any impression, scratch,

gouge, cut, or abrasion made when a tool is brought into
contact with another object. They can be marks left from
pry tools, such as crowbars and screwdrivers, marks on a
doorknob left from adjustable pliers used to gain entry in a
burglary, or other tools used in the commission of a crime.
When a tool mark is collected it is possible that a positive
identification can be made linking a tool to the crime. The
best way to light tool marks is with oblique lighting. Oblique
lighting will reduce reflections and show greater detail by
creating small shadows within the tool marks.

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
Various types of ink have different formulations even
within the same color type. A forensic light source can be
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used to identify slight variations in ink type by viewing ink responses as the color of the light
is tuned through the visible and infrared regions. Regardless of the skill of the forger, this
examination would reveal that two different pens were used on the document.

LIGHTING METHODS

1. Direct Lighting- Direct reflective lighting is used to minimize shadows within the
evidence. Light is reflected directly off the subject into the lens. This is done by
placing the subject at a 10–degree angle from the lens to the film plane and placing
the light source at a 10–degree angle from the subject. The light source reflects at a
20–degree angle into the lens.

CAMERA

LIGHT SOURCE

OBJECT

2. Oblique Lighting - Oblique lighting uses a light source positioned at a low angle and
usually used to show detail by creating shadows on the surface of the evidence.
Oblique lighting is commonly used when photographing impressions, tool marks and
latent prints. A very low oblique angle of lighting can be used to photograph dusty
footwear impressions and indented writing.

CAMERA

LIGHT SOURCE

OBJECT

3. 45-Degree Lighting – this method uses one or more lights positioned at 45–degree
angles. If only one light is used, a white or silver reflector can be placed on the
opposite side of the evidence to reflect some of the light back toward the evidence,
reducing shadows. This method is used for photographing the average pieces of
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 evidence where the objective is to show the item’s shape and size.
CAMERA

CAMERA
LIGHT SOURCE LIGHT SOURCE

OBJECT

4. Bounce Lighting Method – this method uses light bounced off a white or reflective
surface. The bounce surface may be positioned at different locations (above or to
one side of the subject) to create the desired effect. This method produces an even
non–glare lighting with low contrast.

CAMERA

REFLECTIVE
SURFACE
SO

CE
UR
HT
G
LI

OBJECT

5. Diffused lighting method – this method uses an opaque or translucent material

placed between the light source and the object to soften the light. This usually results
in even lighting with reduced reflections and hot spots. The opaque/translucent
material can be as simple as a section of a white bed sheet or an empty water bottle,
or can be a commercial device designed for laboratory photography. Diffused lighting
is usually used for photographing evidence with shiny or reflective surfaces.

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 CAMERA

LIGHT SOURCE LIGHT SOURCE

OBJECT

TRANSLUSCENT TRANSLUSCENT
MATERIAL MATERIAL

6. Transmitted lighting method – this method uses light that shines through the
evidence toward the camera’s lens. The background becomes shadow–free. The
angle of the transmitted lighting can be adjusted from 90–degrees to 45–degrees for
the desired effect. Transmitted lighting is used for photographing transparent or
translucent subjects. It is effective in photographing evidence such as a fingerprint
on a glass.
CAMERA

OBJECT

LIGHT SOURCE

Phototable - contains a lens tube with two different lenses for projection light and
camera attachment mechanism. Ideally used for laboratory photography.

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 PHOTOGRAMMETRY

PHOTOGRAMMETRY - the science of taking geometric measurements from photographs.

Photogrammetry enables an actual 3D recording of crime scenes and this technique can be
used to extract 3D models of an object in digital form or graphical form. This technique can
be applied on a large and small scale, from large areas to fingerprints.

Photogrammetry can be used in practical applications in forensics such as:

• Blood spray patterns
• Skid mark measurements
• Measuring the height of a suspect in a security video
• Crush measurements from a damaged vehicle
• Measuring distances between two objects

ACCIDENT SCENE DIAGRAMS – By using a calibrated camera to photograph a current

scene and working with photographs from unknown cameras of a scene from past cases.

VEHICLE CRUSH MEASUREMENT – By measuring

the depth of crush for a particular vehicle involved in
a crash and combining this with knowledge about
how the car deforms, photogrammetry can estimate
the speed of the vehicle at impact which may be a
crucial piece of evidence.

CRIME SCENE MAPPING – By using 3D software

and scanning devices, forensic specialists would be
able to reconstruct a crime scene, measure the
surrounding infrastructures around the scene as
well as the relative position of individual pieces of
evidence.

While forensic photogrammetry has many benefits,

it is important to note that not all images can be
used for photogrammetric reconstruction.

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As a general rule, photographs should adhere to the following criteria:
1. Consistency - the photos are taken with the same camera, lens and lighting
conditions.
2. Angles - photos of the scene should be taken from multiple angles.
3. Reference - objects in the photos whose measurements have been taken are
used as a reference.
4. Distinguishable features - important objects on the scene, as well as their
physical features, should be easily distinguishable on the photographs
5. Size - important objects are large enough relative to the size of the entire
photo.

THE BENEFITS OF USING PHOTOGRAMMETRY FOR FORENSIC ANALYSIS

● The calculation of measurements can be completed for many different types
of investigations.
● Measurements taken from pictures result in non-intrusive activity of crime and
accident scenes.
● Can utilize photographs from multiple sources. All photos can be processed to
provide some level of information to support the investigation
● Photogrammetry allows investigators the opportunity to review evidence at a
later date through the photographs (after the crime scene). Investigators could
return to the evidence years after an incident with photographs.

CHAIN OF CUSTODY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

To be entitled to weight, forensic evidence must first be shown to have a “chain of

custody” that has not been broken. The chain means that from the moment the evidence
is discovered, collected and taken, then examined and analyzed scientifically in the
laboratory, up to the time it is brought and submitted to the court, the identity, physical
appearance, attributes or original state and nature of the evidence have not been changed,
altered or tampered with in any manner. Chain of custody simply means continuity of
custody.

Evidence that has not been kept intact from collection to court presentation can be altered,
polluted, or contaminated and runs the risk of being rejected outright by the court. Indeed,
even if a piece of evidence is relevant and can help decide a case it could be ignored or
rejected by the court just because it was not properly handled by the police, prosecutors, or
lab examiners. Therefore, following strictly the procedures for gathering and keeping
forensic evidence intact is extremely important

a. All photographs and videos taken during field/office case must be reviewed and/or
examined by the investigator-on-case or Team Leader;
b. The photographer shall immediately turn over the memory card containing the
photographs and videos personally to their respective records unit under the custody
of a records officer/custodian unless there is an urgency to immediately print the
photographs in cases of Inquest Proceedings and/or upon direct order from the
higher management.
c. In consonance with the rules on evidence in limiting the chain of custody of
evidence, the Records Unit shall have the sole authority to
retain/maintain/secure photographic/video/soft copy of the evidence. The same
shall be released and delivered only to the Investigator-on-case or to his duly
authorized organic personnel;
d. To ensure the confidentiality and integrity of the photographs taken, obtaining an
unauthorized copy and/or soft copy/negatives of said photographs is hereby
prohibited.
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 e. Sharing of Memory/SD cards is likewise prohibited.
PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE CHAIN OF CUSTODY

LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8792 – “ELECTRONIC COMMERCE ACT OF 2000”

Aims to facilitate domestic and international dealings, transactions, arrangements
agreements and exchanges and storage of information through the utilization of electronic,
optical, and similar medium, mode, instrumentality, and technology, to recognize the
authenticity and reliability of electronic documents related to such activities and to promote
the universal use of electronic transaction in the government and general public.

RULES ON ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE

RULE 11: AUDIO, PHOTOGRAPHIC, VIDEO, AND EPHEMERAL EVIDENCE
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 Section 1 – Audio, Video, and similar evidence

Audio, video, and photographic evidence of events, acts, or transactions shall be

admissible provided it shall be known, presented, or displayed to the court and shall be
identified, explained, or authenticated by the person who made the recording or by some
other person competent to testify on the accuracy thereof.

PHOTOGRAPHS must be shown to be a true and faithful reproduction of the place and the
object to which they refer. The photograph may be verified either by the photographer
who took it or by any person who is acquainted with the object represented and
testified that the photograph faithfully represents the object.

Pictures are worthy only of what they show and prove, not what they do not speak of
including the events they failed to capture. A photograph may be qualified for admission by
the testimony of any person who eye-witnessed the scene pictured. It is not necessary
for the photographer who took the picture to authenticate it.

However, the photographer who saw the scene first hand and photographed it is better able
to give testimony overcoming objections to admissibility than other witnesses.

ADMISSIBILITY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Photography proves to be an indispensable tool in proving facts in court. Photographic

evidence in the future will have limited use and only by our ability to understand and
comprehend the power of photographs, we appreciate and recognize its vast value.

At present, photographic evidence is admissible based on two different theories. Under the
“pictorial testimony” theory, photographic evidence is admissible when a witness can
testify that it is a fair and accurate representation of the subject matter. It is noteworthy that
this theory is based on the personal observations of the witness. While in the “silent
witness” theory”, photographic evidence is admissible if the process used to produce the
photograph is accurate and reputable. This theory speaks for itself and stands on its own,
hence, the name implies.

These two theories represent a departure from earlier requirements, which required
authenticating testimony from the photographer and/or an expert witness regarding the
reliability and accuracy of the recording process. Notwithstanding the ease with which
photographs or videos may now be introduced into evidence, the trial judge may still require
expert testimony in court proceedings. Before photographic evidence is presented, the trial
attorney must consider the purpose of the photographic evidence and the need for expert
testimony.

RULE 130, REVISED RULES OF COURT

RULES OF ADMISSIBILITY

B. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
Section 2. Documentary evidence. – Documents as evidence consist of writings,
recordings, photographs, or any material containing letters, words, sounds, numbers,
figures, symbols, or their equivalent, or other modes of written expression offered as proof
of their contents. Photographs include still pictures, drawings, stored images, x-ray films,
motion pictures, or videos. (2a)

1. Original Document Rule

Section 3. Original document must be produced; exceptions. – When the subject of
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inquiry is the contents of a document, writing, recording, photograph, or other records, no
evidence is admissible other than the original document itself, except in the following cases:

a. When the original is lost or destroyed, or cannot be produced in court, without bad
faith on the part of the offeror;
b. When the original is in the custody or under the control of the party against whom the
evidence is offered, and the latter fails to produce it after reasonable notice, or the
original cannot be obtained by local judicial processes or procedures;
c. When the original consists of numerous accounts or other documents which cannot
be examined in court without great loss of time and the fact sought to be established
from them is only the general result of the whole.
d. When the original is a public record in the custody of a public officer or is recorded in
a public office; and,
e. When the original is not closely related to a controlling issue. (3a)

Section 4. Original of the Document.

a. An “original” of a document is the document itself or any counterpart intended to
have the same effect by a person executing or issuing it. An “original” of a
photograph includes the negative or any print therefrom. If data is stored in a
computer or similar device, any printout or other output readable by sight or other
means, shown to reflect the data accurately, is an “original.”
b. A “duplicate” is a counterpart produced by the same impression as the original, or
from the same matrix, or by means of photography, including enlargements and
miniatures, or by mechanical or electronic re-recording, or by chemical reproduction,
or by other equivalent techniques which accurately reproduce the original.
c. A duplicate is admissible to the same extent as an original unless (1) a genuine
question is raised as to the authenticity of the original, or (2) in the circumstances, it
is unjust or inequitable to admit the duplicate in lieu of the original. (4a)

JURISPRUDENCE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Macalinao, substituted by Macalino v Ong and Sebastian (2005) G.R. No. 146635
In Jose v. Court of Appeals (379 Phil. 30 (2000), we upheld the trial court’s reliance
on photographs of the accident as opposed to a party’s obviously biased testimony. In so
doing, we stated:
In criminal cases such as murder or rape where the accused stands to lose his
liberty if found guilty, this Court has, on many occasions, relied principally upon physical
evidence in ascertaining the truth. In People v. Vasquez, where the physical evidence on
record ran counter to the testimonial evidence of the prosecution witnesses, we ruled that
the physical evidence should prevail.
Physical evidence is a mute but eloquent manifestation of truth which ranks high in
our hierarchy of trustworthy evidence.
In this case, while there is a dearth of testimonial evidence to enlighten us about
what actually happened, photographs depicting the relative positions of the vehicles
immediately after the accident took place do exist. It is well established that photographs,
when duly verified and shown by extrinsic evidence to be faithful representations of the
subject as of the time in question, is, in the discretion of the trial court, admissible in
evidence as aids in arriving at an understanding of the evidence, the situation or condition
of objects or premises or the circumstances of an accident.
According to American courts, photographs are admissible in evidence in motor
vehicle accident cases when they appear to have been accurately taken and are proved to
be a faithful and clear representation of the subject, which cannot itself be produced, and
are of such nature as to throw light upon a disputed point. Before a photograph may be
admitted in evidence, however, its accuracy or correctness must be proved, and it must be
authenticated or verified first. In the case at the bar, the photographer testified in open court
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and properly identified the pictures as the ones he took at the scene of the accident.
An examination of said photographs clearly shows that the road where the mishap
occurred is marked by a line at the center separating the right from the left lane.
Padacar v People (1995) G.R. Nos. 108280-83
The rule in this jurisdiction is that photographs, when presented in evidence, must
be identified by the photographer as to its production and testified as to the circumstances
under which they were produced. The value of this kind of evidence lies in its being a
correct representation or reproduction of the original, and its admissibility is determined by
its accuracy in portraying the scene at the time of the crime. The photographer, however,
is not the only witness who can identify the pictures he has taken. The correctness of the
photograph as a faithful representation of the object portrayed can be proved prima facie,
either by the testimony of the person who made it or by other competent witnesses, after
which the court can admit it subject to impeachment as to its accuracy. Photographs,
therefore, can be identified by the photographer or by any other competent witness who can
testify to its exactness and accuracy.

The City of Manila v Cabangis (1908) G.R. No. L-3898

In this jurisdiction photographs of any place which may properly be viewed by the
trial court should be admitted in the record upon proper proof of their exactness and
accuracy, as appropriate aids in applying the evidence as it appears on record. Satisfactory
testimony was introduced as to the accuracy and exactness of these photographs and the
conditions under which they were taken, and we are of the opinion that they were properly
admitted in evidence.

Sison and others v People (1995) G.R. Nos. 108280-83

The correctness of the photograph as a faithful representation of the object portrayed
can be proved prima facie, either by the testimony of the person who made it or by other
competent witnesses, after which the court can admit it subject to impeachment as to its
accuracy. Photographs, therefore, can be identified by the photographer or by any other
competent witness who can testify to its exactness and accuracy

LANDMARK CASES INVOLVING PHOTOGRAPHS

1859 – a case involving a forged signature on a land grant. [Luco v. United States, 64 U.S.
(22 How.) 515 (1859)]

1860 – Marcy v. Barnes marks the first time that the use of photographic evidence was the
explicit subject of an appeal in an American court. [Marcy v. Barnes, 82 Mass. (16 Gray)
161 (1860)]

1875 – accident photography was first used. The photograph taken was admitted in
evidence in court to assist the jury in understanding the case: “Plaintiff, in a horse and
buggy, was injured when, in attempting to go around a mudhole in the center of a road he
drove off an unguarded embankment” (Blair v. Inhabitants of Pelham, 118 Mass. 420
[1875])

1879 - photographs were admitted as evidence in a civil suit involving a train wreck. (Lock
v. The Sioux City & P.R.R., 46 Iowa 210, 1879)

1879 - one of the first significant cases where a photograph of an injured person was
admitted as evidence. By using a tintype, photographic evidence showed whip marks on
the victim’s back three days after the assault. [Redden v. Gates (52 Iowa 210, 1879)]

1902 - the usage of photographs for bullet comparison purposes served as an example to
future cases of firearms identification. [Commonwealth v. Best (62 N.E. 748, 180 Mass.
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492, 1902)]

1910 - speeding motorists were being detected by photographic speed recorders. (Betts
v. Stevens)

1911 – approval of fingerprint photographs in the United States for identification purposes.
[People v. Jennings (96 N.E. 1077, 252 I11. 534, 1911)]

1934 - ultraviolet (UV) photography was first approved in a 1934 decision of a case wherein
the UV photograph showed footprints in blood on a linoleum floor and brought about
distinctive marks in the soles of the shoes worn by the defendant that corresponds to the
marks depicted in the UV photographs. [State v. Thorp (171 A. 663, 86 N.H. 501, 1934)]

1943 - appellate court first upheld the use of colored photographs as evidence. [Green v.
County of Denver (142 P.2d 277, 111 Colo. 390, 1943)]

2001 – Georgia Supreme Court dealt directly with the admissibility of Digital Photographs.
(Almond v. The State)

REFERENCES

Bulan, E. & Magadia (2024). Forensic Photography 6th Edition. Chapterhouse Publication.
Quezon City.

Catte, Eric S. (2023) Criminology Board Examination New Curriculum Third Edition.

Redsicker, D. (2000). The Practical Methodology of Forensic Photography, 2nd Edition Villarba,
W. (2008)) Forensic Photography for Criminology Students

Marsh, N. (2014) Forensic Photography: A Practitioner’s Guide

Prado, A. (2020). Current Perspectives on Digital Photography: Basis for Operational Course of Action
Framework, Philippine College of Criminology Graduate School

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