Materials

Materials
Which of the following is true about ceramics whose bonding is predominantly ionic? Ans: Which of the following does NOT impact the durability of concrete significantly? Ans: A strongly
They have structures that are determined by the relative ratios of the radii of the negatively alkaline (high pH) environment reacts with the hardened cement paste.
and positively charged ions. The optimum structure surrounds each + ion with as many – How do knots affect the strength of timber? Ans: They reduce the strength as they are effectively a hole,
ions as possible with the – ions not quite touching each other and reduce the section size
What is the benefit of using a fibre-reinforced composite? Ans: The fibres are stronger and What is the purpose of the heartwood? Ans: Provides mechanical rigidity - consists of dead sapwood
take a large proportion of the load. They are often brittle, but the ductile matrix prevents blocked with waste products
crack propagation Why does creep occur in timber? Ans: Individual microfibrils are only loosely bonded to one another and
A glass-fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composite panel is to be made with maximum can move relative to each other over time
strengthening and stiffening possible along a particular direction in the plane. A first What is cellulose? Ans: A long-chain polymer of glucose molecules (or polysaccharide) usually arranged
attempt has long fibres in the form of a flat mat, in which they twist around and through in one dimension along the axis of the cell
each other in random arrangement in the plane. When tested, there is improvement over What is the correct definition of secondary recycled aggregates? Ans: Aggregates that are the by-products
tensile strength of the polymer alone, but not so much as desired. Which of the following of other extractive operations or the by-product of industrial processes
possibilities offers the best prospects of improvement? Ans: Make it with long fibres, What is the correct definition of secondary recycled aggregates? Ans: Aggregates that are the by-products
aligned along the direction of desired maximum stiffening and strengthening. of other extractive operations or the by-product of industrial processes
Which of the following is not a recognised method of preventing rebar corrosion? Ans: Use What is the definition of autogenic healing? Ans: Healing that is natural to the material in question
less dense concrete Why might the many very small air bubbles entrained in mortar be a good thing? Ans: They allow expansion
and contraction of the mortar during cycles of freezing and thawing, and so avoid large stresses building up
What are the typical proportions of the constituents in concrete? Ans: 20-30% cement The crystallisation of soluble salts on the surface of brickwork is referred to as what? Ans: Efflorescence
paste with the remainder taken up by aggregates A mass-haul curve plots the amount of available excavated soil, typically on a road scheme. Describewhat
What are the main phenomena that occur during cement hydration? Ans: Reactions processes are occurring on site when (i) the curve rises and (ii) the curve falls. Ans: (i) excavation is
between cement and water - calcium aluminate and aluminoferrite react rapidly and calcium occurring; (ii) fill (embankment formation) is occurring
silicates react more slowly. Major products are calcium silicate hydrate gel and calcium Why are more traditional lattice truss structures now less used for open-plan, low-rise structures than portal
hydroxide. frames? Ans: They are unable to span as large a distance, and are inefficient in their use of roof space, creating
Identify which of the following statements is NOT correct. The slump of a concrete mix is a large, unusable volume in the structure.
increased by use of: Ans: An angular aggregate In a flexible pavement for a highway, what is the subgrade? Ans: Soil or rock that provides the natural
What is the effect of moisture on curing concrete, and why? Ans: Increasing the time foundation for the road
exposed to moisture leads to increasing strength because water is required to cause Why are I-beams used rather than a solid beam of rectangular cross section of similar mass? Ans: Resistance
hydration reactions and subsequent setting of cement to bending in a beam is primarily provided by the regions near the top and bottom of the beam. Other areas
Which of the following is NOT a reason for adding air entraining agents to a mortar? Ans: contribute relatively little to structural performance, so an I-beam simply provides this material with little
Adding air entraining agents to a mortar reduces its porosity and therefore increases its else.
strength Which of the following sets of features are characteristic of ionically bonded materials? Ans:They are
Which of the following describes creep deformation in concrete? Ans: Initial elastic strain ceramics, have regular crystal structures with a high melting point and are often soluble in water.
on the application of load followed by a gradual increase in semi-irreversible strain over a The elastic modulus or ‘stiffness’ of a material can be determined by: Ans: The slope of the linear part
considerable period of time under load. of the stress-strain curve
It is desired to select a material to form a component for a structural aircraft element. One Which if the following can NOT be said of the use of recycled aggregate in concrete? Ans: Recycled
of the design objectives is for the component to be as lightweight as possible, whilst the aggregate concrete is more resistant to most permeation based exposure conditions than natural
constraints are that the component must remain elastic up to a particular value of stress aggregate concrete at the same water cement ratio
Joints between cladding panels are important for structural durability. Which of the following correctly
and also have a minimum stiffness specified by the designers. Which of the following
describes a drained joint? Ans : Drained joints comprise a gap between panels that allows water to flow
describes the material properties that should be used in the material selection process?
Ans: Density, Young’s Modulus, yield strength downwards under gravity, minimising water exposure to the seal at the back of the joint
What makes pad foundations and strip foundations different? Ans: Pad foundations are What causes shrinkage of timber to occur? Ans: Cell water between microfibrils in cell walls is lost,
isolated from one another and used to support columns whereas strip foundations are causing the microfibrils to move closer together. Over large volumes the cumulative effect can be
used to support walls. They may both be reinforced or unreinforced. Pads may be significant
combined with ground beams to link them together. If when cement is hydrating the relative humidity around the cement becomes less than about 80%
What is a backdrop connection? Ans: A robust vertical pipe arrangement that allows what will happen? Ans: Reactions will cease and there will be little extra gain in strength
You have designed a concrete mix to be poured into a heavily reinforced section on site. Once you have
incoming flow to a manhole to be rapidly dropped in height, allowing incoming pipes to be
made your mix you perform a slump test. What slump should you aim for to ensure you are able to
at a shallower gradient.
place your concrete? Ans: 120 mm
The yield strength of a material depends on: Ans: The ability of dislocations to move (i.e. if
it is more difficult for dislocations to move, the material will have a higher yield strength) What is elastic strain recovery? Ans: It is the reduction in strain when a specimen that has been
The elastic modulus (Young's modulus) depends on: Ans: The ability of bonds to stretch stressed beyond yield (i.e. plastic strain has occurred) is unloaded
Materials

and bend Which of the following is NOT one of the components of Hardened cement paste (HCP)? Ans:
Fatigue life is a measure of: Ans: The number of cycles of cyclical stress necessary to Tricalcium Aluminate
cause failure Why do dislocations cause plastic deformation? Ans: The motion of dislocation due to shear stress
Why are polycrystalline materials often stronger than single crystals? Ans: For a grain to causes one segment of material to be shifted relative to another, causing a permanent change in the
deform in a polycrystalline material, others around it must also move. Dislocations must material geometry but at constant volume
move in surrounding grains to allow this, which needs a high stress due to the orientation Which of the following does NOT contribute towards creep in concrete? Ans: Presence of
of some grains. Dislocations collect at grain boundaries and need a large stress to move reinforcement bars
them further
Equation for Phase Diagram (Lever Rule) - Where R is Left Side and S is right side
You are working on sheet glass and have to cut it. Your project supervisor teaches you how
to scribe (i.e. scratch with a hard pointed tool) then bend over a straight edge to break it
Short Answer Questions
easily). When scratched it breaks much more easily, often directly from the scratch. Which
Concrete cubes cured at 20 °C for 7 days resulted in a compressive strength (fc) of 40 N/mm2.
of the following best explains your observations? Ans: The glass breaks by brittle fracture
What would the fc be if the curing details over 7 days were: 2 days at 10 °C, followed by 3 days at 13 °C, and 2 additional days
when the stress exceeds the critical value for the largest flaw in the material (i.e. the at 15 °C
scratch). A crack propagates from the initial flaw
Using the equation for maximum stress occurring at the tip of a crack, determine which of 1. Maturity = 𝛴(t(T+10))
the following situations is likely to have the highest *Stress Sign* m, and so is the most 2. For 7 days at 20 °C: 𝛴(𝑡(𝑇 + 10)) = 7 × 24 × (20 + 10) = 5040 °𝐶ℎ𝑟
critical flaw. Ans: A circular hole 4. For 7 days at varying temperatures: 𝛴(𝑡(𝑇 + 10)) = (48 × (10 + 10) + 72 × (13 + 10) + 48 × (15 + 10)) = 3816 °𝐶ℎ𝑟
5. Assuming a linear relationship between strength and maturity: 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑐 =
Which one of the following combinations of stress and crack dimension a (assume a central
crack) is closest to causing fast fracture in a component? [KIc and Y are not needed] Ans: Concrete cubes cured at 20 °C for 7 days resulted in a compressive strength (fc) of 38 N/mm2.
Stress = 120 MPa; a = 1 mm For a curing history of: 2 days at 6 °C, followed by 4 days at 8 °C, and 1 additional day at 10 °C
• What strength is likely after the first 7 days?
Why does plastic deformation occur before final fracture in many materials? Ans: Only a • How many additional days at 20 °C are needed to reach a strength of 38 N/mm2?
few bonds are required to break to allow dislocation movement, or slip, causing plastic
deformation. This therefore occurs at a lower stress than fracture, which requires many 1. Maturity at 7 days / 20 °C:
more bonds to break. 𝛴(𝑡(𝑇 + 10)) = 5040 °𝐶ℎ𝑟
2. Maturity at 7 days / variable temperature: 𝛴(𝑡(𝑇 + 10)) = (48 × (6 + 10) + 96 × (8 + 10) + 24 × (10 + 10)) = 2976 °𝐶ℎ𝑟
The preferred choice(s) to improve the fatigue life of materials are: Ans: Surface finishing, 3. After variable temperature regime: 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑐 = 2976/5040 × 38 = 22.4𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
case hardening or shot peening to limit crack initiation 4. To reach fc = 38 N/mm2: Extra maturity required = 5040 − 2976 = 2064 °𝐶ℎ𝑟
Ceramics are generally brittle materials and fail by brittle fracture. Which of the following Therefore : Extra maturity = (𝑡(20 + 10)) = 2064 °𝐶ℎ𝑟
𝑡 = 2064/30 = 68.8 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 2.87 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
is most correct? Ans: Brittle fracture in ceramics occurs when the stress on a small crack
or flaw exceeds the critical stress for propagation. The crack propagates through the Weight of moisture in wood
In a Question Like: A sample of wood from factory weighs 345g. If the
material, which breaks. Moisture content (%) = x 100
moisture is 45%, what is the mass of the oven dried sample?
Dry Weight of wood
Comparing ceramics to metals, most ceramics tend to be brittle at room temperature,
In a question like: A component made by cast
whereas most metals tend to undergo some amount of plastic deformation before failure. iron (yield strength = 600MPa) is produced to
Which of the following offers the best explanation of these observations: Ans: Ceramics 1. 2. have a maximum flaw size of 1.1cm. If Y=1 and
do not plastically deform easily because dislocations do not move easily like they do in K.lc = 36MPa m^1/2, whats the maximum stress
metals and the structure cannot easily slip along planes in the structure. This is due to the (s) the component can be subjected to?

electrostatic interactions of the + and - ions in their structures. Why defects at the nano-scale and micro-scale are important in materials? What are the consequences at the
Polymer properties can be highly dependent on temperature. Indeed, semicrystalline large scale and in materials’ design? Provide examples: Ans: Nanoscale - Stress concentration, Crack size/flaw
polymers can have 2 different transition temperatures: a melting temperature and a glass Large Scale - Fast fractures, Fatigue E.g: Adding nano-sized precipitates (defects) in metals can strengthen them
transition temperature. If for your application you want the polymer to be plastic by impeding dislocation movement, thereby enhancing mechanical properties like hardness and yield strength.
(relatively soft and not so strong as brittle polymers but able to sustain considerable A concrete mix design is reported
plastic deformation without breaking) you should pick your polymer and/or operating below. Calculate the amount in kg/m3 • Assume 1 m3.
of fine aggregate, assuming coarse • Proportions: C+(X+Y)+W = 1+(5.8)+0.32 = 7.12
temperature such that: Ans: You are above the glass transition temperature and below
aggregate is 65% of the total aggregate • Cement content: 1/7.12*2,210 = 310.4 kg
the melting temperature content. • Aggregate (X+Y): A/C=5.8
Density is said to be one of the most reliable indicators of the stiffness, hardness, ease of 1. Concrete density = 2,210 kg/m3 • 5.8*310.4 kg = 1,800.3 kg (total aggregate)
2. Water to cement (w/c) = 0.32 • fine aggregate: (100% - 65%) of 1,800.3 kg = 630.1 kg
machining, fire resistance and drying characteristics of timber. Why is this true? Ans:
3. Aggregate to cement (a/c) ratio = 5.8
Because it is influenced by cell structure/size, thickness of cell walls and moisture content
Which of the following statements does NOT apply to timber? Ans: When load is applied An iron/carbon alloy of 0.4 wt.% C is slowly cooled from 1000C to 700C. What phases will be present,
perpendicular to the grain it is strong in tension and what are their compositions? Ans: Draw tie line from 0.4% carbon / 700ºC to next phase boundaries. Phases
present are -iron at approximately 0.02% C and Fe3C at 6.7% C.
Materials

What will happen to a nail hammered into the outside of a tree as the tree grows? Ans: It
It is desired to produce brass containing two phases, gamma and E, with 20% gamma and 80% E at 200ºC. What
will get buried at the same level as the diameter of the trunk increases
percentage of zinc, by weight, is required in this brass? Ans: Work backwards using Lever rule:
The process of removing moisture from timber is known as "seasoning". What is the typical Proportion of Gamma-brass is S/(R+S) = 0.2 whilst proportion of E-brass is R/(R+S) = 0.8.
moisture content of unseasoned or "green" timber? Ans: >25% Let % Zn be X.
Although strictly not part of the structure of wood, by contributing taste, colour, odour, Therefore R = X – 66.7 and S = 80 – X.
density, flammability and moisture absorbency, extractives have a major influence on the S/(R+S) = (80-X)/(X-66.7+80-X) = (80-X)/13.3 = 0.2.
properties of timber. What are extractives? Ans: Waste products of the growing process Therefore X = 77.34% Zinc.
 Conversions: Giga (G) = x10^9 & Mega is x10^6

Short Answers - Soils

Soils
Which process is responsible for formation of soils? Ans: Physical disintegration
Where the lacustrine deposits can be found? Ans: Near lakes
Dune sand is a type of what? Ans: Aeolian deposit
What is a residual soil? Ans: A soil found at the place of formation
Which combination of the constituents is linked with the hydration process? Ans: Water
and mineral
Which combination of constituents is linked with carbonation of rocks? Ans: Carbon dioxide
and water
Deltas are formed when. Ans: River and sea water meet To determine whether the tolerance of the instrument is Tampers or Rammers & Vibrators(manual
Loess is a type of which soil? Ans: Silt acceptable, we can calculate the difference in level applications)Applications: Compaction in confined areas,
Boulder clay is a: Ans: Deposits made by melting of ice between the two setups using the Height of Collimation trenches, behind the bridge abutments; all types of soils
Which set of soils is classified as coarse grained? Ans: Sand, gravel and boulder (HOC) method. The tolerance of the instrument can be
The grain-size which divides the coarse and fine grained soils is Ans: 0.06 mm evaluated by comparing this difference to the expected Smooth-wheel roller Applications: compacting granular base
The particle size range for gravel is: Ans: 60 mm to 2 mm difference in level, which should be equal to the change course in highways, making the surface smooth, applies drum
The particle size range for silt is: Ans: 0.06 mm to 0.002 mm in elevation between the two setups. load (static pressure)
A graph paper used to plot the grain-size distribution of soil is shown in Figure 1. What are
the x-axis and y-axis scales usually chosen for such plots? Ans: X-axis: 0.001 to 100 and Y- Given: Pneumatic-tyred roller applications: Compaction is by
axis 0 to 100 Distance between pegs (D) = 60 meters kneading action; compacting cohesive soils of low water
The grain size distribution curve of a soil is shown in Figure 2. The soil can be classified as: Readings at set-up 1: contentand cohesionless soils, Asphalt, appliesstatic/kneading
Backsight to Peg 1 (BS1) = 0.996 m pressure (tyre pressure)
Ans: Fine grained soil Foresight to Peg 2 (FS2) = 1.272 m
Which is not an objective of site investigation? Ans: To decide structural design approach Readings at set-up 2: Sheep-foot rollerSheep foot rollerApplications: suitable for
Which is a site investigation stage? Ans: Detailed investigations Backsight to Peg 2 (BS2) = 1.441 m cohesive soils (sandy silts,clays, gravelly clays); compaction is
Which action is not involved under reconnaissance? Ans: Collecting disturbed samples Foresight to Peg 1 (FS1) = 1.169 m by tampingand kneading action
Exploring the span of bridge during site exploration will provide information on what? Ans: Soil
condition First, calculate the reduced levels (RLs) of the two setups: Plate Compactor: Vibratory Plate(Tamping foot)Applications:
Soil and rock samples are collected during what stage of site investigation? Ans: Detailed 1. RL of Setup 1 = BS1 + FS2 RL1 = 0.996 m + 1.272 m = Granular soils; compacting granularbase course in highways
2.268 m and runways, vibratory action,with tamping foot can be used
explorations
2. RL of Setup 2 = BS2 + FS1 RL2 = 1.441 m + 1.169 m = for cohesive soils
Which is not a field test? Ans: Triaxial test
2.610 m
What property of soil can be determined from disturbed soil samples? Ans: Plasticity
Natural structure and fabric of soil is retained in which type of sample? Ans: Undisturbed Now, calculate the difference in RLs between the two
sample setups:
What is the depth of penetration of sampler/cone in a standard penetration test? Ans: 300 Difference = RL2 - RL1 Difference = 2.610 m - 2.268 m
mm Difference = 0.342 m
The expected difference in level, based on the distance
between the pegs, can be calculated using the formula:
In the geological map shown in Figure M, A, B and C represent the points at which outcrops
Expected Difference=𝐷22𝐿Expected Difference=2LD2​
of a coal seam are seen. Along which direction the coal seam dips? Ans: North-east Where:
The topographic contours and the outcrops of a coal seam at points A, B and C, are shown D = Distance between pegs = 60 m
in the maps. Which figure shows the correct identification of the strike line? Ans: X1 L = Levelling length = Distance between the setups =
Chemical decomposition of rock yields: Ans: Clay minerals 60 m
Substitute the values:
The colors of acid and basic rocks are respectively Ans: Light and dark
Expected Difference=6022∗60=3600120=30
Which is not among the information in trial pit logging record? Ans: Boring method used Expected Difference=2∗60602​=1203600​=30
Extrusion, minor intrusion and major intrusion are linked to which rock type? Ans:
Metamorphic The expected difference in level is 30 cm.
What is one of the aims of preliminary exploration? Ans: To determine water table depth Comparing this with the actual difference in level (0.342
Based on the grain-size distribution curve shown in Figure 2, the soil can be classified as: m or 34.2 cm), we see that it exceeds the expected
difference. Therefore, the tolerance of the instrument
Ans: Clay might not be acceptable. Typically, the instrument's
In Figure 1, what are the X-axis and Y-axis titles? Ans: X-axis: Diameter of particles (mm) tolerance should ensure that the actual difference in
and Y-axis: Percent finer level does not significantly exceed the expected
difference based on the distance between the setups.
-Roller supports , stops vertical motion, allows rotation (-1 dof). Pinned Support, stops vertical & horizontal motion(-2 dof) Each Bar lokes away I Dof. dof = 2j-b-k = 0.
0 means stable, +ve is bad causing movement, -ve is redundant bars. j= number of joints b = No of bars k = Dof removed by supports.
Method of Joints at every joint there must be horizontal Eqm and vertical Eqm. Direction of forces are to resist to create equilibrium. Look for zero force bars -> T
Junction with no load at a joint. - An isolated joint with to bars with no load. T Junction is two bars meeting in a straight line, 3rd bar is meeting at an angle as it is in
equilibrium with nothing. Start with all bars in tension, when we see negative numbers, therefore compression. First , find reactions using equilibrium between loads
and reaction, horizontally , vertically and take moments (only once) about somewhere. Take moments about any point , good place is left side, usually, where the pin
support is, two unknown reactions. To find moments, distance is rolling distance horizontally or vertically. Now go from joint to joint, at each join, 2 equilibriums. Rule
cant go to a joint with >2 unknown bar forces
Method of section - Find reactions, make a cut, does not need to be a straight line cut, but must not cut >3 bars with unknown force. 3 equilibrium equations. look at
where the 2 not required bar forces forces are intersecting , take mmt there. Cut through the bars you want, take moment about points that has bars you dont want

maximum stress value, so we want y to be maximum. d1 &d2 - distance from top edge to centre
of block area. ybar - distance from NA to centre of block area. Area used to find ybar is only
shaded area (area u want) not entire beam.
The procedure for working out deflection is very straight forward. Treat McCaulay brackets as
normal brackets if contents are positive, treat as zero if contents are negative You need to find
the expression for the bending moment at any point x along the beam. Then use –EI d2y/dx2 =
M. Integrate once to get slope, and then again to get deflection. You have a constant of
integration each time you integrate, and hence you need two boundary conditions to work out
what the two constants of integration are. For a cantilever, it is usually simpler to work from the
free end. Note, you must work to one set of units only, e.g. use N and m throughout a question,
do not mix m with mm.

Bending stresses are caused by Bending

Moments and evaluated with the MIy
equation. Shear stresses are entirely
different thing, they are caused by Shear
Forces. Bending stress is maximum furthest
away from the neutral axis, shear stresses
are maximum at the neutral axis.
The approach in finding shear stress at any
level of a beam cross-section is to make a
cut at that level, and calculate the first
moment of the area of the section isolated
by the cut (first moment = area x distance
from NA to centroid of isolated area). The
formula for stress t = F Q / b I, where F =
shear force, Q = first moment, b = length of
cut, and I = second mmt of the overall cross
section.
The procedure is well defined for questions
on statically indeterminate beams. 1) Get
all the fixed-end moments (i.e. the MFAB
and MFBA etc.) – you should know the
formula for UDL and central point load. 2)
Look at the geometry of the problem, i.e.
what displacements are zero, what angles
are the same, etc. 3) Check out equilibrium,
what moments are known, what moments
are the same. 4) Set up slope deflection
equations, you have a pair per span.
Substitute in known values. 5) Substituting
Flang = B
eqm eqns to the slope deflections will give
the q, which when substituted back to the Web = H
slope-deflection equations will give the end
moments. These are the reactant bending
moments (i.e. to do with reactions). 6) The
moments in the span are obtained from the
“free bending moment diagrams” i.e.
treating each span as a simply supported
span. Each span has two equations